18918928_102096_1H_Assessment 2

CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH:

IMPROVING INDIGENOUS STUDENT EDUCATION

Introduction

Critical analysis of research forms the basis for translating the educational research

and forming a meaningful bridge between theory and practice (Gall, Gall & Borg, 2015).

Evaluation of research in Indigenous education is imperative for shaping the vision of

educators with respect to “what works” for the Indigenous students, to make informed

decisions and address their complex needs (Nakata, 2007, p. 13). Keddie’s (2014) article

[henceforth, Study A], which explores the potential of “Indigenous representation and

alternative schooling” for improving educational outcomes in Indigenous students, is

analysed in this context (p. 55). This article is critically evaluated and its findings are

compared with Lewthwaite et al.’s (2015) article [henceforth, Study B], emphasising on

“culturally responsive pedagogy” [henceforth, CRP] for improving engagement and learning

in Indigenous students (p. 154). The insights from both the articles are synthesized and their

implications for effective teaching practice are analysed for improving Indigenous student

education.

Indigenous representation: educational needs of Indigenous students

Indigenous students form the most underprivileged and oppressed groups of the

Australian education system. Though the introduction of the Indigenous Education policy, for

uplifting the Indigenous students and bringing equity in education has resulted in increased

Indigenous enrolment levels in Australian schools (Hogarth, 2017); their retention rates,

1
 18918928_102096_1H_Assessment 2

however, have only marginally improved (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2017). Reports

continuously point towards the growing disparity between learning outcomes of Indigenous

students and their non-Indigenous counterparts (Australian Curriculum, Assessment and

Reporting Authority, 2015; Ho, 2011). This disparity not only hampers their educational

achievement but also diminishes their employment opportunities, thus negatively impacting

their socio-economic profile (Osbourne, Baum & Brown, 2013). This further adds to their

layering of disadvantage, affects their well-being and makes them vulnerable to social-unjust

(Moustakim, 2015).

The conventional Australian education system represents Indigenous culture and

knowledge as a deficit in comparison to ‘norm’ Anglo-Australian majority (Ferfolja, Diaz &

Ullman, 2015). It has focussed on the assimilation of “white cultural identity” among

Indigenous students, thus positioning their identity as inferior (Shay, 2015, p. 94). Reports

suggest that this deficit representation and disregard of Indigenous identities are the

underlying cause of decline in the retention rates and poor performance levels of Indigenous

students in the mainstream education system (Lewthwaite et al., 2015; Keddie, 2014;

Ockenden, 2014). School environments that, recognise, respect and nurture the Indigenous

culture and values, enable them to voice their concerns, understand their priorities and most

importantly relate to them have been associated with increased levels of engagement and

educational outcomes in Indigenous students (Shay & Wickes, 2017). CRP and creation of

“Indigenous-led alternative schools”, which prioritise positive representation of Indigenous

identities not only promotes an inclusive learning environment (Keddie, 2014, p. 69) but also

enables them to employ their cultural capital for educational success (Lewthwaite et al.,

2015).

2
 18918928_102096_1H_Assessment 2

Considering the crucial role played by the Indigenous culture, its representation and

incorporation in the education system; the adoption of CRP and creation of alternative

schools for Indigenous students are imperative for addressing their educational needs and

empowerment.

Evaluation and synthesis of research

The purpose of Study A was to highlight the importance of cultural representation,

the value of relationality, and Indigenous autonomy in promoting meaningful learning in

Indigenous students. While drawing upon the perspectives of Indigenous Elders, the study

examined the pros and cons of alternative schooling for providing “stable identity” and

“addressing the complex educational needs of Indigenous students” (Keddie, 2014, p. 57).

The study acknowledged the significance of “culturally preferred pedagogy” for transforming

the education system but kept its focus on “Indigenous representation and self-determination”

(Keddie, 2014, p. 59). This approach of CRP was replicated and studied extensively in Study

B, which drew on the perspectives of Indigenous parents and students. In doing so, this study

emphasised the incorporation of Indigenous knowledge, cultural resources and values in daily

teaching practice to improve the learning outcomes for Indigenous students (Lewthwaite et

al., 2015). Overall, both the studies voice the concerns of Indigenous community members

and are thus relevant for addressing the needs and raising the educational success of

Indigenous students.

Both the studies presented a thorough review of literature pertaining to educational

needs of Indigenous students and included the research findings to support their respective

recommendations. Though they both agreed that literature oversights the crucial role played

3
 18918928_102096_1H_Assessment 2

by Indigenous culture in their educational attainment, Study B demonstrated this by

presenting extensive background information which acted as a “chain of evidence” and added

to the soundness of the study (Gall, et al., 2015, p. 363). Overall, both the studies exhibited a

well-structured, systematic and logical review of the literature to enable the reader to

understand and analyse the presented information (Oliver, 2012).

While both the studies were qualitative and encompassed the issue of Indigenous

cultural representation, Study A followed the design of a “case study” and involved

“purposeful sampling” (Gall et al., 2015, p. 353) by selecting Indigo House, an Indigenous-

led alternative school, which emphasises on “cultural recognition and political

representation” of Indigenous students (Keddie, 2014, p. 61). Whereas, Study B followed a

“participatory action research” design and had a location specific focus as it sampled the data

from five specific catholic schools in North-Queensland, which aim for better education

outcomes for Indigenous students (Gall et al., 2015, p. 507). Though different in approach,

both the studies justified their research design by selection of samples that were information-

rich with respect to the purpose of the studies (Palinkas et al., 2015).

With respect to the data collection process, Study A involved “loosely structured”

interviews (with the school principal, board members, Indigenous elders and students),

“classroom/playground observations and document analysis of school resources” (Keddie,

2014, p. 61). Whereas, Study B mostly relied on “semi-structured” interviews with students,

parents and carers, as individuals and in groups (Lewthwaite et al., 2015, p. 138). However,

in Study B, the interviews constituted well-structured, “open-ended” questions and audio-

recordings which further added to its accuracy and objectivity (Gall et al, 2015, p. 117).

Overall, both the studies conducted the interviews in an informal manner to stimulate

4
 18918928_102096_1H_Assessment 2

discussion and gather “emic (participant) perspective” around the focus area (Gall et al, 2015,

p. 345).

For analysis, the data obtained from Study A was subjected to “interpretational” and

“reflective analysis” (Gall et al., p. 356-357). The themes were identified by the researcher

and were used to describe the purpose and features of the study, which allows the reader to

appreciate the strengths and weaknesses of the analysis (Anderson, 2010). However, the

analysis did not go under any “member check” (participant review) to validate its accuracy

and completeness (Gall et al., 2015, p. 362). Whereas, in Study B, themes identified from the

“thematic analysis” of the data were subjected to code check, which was analysed by the

research team and the school authorities (individually and in groups), thus further adding to

its validity (Lewthwaite et al., 2015, p. 138; Gall et al., 2015). Overall, triangulation exhibited

by both the studies with respect to data collection methods and sources contributes to the

objectivity of the analysis.

Study A drew its findings predominately from the perspectives of three Elders

(Indigenous) and a principal (non-Indigenous) and was unique to Indigo House. Whereas,

Study B followed a “collaborative design” and established a rich communication network by

drawing upon the efforts of teachers, students, parents, researchers and community members.

The author in Study A argued that her findings can be replicated in a similar setting provided

the “epistemology of relationality” is employed to deal with the problems that may arise due

to the stigmatisation of alternative schools (Keddie, 2014, p. 69). However, by including

multiple perspectives, Study B effectively contributes towards to the “democratic” and

“process validity” of its research and its applicability for a wider population of Catholic

schools (Gall et al., 2015, p. 514). However, its application without considering the

5
 18918928_102096_1H_Assessment 2

Indigenous student population that harbours Government schools should not be generalised

(Ho, 2011).

While drawing attention to the disadvantages faced by Indigenous students and the

persistent gap in their educational outcomes (Ho, 2011), both the studies have attempted to

examine the root of the problem. By giving voice to the Indigenous community – students,

parents, elders, carers and educators - these studies have questioned and highlighted the

superficial representation and incorporation of Indigenous culture in the current education

system in Australia (Watkins & Noble, 2016). These voices not only urge for recognition and

respect of Indigenous cultural values but also demand its representation in the education

system. In order to address their social and instrumental concerns and promote well-being,

the establishment of positive relationships has been emphasised (Keddie, 2014).

Incorporation of cultural resources, personalised differential pedagogy accompanied with

high expectations has been interlinked with increased motivation and self-determination in

Indigenous students (Lewthwaite et al., 2015).

However, it should not be disregarded that unlike Study A which solely prioritises

segregation of schools by the promotion of Indigenous-led alternative schools for Indigenous

students, Study B recommends adoption of CRP in the mainstream education system to

generate awareness and acceptance of Indigenous communities in society for their holistic

development. Studies suggest that care must be taken while employing such approaches of

cultural differentiation, as segregation of schools or students on the basis of ethnicity may

further perpetuate stereotypes and reinforce the reductionist label on Indigenous identities

(Truong, 2015).

6
 18918928_102096_1H_Assessment 2

Implications for teaching practice/education system

Both the studies focus on the strength of Indigenous cultural values, its

representation, relationality and responsive pedagogy for improving educational outcomes for

Indigenous students. Findings from these studies have multiple implications for teaching

practice, whole schools as well as for the education system. To overcome the deficit

discourses surrounding Indigeneity, the studies prioritise the need for school staff, especially

teachers and authorities to develop a deeper intercultural understanding of Indigenous culture

and its values (Watkins & Noble, 2016). Reflexivity with respect to teachers’ cultural

understanding and dispositions has been interlinked with an understanding of self and

recognition of biases (Phillips, 2011). In order to address the complex needs of Indigenous

students, it is imperative to accept and embrace their culture by accurately representing it

(Shay, 2015). As outlined in teaching standards, teachers’ thorough awareness and

appreciation of Indigenous culture and history builds trust among the parents and students,

creates a welcoming environment for Indigenous families and builds positive relationships,

which is crucial for their educational attainment (Australian Institute for Teaching and School

Leadership, 2011; Lewthwaite et al., 2015).

Another implication reflected in both the studies is to incorporate Indigenous cultural

resources in curriculum and pedagogy. Use of exceptional amount of traditional knowledge

imbibed in such resources (Department of Industry, Innovation and Science, 2013), not only

promotes relationality by connecting students with their learning, but also acts “as a means to

affirm the community the resource represents” (Lewthwaite et al., 2015, p. 145). Allowing

students to learn through their cultures is important to “restore their lost connections” with

their heritage and generate a sense of pride and self-esteem (Keddie, 2014, p. 66). Providing

7
 18918928_102096_1H_Assessment 2

them “explicit instructions” and setting up “high-expectations” makes learning clear for them.

This not only nurtures and supports the Indigenous identity but also strengthens it (Sarra,

2011). By improving their engagement it leads to motivation, which empowers them to

develop self-determination and regulate their own learning (McKinley, 2005).

Both the studies stress on providing opportunities to Indigenous communities to voice

their concerns in matters that are relevant and meaningful in their lives. In this respect,

promotion of Indigenous-led flexi (alternative) schools in the education system is an

important strategy to give autonomy to the Indigenous community (Keddie, 2014). By

emphasising on relationships, such an environment not only allows Indigenous people to

nurture their cultural values but also enables them to protect their traditional knowledge

(Shay, 2015). Prioritising the Indigenous representations in schools by employing more

teachers from Indigenous backgrounds and inviting Indigenous elders to share their

knowledge, both in mainstream and flexi schools is also an important implication for the

education system (Lewthwaite et al., 2015; Keddie, 2014). Seeing a role model from their

own background enables Indigenous students to celebrate the worthiness of their culture and

motivates them to perform better (Ockenden, 2014).

Finally, as suggested by both the studies, the provision of “positive learning

environments” (Lewthwaite et al., 2015, p. 147) and personalised teaching for Indigenous

students, both in flexi and mainstream schools, allows teachers to recognize the “complexity

and fluidity of Indigenous identities” and thereby enhance their schooling experience

(Keddie, 2014, p. 65). By providing emotional and instrumental support to students, teachers

and schools can respond to the socio-cultural struggles of Indigenous students that impact

their learning for their holistic growth (Perso, 2012).

8
 18918928_102096_1H_Assessment 2

Conclusion

The omnipresence of deficit discourses around the Indigenous identities in school

settings has continued to oppress and deprive them of educational success (Shay, 2015).

Systemic studies like the ones analysed, not only give voice to the concerns of the Indigenous

communities but also makes their complex needs visible to educators and other stakeholders.

Such studies open the eyes of the education system and encourage educators to adopt a

culturally responsive, personalised teaching approach to empower Indigenous communities,

so that they can proudly represent themselves on the global stage. Insightful

recommendations from such studies have the potential to transform Indigenous education

system for their holistic development.

9
 18918928_102096_1H_Assessment 2

REFERENCES

Anderson, C. (2010). Presenting and evaluating qualitative research. American Journal of

Pharmaceutical Education, 74(8), 141. Retrieved from

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2987281/

Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2017, February). Schools, Australia, 2016 (no. 4221.0).

Retrieved from

http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/4221.02016?OpenDocume

nt

Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority. (2015). NAPLAN: Achievement

in reading, persuasive writing, language conventions and numeracy: National report

for 2015. Retrieved from

http://www.nap.edu.au/_resources/2015_NAPLAN_national_report.pdf

Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership. (2011). Australian professional

standards for teachers. Retrieved from http://www.aitsl.edu.au/docs/default-

source/apst-resources/australian_professional_standard_for_teachers_final.pdf

Department of Industry, Innovation and Science. (2013). Indigenous engagement with

science: towards deeper understandings. Indigenous expert working group draft

report. Retrieved from

https://industry.gov.au/science/InspiringAustralia/ExpertWorkingGroup/Documents/I

ndigenous Engagement with Science.docx

Ferfolja, T., Diaz, C.J., & Ullman, J. (2015). The unseen half: Theories for educational

practices. In T. Ferfolja, C.J. Diaz & J. Ullman (Eds.), Understanding sociological

theory for educational practices (pp. 1-20). Australia: Cambridge University Press.

10
 18918928_102096_1H_Assessment 2

Gall, M. D., Gall, J. P., & Borg, W. R. (2015). Applying educational research: How to read,

do, and use research to solve problems of practice (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Pearson

Education, Inc.

Ho, C. (2011). Respecting the presence of others: School micropublics and everyday

multiculturalism. Journal of Intercultural Studies, 32(6), 603-619.

doi:10.1080/07256868.2011.618106

Hogarth, M. (2017). Speaking back to the deficit discourses: a theoretical and methodological

approach. The Australian Educational Researcher, 44(1), 21-34. Retrieved from

https://link-springer-com.ezproxy.uws.edu.au/article/10.1007/s13384-017-0228-9

Keddie, A. (2014). Indigenous representation and alternative schooling: Prioritising an

epistemology of relationality. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 18(1), 55-

71. Retrieved from http://www-tandfonline-

com.ezproxy.uws.edu.au/doi/abs/10.1080/13603116.2012.756949

Lewthwaite, B. E., Osborne, B., Lloyd, N., Boon, H., Llewellyn, L., Webber, T.,…Wills, J.

(2015). Seeking a pedagogy of difference: What aboriginal students and their parents

in North Queensland say about teaching and their learning. Australian Journal of

Teacher Education, 40(5), 130-159. Retrieved from

http://dx.doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2015v40n5.8

McKinley, E. (2005). Locating the global: culture, language and science education for

Indigenous students. International Journal of Science Education, 27(2), 227-241.

Retrieved from http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0950069042000325861

Moustakim, M. (2015). ‘Disaffected youth’: Intersections of class and ethnicity. In T.

Ferfolja, C.J. Diaz & J. Ullman (Eds.), Understanding sociological theory for

educational practices (pp. 129-145). Australia: Cambridge University Press.

11
 18918928_102096_1H_Assessment 2

Nakata, M. (2007). The cultural interface. The Australian Journal of Indigenous Education,

36, 7-14. Retrieved from

http://search.informit.com.au.ezproxy.uws.edu.au/fullText;dn=166110;res=AEIPT

Ockenden, L. (2014). Positive learning environments for Indigenous children and young

people. Resource sheet no. 33, Closing the gap clearinghouse issues. Australian

Institute of Health and Welfare and the Australian Institute of Family Studies.

Retrieved from

http://www.aihw.gov.au/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id=60129548208

Oliver, P. (2012). Succeeding with your literature review: A handbook for students.

Maidenhead: Open University Press. Retrieved from https://www.google.com.au/

Osbourne, K., Baum, F., & Brown, L. (2013). What works? A review of actions addressing

the social and economic determinants of indigenous health: Closing the gap

clearinghouse issues. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare and the Australian

Institute of Family Studies. Retrieved from

http://www.aihw.gov.au/uploadedFiles/ClosingTheGap/Content/Publications/2013/ct

gc-ip07.pdf

Palinkas, L. A., Horwitz, S. M., Green, C. A., Wisdom, J. P., Duan, N., & Hoagwood, K.

(2015). Purposeful sampling for qualitative data collection and analysis in mixed

method implementation research. Administration and Policy in Mental Health, 42(5),

533–544. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4012002/

Perso, T.F. (2012). Cultural responsiveness and school education: With particular focus on

Australia’s first peoples; A review & synthesis of the literature. Menzies School of

Health Research, Centre for Child Development and Education, Darwin Northern

Territory.

12
 18918928_102096_1H_Assessment 2

Phillips, J. (2011). Resisting contradictions: non-Indigenous pre-service teacher responses to

critical Indigenous studies (PhD thesis). Retrieved from

http://eprints.qut.edu.au/46071/

Sarra, C. (2011). Strong and smart – Towards a pedagogy for emancipation: Education for

first peoples. New York: Routledge. Retrieved from www.books.google.com.au

Shay, M. (2015). The perceptions that shape us: Strengthening indigenous young people’s

cultural identity in flexi school settings. In T. Ferfolja, C.J. Diaz & J. Ullman (Eds.),

Understanding sociological theory for educational practices (pp. 93-109). Australia:

Cambridge University Press.

Shay, M., & Wickes, J. (2017). Aboriginal identity in education settings: privileging our

stories as a way of deconstructing the past and re-imagining the future. The

Australian Educational Researcher, 44(1), 107-122. Retrieved from https://link-

springer-com.ezproxy.uws.edu.au/article/10.1007/s13384-017-0232-0

Truong, S. (2015). Pre-service teacher identities and the social construction of childhood. In

T. Ferfolja, C.J. Diaz & J. Ullman (Eds.), Understanding sociological theory for

educational practices (pp. 23-38). Australia: Cambridge University Press.

Watkins, M., & Noble, G. (2016). Thinking beyond recognition: Multiculturalism, cultural

intelligence, and the professional capacities of teachers. Review of Education,

Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies, 38(1), 42-57. doi:10.1080/10714413.2016.1119642

13