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Introduction

Rail Wheel Factory (RWF) is a manufacturing unit of Indian Railways, producing


wheels, axles and wheel sets of railroad wagons, coaches and locomotives for the
use of Indian Railways and overseas customers is situated at Yelahanka, Bangalore
in the Indian state of Karnataka. The RWF was founded in the year 1984. It was
formerly known as Wheel and Axle plant but since it came under the Indian
railway ministry board, it was renamed Rail wheel Factory afterwards.

The unit was started by C. K. Jaffer Sharief, the then Railway Minister, who got
this project to Bangalore. It was commissioned to manufacture wheels and axles
for the Indian Railways.

This factory uses cast steel technology in the manufacturing of wheels which
utilizes scrap steel collected from Railways' own workshops as raw material. The
products that are manufactured at RWF are wheels, Axles and wheel sets. They
are engineered with little scrap for human errors. It has a planned capacity to
manufacture of about 2,00,000 wheels of different sizes, 1,00,000 axles and to
assemble 70,000 wheel sets. It was the first unit of Indian Railways to receive ISO
9001:2008 accreditation.

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RWF is successfully meeting the requirement of wheels of wagon builders and
loose wheels. A wheel is cast every 1.5 minutes. Wheels are cast by controlled
pressure pouring process. The technology for this was obtained from M/s. Griffin
Wheel Co., USA. In this process, the raw material used is scrap which consist old
used Wheel sets, axles, parts of Rail bogie etc; that are rejected as unfit for use by
the Railways. The scrap steel is melted in Electric Arc furnace. The correct
chemistry of molten metal steel is ensured through a Spectrometer. The wheels
are eventually cast in the graphite moulds, which are pre-heated and sprayed.
After allowing for a pre-determined setting time, the mould is split and the risers
are automatically separated from the cast wheel. The wheel then undergoes the
process of heat treatment, Cleaning, Magnaglo testing, Ultrasonic testing,
Peening and various stages of inspection. The wheel produced by this process
requires no machining except the precision boring of central hole (hub) where the
axle has to be fitted.

RWF produces an axle every five minutes. The Plant converts steel blooms to
axles through a series of forging, heat treatment and machining processes.
Blooms cut to the required sizes are heated in Rotary Hearth Furnace up to 1200
degree C. These are carried to the precision Long Forging machine where the
hammers convert billets into the required shapes through PLC. The Forging
Machine having multiple hammers is used to get required sizes of forgings. After
end cutting, the rough forged axles are subjected to heat treatment in
normalizing and tempering furnaces. Rail Wheel Factory is having two axle
machining lines which are CNC machines to convert these forgings to the axle.
RWF converts BOX N, Coaching and Container Axles to wheel sets. Loco axles are
generally sent in rough turned condition to the Production Units and Railways
workshops for converting to wheel sets.

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RWF is having a highly automated wheel set assembly complex supplied by M/s.
Simmons Machine Tool Corporation, USA. Wheel seat sizes of machined axles are
measured and wheels received from wheel shop are bored according to this size.
The precision borers ensure that the final bores have required interference with
the individual axles. After boring, the wheels are carried through automated
conveyors to the assembly complex along with axles and wheels are pressed one
after another. The force required in pressing the wheels is recorded automatically
to ensure that the pressing force is within the laid down limits.

Every product of RWF is manufactured to customer’s requirements and each


product is inspected and tested to ensure a longer life and reliability. Since most
machining process is automated, it leaves very little room for human error.

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Wheel Shop

Scrap Charging Melting Spectro-Analysis

Controlled Cooling Mould Split Pouring


in Hot Wheel Kiln

Sprue Wash & Hub Cutting Heat Treatment


Stamping

Shot Blasting Apex Grinding Hub Cooling &


Cooling

Magnaglo and Hardness testing Cope and Drag


Ultrasound Testing grinding

Inspection & Stock Shot Peening and Warpage


Hub Boring

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Wheel Shop

The Wheel Shop is the first unit of RWF. The wheels enable the train to move
along the rails of the track. On an average, a wheel weighs about 500 kgs. The
RWF produces eight different types of wheels having different composition,
requirements and dimensions. The wheel shop recycles metals from the scrap
yard and adds required resources to obtain the right composition for producing
wheels. Later the melt is used for moulding to obtain the basic geometry of
wheel. It undergoes various machining, finishing processes and inspection tests to
conform to customers’ requirements.

The Wheel Shop comprises of mainly three divisions:

1) Melting
2) Moulding
3) Finishing (WFPS)

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MELTING

l Scrap conditioning :
Scrap is the raw material to manufacture the wheels.
They may be:

l Rejected wheels
l Rejected axles
l Used axles and worn out wheels
l Chips formed during machining processes

The scraps are divided into three types – light scrap, medium scrap and
heavy scrap. This sectioning is important because during the initial melting
process in the electric arc furnace, the distribution of heat is not uniform.
The bucket charging distribution is such that from bottom to top; heavy,
medium and light scrap. This arrangement will prevent major fire spewing,
scrap bridging, and scrap collapse when the arc is setup.

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l Charging of scrap:
It can be simply defined as addition of scrap along with materials such as
lime stone, calcined lime and coke/graphite to the furnace.

Brief procedure
l The electrodes are raised and an electromagnet via an EOT
(Electric Overhead Traveling) crane transfers machine chips
and some lights scraps into the furnace.
l Bucket charging of scraps in the required order is done. The
bucket opens from the bottom. The heavier metals are on the
top, then the light and the machine chips.
l Charge approximately 9000 to 1200 kgs calcined lime and 200
to 250 kgs coke/graphite.
l Melting of scrap:
The furnace used for melting is an electric arc furnace. RWF wheel shop
contains three electric arc furnaces named A, B and C. They operate the
same way and only in C; its tap hole order differs from A and B. The
capacity of each furnace is 20-23 Metric Tons.

The three electrode electric arc furnace heats charged material by means of
an electric arc. It consists of a refractory-lined vessel (Alumina bricks),

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usually water-cooled in larger sizes, covered with a retractable roof, and
through which one or more graphite electrodes enters the furnace. The
furnace is primarily split into three sections:

l The shell, which consists of the sidewalls and lower steel


"bowl"
l The hearth, which consists of the refractory that lines the
lower bowl
l The roof, which may be refractory-lined or water-cooled, and
can be shaped as a section of a sphere, or as a frustum (conical
section). The roof also supports the refractory delta in its
center, through which one or more graphite electrodes enter.

Brief procedure

l The electrodes are lowered. On supplying the necessary


current and voltage an arc is struck between the electrodes
and the charge for 45 to 55 minutes.
l The gap between the electrodes and the charge is maintained
by regulating the movements of the electrodes so that the arc
remains between them.
l After 45 to 55 minutes oxygen lancing pipe is used for cutting
of scrap through the slag door. The temperature during this
procedure is 1650 to 1700 °C.
l The slag is formed which floats on the surface of the melt. This
prevents oxidation, refines the metal and protects the furnace
roof from excessive heat.
l Removal of slag:
During the Oxygen lancing, slag is eliminated through the slag door.

Brief procedure
l Dolomite is spread over the cleaned slag door.
l Remove full slag before the temperature is 1630 °C.

l If it is sluggish, shovel in 55 to 65 kgs of Fluorspar on the slag.


l Ferro-manganese is used for slag reducing at around 1650 °C
and 150 kgs of slag reducing mixture is also used.

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l Spectro – analysis:
The testing of sample that has to be further used or subjected for wheel
manufacture is done at the spectro lab. The sample (solidified metal) for
testing is obtained from the electric arc furnace to determine the
composition of various metal constituents within the required range.
l Carburisation/Decarburisation:
A sample of melt is taken for testing a percentage composition of C
(Carbon), Si (Silica) and Mn (Manganese). These may differ from the fixed
required percentage. Addition of materials to bring the composition to the
fixed percentages may either be done by carburization or decarburization.

Brief procedure
l CARBURISATION, if the carbon content is founded to be lesser,
required amount of Graphite is added when the electrodes are
just inside the bath at 1640 °C and the sample is taken.
l DECARBURISATION, if the carbon content is more, slag coated
Oxygen lancing pipe is introduced to reduce Carbon content;
based/depending on carbon to be reduced Oxygen is supplied.
l The controlling content for this process are Ferro-manganese,
Silica-manganese and Ferro-silicon.
l Mix the bath thoroughly. After 3-4 minutes of arcing, take
another sample for testing.
l Tapping:
It is the process of pouring the melt from the furnace into the ladle (melt
carrying container) by tilting the base of the furnace.

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Brief procedure
l The ladle is prepared for tapping process and brought to the
furnace through EOT crane.
l Add required amount of Ferro-silicon, Ferro-manganese or
Silicon-manganese into the ladle after the ladle preparation.
l The tapping temperature should be between 1660 °C to 1720
°C.
l The base of the furnace is tilted and tapping of the metal
starts.
l The ladle is adjusted so that the metal stream falls at the
center of the ladle and not on the side walls.
l Tapping is completed within 3 to 4 minutes to avoid
temperature loss.
l After tapping, the ladle is carried to the JMP (John Mohr Pit).

For 20 MT of liquid metal

Item to be added Elements to Quantity of Ferro Aim to achieve


increase allow to add for
increase of
element
Graphite powder Carbon 2kgs for 0.01% to 60-62 for Box-N
incr. 50-52 BG coach
70-72 CH-36
Wheel
Ferro-silicon Silicon 140 kgs without 50-55
drain metal.
130 kgs with drain
metal.
Ferro-Manganese Manganese(Norm 3 kgs for 0.01% to 70-75(ladle)
ally in furnace) incr. 30-45(furnace)
Silicon-Manganese Manganese 3 kgs for 0.01% to 70-75
incr.

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l John Mohr Pit(JMP):
After the melt is poured into the ladle, it is carried to the JMP. The wheel
shop has two John Mohr pits. The main purpose of JMP is for temperature
measurement and maintenance and finalizing the melt composition.

Brief procedure
l Wait till the temperature is lesser than 1610 °C.
l When the temperature is around 1560 to 1610 °C, immerse
the Aluminum stars. The Aluminum stars are used to prevent
change in composition of the melt.
l A sample is taken for testing, this acts as the final analysis for
the required/fixed composition.
l Ladle insulation material is sprinkled into the ladle to maintain
temperature.
l The ladle is taken for insertion of the ceramic pipe.

*NOTE: The ceramic pouring tube is fixed on a cover and it takes around 1 day
for preparation because it has to withstand high temperatures of the melt.
This is done in a Pouring Tube Section. The roof is lifted and lowered 2 to 3
times for the pouring tube to get accustomed to the heat. This process
prevents cracking of the pouring tube.

l Casting process:
The casting process uses controlled pressure pouring process through
which the melt rises in the ceramic pipe and fills the cavity of the
approximate desired shape. This technique contains cope and drag system.
They are made up of Graphite material.

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Brief procedure
l The ladle containing the molten metal placed in JMP is brought into
the place of pouring and Ladle Insulation Material powder is sprayed
into molten metal to prevent temperature loss.
l The cope and drag assembly is placed on the covering of the ladle
which contains a center circular hole. This hole houses the ingate
through which molten metal gets into the cope-drag assembly.
l The liquid metal with high air pressure comes out of the ladle
through the ingate. A sensor prevents overflow of melt i.e.; graphite
stopper plunges the bottom of the drag and prevents the further
flow of liquid metal from ladle into cavity. It also prevents the liquid
metal flowing back to the ladle from the cavity.
l An asbestos gasket is used as a sealant between drag and pouring
tube to prevent bleeding of liquid metal and also airation. One gasket
is used for each cast wheel.
l Once the mould is prepared it is subjected to 9 to 10 minutes of
solidification. Solidification may be defined as allowing the metal to
cool and solidify.
l After solidification, the cope and drag assembly is split and the cast
wheel is obtained.
l The cope is clamped and lifted gently. Sometimes, wheel sticks to the
cope so the crane moves up and down over the drag controlled by
the operator.

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l The wheel is placed in hot wheel kiln where it is subjected to
controlled air cooling. The cycle time is 32 minutes and 33 wheels
can be accommodated.
l The cope and drag are sent back separately for cleaning and
preparation.

*NOTE: The pouring of each wheel takes about 80seconds. For one heat 32 to
33 wheels can be casted. And a cope-drag assembly can be used for 20 to 25
wheels.

Once the metal is poured paddy husk is added to the assembly through riser
holes to prevent sudden drop in temperature of molten metal which otherwise
would produce cracks/flaws in the surface of wheels.

The important parameters are pouring time, metal initial and final
temperature, pouring rate splitting time, wheels offloaded and riser weight.
l Sprue washing:

In casting, a sprue is a channel or passage through which a molten material


is introduced into a mould. It contains a little part of the runner and riser
which is not removed during splitting. These must be removed before the
further cleaning of the wheel takes place.

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Brief procedure

l After the controlled air cooling, the wheel coming out of the
kiln is at a temperature of about 400 to 500 °C.
l After sprue washing, the wheels are stamped where the wheel
and heat numbers are stamped using a stamping machine. This
is called stamping.
l Hub cutting:
The center portion of the wheel where the axle fits in is called the hub. To
produce this hub of required diameter, hub cutting is carried out. The
mixture of oxygen and LPG gas flame coming out of the nozzle at high
pressure and velocity is used for hub cutting.

Brief procedure
l The hole is initially cut for a diameter lesser than the required
during this process using hub cutting machine.
l The average hub diameter is 188mm for BOX-N.
l The part of the stopper pipe inserted during casting remains
inside the cast wheel after being cut at both the edges. This is
called pilot hole.
l The hole is initially cleaned using pneumatic air.
l The gas flame is directed to the pilot hole and moved along the
radius and finally moved in a circular shape.
l A Go-No Go gauge is used for checking its correctness. If found
right, reload otherwise reject the wheel.

*NOTE: If the hub cutters are under breakdown, wait till the temperature is
lesser than 265°C , load them into normalizing. The temperature for hub
cutting is between 265-400°C.

The quality parameters are dimensional range of hub cut, details of hub not
fallen/ pilot hole block, non-conforming wheels, O2 + LPG .

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l Normalizing:
Normalizing is defined as a heat treatment process to heat the metal above
the critical temperature, holding for a period of time long enough for
transformation to occur and air cooling. In general, it is to bring or return to
a normal or standard condition or state. Normalizing helps to maintain
proper grain size.

Brief procedure:
l The wheels after hub cutting are sent into the rotary hearth
furnace for normalizing process.
l The rotary hearth furnace used for normalizing has 7 zones.
First three zones are called as heating zones where the outer
layer of the wheel and a few inner layers get heated.
l The next four zones are called soaking zones wherein the
heat spreads uniformly including the core of the wheel.
l The temperature maintained in the furnace is between 890
to 960 °C.
l The fuel used in rotary hearth furnace is high speed diesel.
l Each wheel remains in the furnace for a duration of 90
minutes and 45 wheels in 2rows can accommodated inside
the furnace.
l The outer and inner walls of the furnace remain stationary
whereas the hearth inside rotates with the help of rack and
pinion gear.
l The temperature of the wheel coming out of the furnace is
greater than 800 °C.

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*NOTE: The quality parameters are normalizing furnace zone
temperature, heat and wheel number, time in and out of normalizing
furnace.

Specifications of blowers used for normalizing

Direction Flow Rated De-rated Motor


of static static
discharge pressure pressure

Combustio V belt 6000 CFM 1300mm 1070mm 75 HP;


n air driven; WG WG 1450 RPM
blower LTV
Combustio V belt 5701 CFM 1083mm 890mm 60 HP;
n air driven;RTV WG WG 1450 RPM
blower
Dilution air Direct 2500 CFM 240mm 195mm 7.5 HP
blower driven;LTV WG WG 2 pole
Automising Direct 1206 CFM 1088mm 895mm 15 HP
air blower driven;RTV WG WG 2 pole
Nose Direct 3300 CFM 176mm 145mm 7.5 HP
cooling air driven;RTV WG WG 4 pole
blower
Air blower, V belt 400m3/mi 650mm 535mm 100 HP
induced driven, n WG WG 4 pole
draught direct
driven;
RTH

l Quenching:
It is a stage of material processing through which a metal is quickly brought
down to lower temperature from a high temperature by rapid cooling.
During the movement of the train the outer portion of the wheel called the
rim is in contact with the rail and hence it is this portion that is subjected to
more wear and tear. Therefore, to increase the hardness of the rim, rim
quenching is performed. Water is the medium for quenching.

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Brief procedure
l The wheels coming out from the normalizing furnace are
subjected to rim quenching wherein high pressure jet of water
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with 2.5 to 3.5 kg/cm pressure is made to fall only on the rim
portion of the wheel for about five minutes.
l This increases the hardness of the rim portion up to a depth of
5 to 8mm.
l The temperature of the water for rim quenching is 18 to 35 °C.
l Tempering :
Since the wheels are manufactured by casting process, there are chances of
internal stresses being introduced in the interior of the wheel. These
stresses are very dangerous and may also damage the wheel during
working. In order to remove these stresses from the wheel, they are sent
into the draw furnace where the wheel undergoes tempering process.

Brief procedure
l Each wheel once entered the draw furnace remains inside for
around 2.5 hours.
l The draw furnace in RWF is run using high speed diesel and has
a capacity of 80 wheels.
l Hub cooling:
During the assembly of the wheels with axles there are chances of crack
formation in the hub portion. Hence, this portion needs to be hardened.
This hardening of the hub portion is done by quenching process. This stage
contains a conveyor belt that’s consists 3 hub coolers.

Brief procedure
l The wheels coming out of draw furnace is subjected to hub
cooling in three regions – upper, middle and the inner portion
of the hub is cooled separately.
l The time taken in each of the region is 45 seconds.
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l High jet of water having a pressure of 2.5 kg/cm is sprayed on
the interior of the hub during this process.

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l The hub portion becomes harder hence reducing the chance of
crack.
l The wheel after hub quenching has a rough surface and is air-
cooled.

The wheels need not be air-cooled separately, they are sent into stack
yard for cooling for about 60 minutes.

Wheel Final Process Shop

The finishing in the wheel shop happens in the Wheel Final Process Shop (WFPS).

The wheels stored in the stack yard have a rough uneven surface. These wheels
need to be cleaned and finished before its usage. This cleaning, finishing, and
certain test is conducted in this cleaning shop.

l Apex grinding:
Since the wheels are casted in cope and drag assembly, there is extra
material along the parting line. To eliminate the extra material, apex
grinding is performed.
l Cleaning:
The surface of the wheel may contain dirt, ashes and even dust particles
formed during storing; also the wheels contain scales formed during heat
treatment process.
To remove the unwanted dust and obtain a clean surfaced wheel, cleaning
is performed.

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Brief procedure
l It contains three roto blasts through which high velocity starch are
made to strike the surface of the wheel.

l Due to the impact of these particles, the surface dust present on the
wheels gets removed due to the abrasive action.
l Hence the surface cleaned wheel is obtained after the cleaning
process.
l Magnaglo testing:
This is a fluorescent magnetic particle inspection method. This test is
conducted for detecting surface cracks.

Brief procedure
l The cleaned wheels enter a dark room. Magnaglo powder uses water
as a suspension medium. This is poured on the wheel.
l The black light (with wavelength of 365 nm) is switched on and the
magnaglo fluoresces bright yellow-green. The operator checks for
fine surface and sub-surface discontinuities. A crack can be detected
when the magnetic particles accumulate around it and it glows
bright.
l The operator uses radium chalks to indicate cracks. Further on, these
will be grinded.
l Ultrasound testing:
Ultrasound testing (UT) is a family of non-destructive testing techniques
based on the propagation of ultrasonic waves in the object or material
tested. This test is performed to detect interior defects/flaws.

Brief procedure
l The wheel is directed for ultrasound testing.
l The wheel spins with its bottom in water. The sensors
underwater emit a pulse waves with center frequencies
ranging from 0.1 to 15 MHz

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l A probe sends a sound wave into a test material. There are
two indications, one from the initial pulse of the probe, and
the second due to the back wall echo.
l A defect creates a third indication and simultaneously reduces
the amplitude of the back wall indication.
l The operator will indicate the flaw code and place.
l The wheel undergoes Brinell hardness test and the values will
be displayed on a digital screen.
l Warpage testing:
The wheels during casting and heat treatment process remains at high
temperature. During this temperature there are chances of wheel
undergoing little bending. But this bending of wheels above certain limits is
undesirable for the working of the wheel.
Warpaging is a process in which these bends are detected and if it exceeds
the limit, they will be rejected.

Brief procedure
l Receive wheel for warpage measurement.
l Pass wheel for warpage if warpage reading is lesser than
1.0mm for all wheels.
l The warpaging includes the balancing of wheels from which
the defects relating to the shape of the wheels can be
detected.
l If the detected defects in the shape like bending of wheels etc.
are more than the limiting value, wheels are rejected.
l SHOT PEENING:
Shot peening is a cold working process used to produce a compressive
residual stress layer and modify mechanical properties of metals and
composites. It entails impacting a surface with shot with force sufficient to
create plastic deformation. This process uses steels shots for peening cast
iron wheels of hardness 255 to 363 BHN.

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Brief procedure
l Steel shots are made to strike on the wheel at high speeds.

l In case there are any cracks, the steel shots strike the cracks at high
velocities and fill the gap and help remove the defects.
l Each wheel undergoes this process for 1 minute on an average.

l Hub bore machining:


This is a rough boring operation carried before it is sent to the assembly
shop. During hub boring, the center hole generated is of a smaller diameter
than required. The hole needs to be enlarged to fit in the axle. This is done
by hub boring machining.

Brief procedure

l A square shaped carbide insert is used for boring.


l A hole of 3mm lesser than the diameter of the axle wheel seat
is produced during this process.28

COPE AND DRAG PREPARATION IN MOULDING ROOM

l Cleaning stage:
l After splitting the cope and drag, they are sent separately for their
preparation. The cope and drag are first sent to their respective
tilting machines where loose particles of dust fall out as they rotate.
l An operator uses compressed air at high pressure to blow out the
remaining dust.
l The receiving temperature for blowing compressed air is 245-325°C.
l Cope baking:
The cope is coated with resin and baked in an oven. After cope baking, the
cope is cleaned by sand blasting.
l Cope spraying:
l Fused Silica Powder are mixed with additives of CMC and Veegum
powder to prepare mould spray. This spray is used for coating the

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mould which serves as an emulsion stabilizer, suspending agent and
binder.
l Check adhesion with adhesion tester whose acceptable range is from
50-65 PSI.
l There are three spray guns. The quantity for BOX-N that is used for
each region is as follows:
Plate – 185ml
Hub – 125ml
Rim – 170ml
l Drag spraying:
l A spray mixture tank is used for mixing the fused silica powder along
with additives to prepare the mould spray.

l When the temperature is above 245°C, the drag enters the spray
room and the cooling fan is put on.
l The baume value for spray quantity from the two spray guns range
from 39 to 41.
Spray tank pressure – 8 to 10 PSI
Atomizing pressure – 40 to 65 PSI
l The drag is later sent to the MHO (Mould Holding Oven) waiting for
pouring.
l Spray quantity for BOX-N
Hub – 125 ml
Plate – 175 ml
Rim – 175 ml
l Stopper fitting:
l An operator assembles the parts of the stopper pipe before fixing it
on to the cope.
l When the cope is received, the operator checks for the spray
pattern.
l If satisfied the stopper pipe assembly fixes onto the cope.
l In the end, the operator fixes the stapple to avoid any slipping of
stopper pipe.
l The cope is later sent to the oven to wait for pouring.

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Consumables for Wheel Shop

The consumables used in the wheel shop can be either used directly to
manufacture the wheels (eg: Coke/Grahite, Ferro-silicon, etc.) or indirectly used
to help manufacture the wheels

Consumable Name: Asbestos Gasket


Application/ Job requirement: Asbestos Gasket is used as a sealant between drag
and pouring tube in casting of railway cast steel wheel to prevent bleeding of
liquid steel. One asbestos gasket is used for casting each wheel.

Consumable Name: Ingate Sleeves


Application/ Job requirement: The Clay Graphite Tapered Ingate Sleeve shall be
fired/baked in controlled reducing atmosphere. The kilns shall have control
mechanism to achieve uniform heating at a controlled rate as established by the
manufacturer’s firing schedule. The Clay Graphite Tapered Ingate Sleeves have to
be encased in a suitable medium like graphite, calcined petroleum coke or similar
during firing so as to avoid oxidation.
During the mould assembly for casting steel railway wheels, the Clay Graphite
Tapered Ingate Sleeve is required to be fixed in the graphite drag against the
taper at a pressure of 52-56 kg/cm2 and ingate sleeve is retained in position using
ingate-retaining ring. As the mould is reused, after each casting the ingate is
reamed using grinding stone for proper seating of the clay graphite stopper in the
stopper seat.

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Consumable Name: Ceramic Pouring Tube
Application/ Job requirement: The pouring tube is assembled with pressure
Pouring Tank cover. The molten metal rises through the pouring Tube into the
mould by means of controlled pressure (35psi max.) pouring technique.

Consumable Name: Pouring Tube Glaze


Application/ Job requirement: The pouring tube glaze is used as a coating applied
to the ceramic pouring tube by dipping the tube in it to fill the pores of the tube
and make the tube air tight.

Consumable Name: Clay Graphite Stopper


Application/ Job requirement: The Clay Graphite Stopper, made of clay graphite, is
used to prevent the back flow of molten metal after pouring the metal into the
mould.
The stopper with pipe assembly is set with cope on the required height and used
for the manufacture of cast steel wheels. Molten metal rises through the gap
available between the stopper and mould box by means of pressure pouring
technique. Once the metal rises to the required height of risers the Clay Graphite
Stopper is pressed down for closing the molten metal incoming port by Pneumatic
cylinders.

Consumable Name: Calcined Lime


Application/ Job requirement: This Calcined Lime is used as flux for making slag in
the steel making process through Electric Arc Furnace melting practice.

Consumable Name: Ferro Silicon


Application/ Job requirement: Ferro Silicon is used as a ladle addition to the liquid
Steel tapped from the Electric Arc Furnace. Final chemistry with respect to Silicon
is achieved suitably for casting of Railway steel wheels.

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Consumable Name: Silico Manganese
Application/ Job requirement: Silico Manganese is used as a ladle addition to the
liquid steel manufactured in Electric Arc Furnace steel making practice. Final
chemistry with respect to Manganese and partly Silicon is achieved suitably for
casting of Railway steel wheels.

Consumable Name: Ferro Manganese


Application/ Job requirement: Ferro Manganese is used as furnace addition in the
making of steel from Electric Arc Furnaces for casting of Railway steel wheels.

Consumable Name : Graphite Powder/ Granule


Application/ Job requirement: Graphite Powder/Granules is used in the Electric
arc Furnace at RWF, steel scrap is melted for casting of railway wheels. During the
course of melting, Graphite Granules are added to maintain the carbon content in
the steel.

Consumable Name: Magnaglo Powder


Application/ Job requirement: Magnaglo powder is a dry, free flowing, speckled
brown and white magnetic powder which fluoresces bright yellow-green under
black light (wave length of 365 nanometres). Magnaglo powder is intended for
use in high sensitivity wet method magnetic particle inspection using water as
suspension vehicle. It is used to locate fine surface and sub-surface discontinuities
such as cracks, inclusions, seams, shrinkage porosity, tears, laps flakes etc., in cast
steel wheels for Rail road application.

Consumable Name : Fused Silica Powder


Application/ Job requirement: Fused Silica Powder is used for the preparation of
spray for graphite moulds. It should serve as an emulsion stabilizer, suspending
agent, film former, binder and organic gum modifier, when added with other
additives of CMC and veegum to prepare mould spray.

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Consumable Name: Steel Shots
Application/ Job requirement: The steel shots are used for cleaning and peening of
the Cast steel wheels of hardness of 255 to 363 BHN.

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Wheel Shop Specifications
Wheel Rejection %

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Axle Shop

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Axle Shop

The Axle shop is the second unit of RWF. An axle is a central shaft for a rotating
wheel. RWF produces an axle every 5 minutes. Rail Wheel Factory is having three
axle machining lines out of which 2 are CNC machines to convert these forgings to
the axle. RWF converts BOX N, Coaching and Container Axles to wheel sets. Loco
axles are generally sent in rough turned condition to the Production Units and
Railways workshops for converting to wheel sets. RWF produces 16 Axels
according to the requirement. The Plant converts steel blooms to axles through a
series of forging, heat treatment and machining processes. Blooms cut to the
required sizes are heated in Rotary Hearth Furnace up to 1200 degree Celsius.
These are carried to the precision Long Forging machine where the hammers
convert billets into the required shapes through computerized control program.
The Forging Machine having multiple hammers is used to get required sizes of
forgings. After end cutting, the rough forged axles are subjected to heat
treatment in normalizing and tempering furnaces. It undergoes machining,
finishing and inspection tests to satisfy the customer requirements.

37
The railway axle is a long, thick cylindrical rod made up of alloy steel and weighs
about 500 kg. The axles mainly consist of 4 parts – body, wheel seat, dust guard
and journal. Major portion of the axle is the body whose length is fixed and is
equal the distance to be maintained between two parallel wheels. Hence, the
length of the body which is the center portion of the axle varies for different types
of axle. The portion of the axle where the wheels of the train is fixed is the wheel
seat. The curved portion between the wheel seat and the journal is the dust
guard. The two ends of the axle after the dust guard is journal. The journal is the
main portion which is required in a perfect smooth finished surface state. The
bearings of the train wheels occupy this place.

The axle shop is divided into three portions and they are:

l Forging shop
l Machining shop
l Assembly shop

38
FORGING SHOP

l Billet cutting :
The long bar with square cross section is called a bloom and they are cut
into small length pieces by gas welding. The blooms are obtained from
Durgapur (SAIL), Maharashtra (MUSCO) and Pune (Kalyani forging) steel
plant. The billet cutting machine is an automated machine and it takes
three minutes to cut a billet from a bloom. The fuel used is a mixture of
Oxygen and LPG.

According to the various cross section area, the axle are divided into the
following types:

Brief procedure
l The bloom is carried in a conveyor to the billet cutting
machine.
l The operator marks the points at which the flame cutting will
take place. The marking depends on the type of axle to be
manufactured.
l The machine is switch ON and the gas flame of O 2 and LPG at
a suitable pressure is directed on the work piece and cutting
operation is performed. The cutting is based on length to
weight ratio.

39
l Heating :
Heating of billets is done in Rotary Hearth Furnace (RHF).
The billet after being cut must be heated so that it can be forged. The RHF
having four furnaces namely – preheating zone, heating zone, soaking zone
I and soaking zone II – is used for heating the billets to a temperature of
1200 °C.

Brief procedure
l A robot arm inserts the billet into the RHF. The billet enters the
preheating zone where the heating process begins.
l The billet moves into the heating zone. This zone takes the
longest time.

40
l In the soaking zone I and II, the heat is spreads to the core of
the work piece.
l The RHF has a capacity of 80 billets and the cycle time is 6.5
hours.

*NOTE:

Quality parameters of Billet Heating

l Forging :

Forging is a mechanism used to make or shape a metal object by heating in


a fire furnace and hammering it to the required dimensions. The forging
machine called Long forging machine consists of four hammers of about
800 tons capacity each with two motors subjected to the power supply of
400KW power. The hammers are placed diagonally to each other. The
operation is brought about based on the set of instructions (program) given
by the operator.

Brief procedure:

41
l The billets from the Rotary hearth furnace at a temperature of
about 1100 - 1150 degree Celsius are subjected to forging process.
This is done to bring the billet.
l The forging process in axle shop is based on cams, which in turn is
controlled by PLC (Program Logic Control) and CNC (Computer
Numerically Controlled) for the control of movements and
dimension specifications (measurements) respectively.
l It consists of two chuck head named A and B related to the
movement of expansion and R which is used as a reference for
diameters.
l The hydraulic pressure in the machine generates mechanical power
to bring about the process. As a result the axles of required
dimensions are obtained based on the requirement.
l Thus the forged axles of specified dimension are now subjected to
End cutting process.

*NOTE: The cycle time of the process ranges from 4.5-5 minutes per axle.

SPECIFICATIONS:

l End Cutting:
The metal cutting process used in the removal of excess material at the ends
to obtain metal component with required dimensions is termed as end
cutting. During the forging process, the billet deforms to the required axle
shape, and since at the ends the material is deformed and in an irregular
shape, it needs to be eliminated. Thus, end cutting is done.

42
Basic procedure:
l The forged axles after forging is subjected to end cutting process
termed as Axle end cutting.
l High flame gas of oxygen and LPG mixture from the nozzle with a
diameter of about 25mm at high pressure is forced on both the
sides hence the removal of metal.
l The cycle time of the process is less than a minute due to high
temperature of the forged axle.
l The high temperature axles are now subjected to normal Air cooling
process, wherein the axles are arranged in an open area hence the
cooling takes for about half an hour duration.

l Heat Treatment:

l Normalising :
It consists of heating steel about 40-50°C above its upper critical
temperature and if necessary holding it at that temperature for a short
time.

43
Brief procedure:
l Once the axles are air cooled, they are sent into the normalizing
furnace.
l These axles are placed on the base of the furnace and fire is set on
the sides of the furnace. The fuel used is High Speed Diesel. Around
90 axles can be accommodated in the furnace.
l Normalizing furnace consists of three zones namely pre-heating,
heating and soaking.
l The cooled axles regain their grain structure by the end of
normalizing process.
l The type of structure obtained will depend largely on the thickness
of cross section as this will affect the rate of cooling. Thin sections
will give a much finer grain than thick sections.
l
l Quenching :
It is simply defined as sudden cooling of heated metal by dipping in
cooling agent or spraying cooling agent in order to obtain the work
piece in a stable state which induces certain properties like hardness
etc to the work piece.

Brief procedure:
l Not all types of axles require quenching.
l Only a few types of diesel axles are quenched in quenching agent.
l The quenching agent used is a mixture of polymer oil and water in
the ratio 1:20.
l The quenching agent is present in a tank about 10 feet depth where
quenching takes place.
l Quenching is done for about 25-30 minutes depending on the
carbon content present in the material of the particular axle. It is
done for 4 to 5 axles at a time.
l The axles which do not require quenching are sent directly to
tempering furnace after normalizing. Diesel axles are sent into
tempering furnace after quenching.

44
l Tempering :
Tempering is a heat treatment technique applied to ferrous alloys, such
as steel or cast iron, to achieve greater toughness by decreasing the
hardness of the alloy. The reduction in hardness is usually accompanied
by an increase in ductility, provides softness and machineability to the
metal thereby decreasing the brittleness of the metal.

Brief procedure:
l Axles enter the tempering furnace where they are heated below
their critical temperature in order to achieve softness so that they
can be machined with ease.
l The tempering furnace also consists of three zones i.e.; pre-heating,
heating and soaking. Heating is done at around 600 to 650°C.
l Around 118 axles can be placed in the tempering furnace.
l Tempering reduces internal stresses in the axles which may have
induced during heating, forging or quenching.
l Those axles which have acquired the required composition and
properties are sent to the axle machining shop for machining while
others are sent back for re-heating.
l Sampling:
After tempering, the axles are cooled for 24 hours and then taken for testing.
The axle is taken for destructive testing where it is cross-sectioned and
checked if it is suitable for operating and its other functions.

45
Axle Machine Shop
l Station 1:End milling, centering and Cup turning :

End milling can be defined as removal of metal with the help of rotating end
mill. An end mill is a type of milling cutter, a cutting tool used in industrial
milling applications. It is distinguished from the drill bit in its application,
geometry, and manufacture. While a drill bit can only cut in the axial
direction, a milling bit can generally cut in all directions, though some cannot
cut axially.
And end mill is a multi-point cutting tool. Because the forged axles undergo
various hat treatment processes, it has excess length. This must be cut with
little amount of tolerance for further machining.

Centering is the process of producing a center hole in the axle in order to hold
the axle in further machining process. This is followed by cup turning where
excess material is removed and smoother surface finish is done only at the
ends.
The centering tool and cup turning tool is made out of HCS. The tool life of
centering tool is 200 axles.
These operations are performed by CNC machines of Siemens technology.

Brief procedure
l The end mill cutter has a number of inserts which does the actual
cutting job. The axle is brought close to the end mill and
machined.
l It consists of two chucks each powered by a motor. They remove
0.7 mm of material from each side.
l The inserts that are used for milling have four cutting edges and
are made of Carbide. Each edge may be used for operating 60
axles.
l Then it is switched to another set of two chucks that is again
powered by a motor (each). The same set of chucks performs
both centering and cup turning.

46
l Centering is done for a hole diameter of 28mm (Box-N axle)
l Cup turning is done for a diameter of 148mm(Box-N axle)
l Ultrasound inspection :
Ultrasound inspection is done to detect internal defects.
This inspection is done from one face to another. After calibrating the ultra
sound flow detector the couplant is applied to obtain proper coupling for
conductance. On inspection, of the axle does not meet the conditions even
after heat treatment, the axle is rejected.

l Station 2: Rough turning:

Turning is a machining process in which a cutting tool, typically a non-rotary


tool bit, describes a helical tool path by moving more or less linearly while the
work piece rotates.
The tool used here is a single point cutting insert made of Carbide. They are
called nest inserts. In order to remove the excess material and bring it to the
required dimensions, rough turning is carried out. The exact shape of axle is

47
brought to in this process and later machined to obtain a smoother surface
finish. During this process the axle is fixed between the chucks and made to
rotate at very high speeds.
The carbide insert is fixed to a cassette and it is fitted into the tool holder.
Hence the tool holder is more permanent and the cassettes are replaced.
Each cassette has an L and R side. According to their function, they will be
selected. There are five chucks used for this operation.

The rough turning operation also uses CNC technology.

Brief procedure
l The axle is divided to four sections – 1, 2, 3 and 4. 1 and 4 for the
body. 2 and 3 for journal.
l Rollers are used for long turning to avoid vibrations.
l After lifting rollers, channels 1 and 4 take place.
l Coolant is not used in this process since carbide inserts are used.
l 15 axles can be machined with the same insert for journals and 8
to 10 axles can be machined in case of longer lengths.
l Station 3 : Drilling, countersinking, Tapping and Recentering :

After rough turning of the axle, threaded holes are drilled at the two end
surfaces in order to fix the bearing to the axle.

Drilling is a machining operation of producing a cylindrical hole in a solid work


piece by means of a revolving tool called the drill bit. Drill bit is called as twist
drill since it has sharp twisted edges formed around a cylindrical body. It is
made up of HCS (High Carbon Steel).

A countersink is a conical hole cut into a work piece. It is used to allow the
dead center to support the axle for further machining processes.

Tapping is the operation of producing internal threads in a previously drilled


hole by means of a tool called tap. The tap had threads cut on its periphery
and is hardened to improve its properties. The threads cut on the tap form
the replica of the threads to be produced in the work piece.

48
Brief procedure
l An overhead crane transfers the rough turned axle to station 3.
l Prior to the operation the pitch circle diameter (PCD) and the
angle at which the holes are to be drilled is checked.
l The axle is subjected to drilling operation where the drill bit is
held in the chuck of the machine and is rotated by a spindle at
high speeds of 198 rpm.
l The drill bit is forced to move against the rigidly clamped axle.
l In the case of BOX-N axles three holes are drilled at an angle of
o
120 and 22.5 mm drill by the sharp cutting edges of the rotating
drill bit.
l Excess material removed (i.e; chips) gets curled and escapes
through the helical grooves provided in the drill bit.
l Countersinking is done with the help of a countersink tool of
conical shape for the axles to be supported.
l To perform the tapping operation the tool held rigidly in the
spindle is rotated at a speed of 90 rpm. The rotating tap is fed
slowly in the hole of axle to cut the material and produce
threads.
l During the tapping process, eight threads are formed for each
inch.

l Operations are carried out on both sides. A continuous supply


of coolant is required in order to reduce the heat production
and wash away the chips.

49
l Station 4: Smooth turning :
The rough finished axle is now given a good surface finish by turning
operation. A carbide tool with Titanium coating (heat proofing) is fixed in
the tool holder and is fed against the rotating work piece.

Brief procedure
l Bypass the axles that have defects. The type of rejections maybe
journal undersize, dust guard undersize, wheel set undersize and
body undersize.
l The process consists of two
channels. CH1: T1 Journal
T3 Body
T5 Wheel seat52

CH2: T4 Journal
T2 Body
T6 Wheel seat
l The axle is rotated at a speed of 350 rpm and the operation is carried
out at a feed rate of 0.66 mm/rev.
l The coolant used during the process is servo oil mixed with water. And
the cycle time is 20 minutes.
l Change the inserts when required.

l Station 5 : Cylindrical grinding :

Grinding is an abrasive machining process which uses a grinding wheel as a


cutting tool to produce finished surface.
The journal is the most important part of the axle since the bearing is seated
on it. Hence, the journal is given a perfect finish. This is done by grinding.

50
Brief procedure
o
l Two grinding wheels are kept on both the ends at an angle of 45 to
finish both the sides of the axles. They operate one after the other.
l The work piece (axle) comes near to the wheel and gets fixed.
l The high speed grinding wheel rotating at 1240 rpm approaches the
axle due to which very fine material layer is removed from the axle due
to the action of abrasive particles fixed on the grinding wheel. In the
same manner the other side of the axle is also finished.
l The time taken for grinding one axle is 8 to 8.5 minutes.

*NOTE : The tool used here is a diamond wheel dresser of 700 mm diameter.
The depth of cut lies between 0.12 to 0.125 mm.

l Magnaglo testing :

This is a fluorescent magnetic particle inspection method. This test is


conducted for detecting surface cracks.

Brief procedure
l The operator uses a pipe that consists of magnetic flux powder
and carrier oil to wet the axle.
l The axle under the black light fluoresces bright yellow green.
l Due to accumulation of magnetic flux in cracks, they appear
brighter.

51
l The magnetizing time before switching on the black light is 20
seconds.
l If the crack is lesser than 21.88 mm, the axle is passed otherwise
it is rejected.
l Ultrasonic testing :
Ultrasound testing (UT) is a family of non-destructive testing techniques based on
the propagation of ultrasonic waves in the object or material tested. This test is
performed to detect interior defects/flaws.

Brief procedure

l The axle is dipped in the water bath of volume 4000 ltrs.


l A transmitter moves above the axle along its axis. It is also called
diametric probing.
l The frequency used is 5 MHz.
l The internal defects can be detected because of acoustic mismatch.
This is due to difference in density.
l The results are displayed on a CRT screen.
l The time taken for ultrasound inspection is 5 to 6 minutes.
l Wheel Seat Measuring Station:
Since the axle and wheel are brought separately from two shops, during
assembly the type of fit maintained is interference fit. The wheel seat is
measured with gauges to allow the wheel to be pressed on to it.
l Wheel Boring:

The wheel boring in the Wheel shop is a rough finishing process. The wheel
has to be bored for a smoother finishing and to the specification of the wheel
seat. The wheel seat specifications are obtained from the measuring station.
The manufactured wheels from the wheel shop for the particular axle is
center bored to the measure axle’s wheel seat diameter by the vertical boring
machine using Octagon shaped carbide tool.

l Wheel mounting :
Wheel mounting is the process of pressing the two wheels onto the wheel
seat of the axle using mounting press to form a wheel set.

52
Brief procedure
l After the smooth surface finish boring operation, the two wheels
for the particular axle are sent for pressing. Boring of one wheel
consumes 4 minutes.
For BOX-N wheel set
Bore diameter = 211.917 mm Wheel
seat diameter = 212.32 mm
l The two wheels are hydraulically pressed so that the two wheels
sit on the wheel seat of the axle by using pressing machine one
wheel after the other.
l Castor oil/double boiled linseed oil is applied on the axle during
pressing to reduce the pressure on the axle.
l The wheel set obtained is measured by various gauges.
Example : offset gauge.
l The track gauge measurement and the offset measurement are
done. The track gauge is important since the wheels sit on the
track. Thus their measurement is essential. And the offset allows
the bearing to sit properly.
l In case the distance between the wheels is to be altered or any
other minor corrections need to be done, it is corrected by
DEMOUNTING machine.
l Good sets are rolled onto the inspection line.
l It is painted to prevent the surface of the axle from rusting and
the journal is covered and then transported to place where rest
of the body parts of the train is manufactured.

53
Pressing tonnage for wheel sets

54
Consumables used in Axle shop

The following consumables used in Rail Wheel Factory are essentially needed to be
multi-sourced. The particulars given here under are indicative and are meant to
help suppliers for developing and supplying the same to RWF. The axle consumables
are:

Consumable Name: Steel Blooms for forging Diesel/Electric loco and EMU Driving
axles as per IRS R 43 and IRS R 16
Application/ Job requirement: The steel blooms shall be manufactured from steel
made by basic electric arc furnace or any other process recommended as equivalent
and approved by the purchasing railways. The steel must be degassed under
vacuum. Hydrogen content in the liquid steel is determined by standard analysis
method on LECO hydrogen analyzer. Hydrogen content of the steel is determined by
the standard analysis method on LECO nitrogen analyzer.

Consumable Name: Forging Hammer


Application/ Job requirement: The forging hammers are used for forging different
steel axles and armature shaft for railway use. Forging Hammers are made from DIN
56NiCrMoV7 steel quenched and tempered to 34 HRC. The reclamation process is
described in the RWF specification for reclamation. Entire process followed for
reclamation must be documented and be made available to inspecting officials.

55
M Lab
Properties of materials

Every material is known by its set of properties. A variety of tests are conducted to
evaluate and compare the mechanical properties of different materials. Some of the
popular tests conducted include the tensile test, Compression test, Shear test,
Hardness test, Impact test, bending test and so on. Among all the tests tensile test
gives maximum information about mechanical properties.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

l Yield Strength:

It can be defined as the stress at which plastic deformation (yielding) begins


without any appreciable increase in load.

Yield strength, σy = Py /A0 N/m


2

Where Py = load at yield point


A0 = original area of cross section.

56
l Ductility:
It is the ability of the material to undergo plastic deformation under tensile
load. A material with high ductility undergoes severe plastic deformation
before fracture takes place.
Percentage elongation gives a measure of ductility.
% elongation = (L – L0) / L0 * 100
Where L = length of specimen after the tensile test.
L0 = original length.

l Malleability:
It is the ability of the material to undergo plastic deformation under
compressive load.

l Ultimate tensile strength:


After the yield point the specimen undergoes continuous plastic deformation
with increase in load. This load reaches a certain maximum value after which
the specimen does not take any more load. At the point of ultimate load, the
area of cross section of the specimen starts reducing and is known as
Necking.

Ultimate tensile strength, σu = Pu / A0 N/m


2

Where Pu = ultimate load


A0 = original area of cross section

l Fracture strength:
After the ultimate load is reached, the load drops and at a particular load
fracture takes place. The stress corresponding to this load where the actual
failure takes place is known as Fracture strength of the material.
2
Fracture strength, σf = Pf / A0 N/m
Where Pf = fracture load or breaking load
A0 = original area of cross section

57
l Toughness:
The toughness of a material is its ability to withstand both elastic and plastic
deformation. In other words, it is the amount of energy a material can
withstand before fracture takes place.

IRON CARBON EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM

A study of the constitution and structure of all steels and irons must first
start with the Iron carbon equilibrium diagram.

Iron is an allotropic metal which means that it can exist in more than one type
of crystal structure depending upon temperature. Pure iron exists as BCC
structure at room temperature and is called as FERRITE or α- IRON. At 912
degrees Celsius BCC Iron undergoes allotropic changes and becomes FCC
structure which is retained till 1394 degree Celsius. FCC Iron is also known as
AUSTENITE or γ – IRON. At 1394 degree Celsius it changes back once again to
BCC structure called δ – FERRITE and this is retained till its melting point at
1538 degree Celsius.

In Iron carbon equilibrium diagram, the left vertical axis represents 100% iron
and all the allotropic changes of pure iron with temperature. The right
vertical axis does not represent 100% carbon but instead represents only
6.67% C by weight. This is because a maximum amount of 6.67% C can only 61

be added to molten iron at which it becomes saturated. Iron when it contains


exactly 6.67% C by weight forms a phase called CEMENTITE or IRON CARBIDE
Fe3C.

58
Description of phases in the Fe-c system

All the phases that appear on the Fe-c equilibrium diagram are equilibrium
phases that is, they are the phases obtained upon very slow cooling at
equilibrium conditions. Following are the different equilibrium phases of Fe-
C.

l α – FERRITE:
It is nothing but an interstitial solid solution of small amounts of carbon
dissolved in BCC iron. The maximum solid solubility of carbon in iron is
0.025% at 727 degrees Celsius and 0.008% at room temperature. It is the
softest among all phases of iron and carbon.

59
l AUSTENITE
It is again an interstitial solid solution of carbon but in FCC iron. The
maximum solid solubility is 2.1%C at 1148 degree Celsius. Austenite is not
stable below 727 degrees Celsius and will not be normally present in the
micro structure at room temperature. It has an FCC structure and it is not
magnetic.

l δ – FERRITE
It is also an interstitial solid solution of carbon now BCC iron because
austenite changes its structure at 1394 degree Celsius from FCC to BCC.
Maximum solid solubility of carbon in δ-iron is 0.1%C at 1495 degree Celsius.

l CEMENTITE
It is also known as iron carbide and has a chemical formula Fe 3C. It is
considered as chemical compound because it contains fixed carbon
percentage but is crystalline in nature. Cementite always contains 6.67%C by
weight and has an orthorhombic crystal structure. It is the hardest structure
that appears on Fe-C diagram. The presence of cementite greatly enhances
the properties of steel.

l PEARLITE
When austenite containing exactly 0.83%C is cooled very slowly to below 727
degrees Celsius, it transforms into pearlite. Pearlite is nothing but lamellar
structure of α- ferrite and cementite. It is a fairly soft structure and

its hardness lies between that of α-ferrite and cementite. It has a finger print
like appearance.

l LEDEBURITE
It is the eutectic lamellar mixture of austenite (light phase) and cementite
(dark phase). The eutectic reaction occurs at 4.33%C at 1148 degree Celsius.
Austenite in the eutectic mixture of ledeburite is unstable below
727 degrees Celsius and hence transforms into α-ferrite and cementite.

60
M Lab

M lab also known as Metallurgy lab is an integral part of the RWF. The main
objective is to test the consumables and the specimens in order to ensure safety,
quality and confirm that they meet the specifications.

The M lab is divided into various sections:

l Machine shop
l Physical testing
l Chemical lab
l Refractory lab

Tests can be carried out in two ways:

l Destructive tests
l Non-destructive tests

61
DESTRUCTIVE TESTS

Physical section will carry out various metallurgical tests on wheels and axles.
After being destructively tested, the component of the specimen either breaks or
remains no longer useful for further use.

Ex. Tensile tests, Impact tests, etc.

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTS

A component does not break in non-destructive testing and after testing it can be
used for the purpose for which it is made.

Ex. Magnetic particle inspection, Ultrasonic testing, etc.

MACHINE SHOP

Machine shop is generally used for preparation of specimens. Since destructive


testing is done, wheel and axle has to be sectioned correctly to accommodate all
tests.

The machine shop contains a lathe machine, grinding machine and a drilling
machine. Tasks that are performed by the operator in the machine shop
are:
l Axle specimen is prepared.
l Cross section of the wheel is obtained from EMMS (Electrical
Mechanical Machine Shop).
l Specimen for the Charpy test is prepared.

The specimens from machine shop further go to physical testing to check for their
physical parameters.

62
PHYSICAL TESTING

All tests in the physical testing are of destructive type. Since the wheels are
produced by casting process, there is lot of stress induced during solidification of
the molten metal. These are not good for working of wheels, hence to check the
limiting stress, tests are carried out.

The axles undergo forging in the axle shop. Due to changing temperatures,
stresses are developed. To test their limiting stress and grain structure, physical
testing is necessary.

Tests carried out are:

l Closure test
Radial saw cut analysis technique is used to measure the bulk
circumferential residual stress levels in rail road cast steel wheel.
With this technique the opening or closure of the saw cut, at the
flange tip is monitored as a function of the radial cut depth.

l Hardness test
To a metallurgist, hardness is a material’s resistance to penetration.
In general, an indenter is pressed into the surface of the material to
be tested under a specific load for a definite time interval, and a
measurement is made of the size or depth of the indentation.
The greater the hardness of the metal, the greater resistance it has
to deformation. In metallurgy hardness is defined as the ability of a
material to resist plastic deformation.

Hardness tests can be performed with the help of instruments such


as :
l Brinell Hardness tester : This test is a type of indentation test.
J.A. Brinell introduced the first standardized indentation-
hardness test in 1900. The Brinell hardness test consists
in indenting the metal surface with a 10-mm diameter

63
steel ball at a load range of 500-3000 kg, depending of
hardness of particular materials.

The Brinell hardness tester uses a steel ball for


indentation. The hardness number is determined by its
characteristics such as applied load, diameter of
indenter, diameter of indentation, depth of the
impression.

l Rockwell Hardness Tester : Rockwell hardness test is


most preferably used and is generally accepted due to
the speed, small size of indentation and ability to
distinguish small hardness difference. The hardness is
measured according to the depth of indentation under
a constant load.
The type of indenter used here is a diamond indenter.
The acceptable HRC (Rockwell Hardness) are as follows:
Wagon : 277 to 341

Coach : 255 to 321

64
l Portable Hardness Tester: Conventional hardness
testers, like Rockwell, Brinell or Vickers machines,
require the test piece be brought to the testing device;
but this is not always possible. Portable testing devices
have been developed that permit in-situ hardness
measurements thus offering quick and economical
supplements to conventional, stationary testing
machines.
An ideal solution for metallic hardness measurements
with conversions to HLD, HRC, HRB, HB, HV, and HS are
available. There is no indentation in this hardness tester.

l Micro Hardness tester : Determination of hardness over


very small areas for example individual constituents,
phases, requires hardness testing machines in micro or
sub-micro scales. Vickers hardness can also be measured
in a micro scale, which is based on the same
fundamental method as in a macro scale.
The micro indenter (diamond-shape) is used for
measuring in a small area, such as at the cross section of
the heat-treated metal surface.

65
The micro hardness test is mainly for testing hardness of
steel shots. Steel shots are used for finishing purposes.
The acceptable hardness value is in the range of 375 to
550 HV.

l Tensile test
In tensile testing, the ratio of maximum load to original cross
sectional area is also called ultimate strength. This test gives an idea
of material strength obtained by proper process adopted of steel
making and its effective heat treatment done. Tests will be carried
out by turning to the standard test method and breaking by using
tensile testing machine.
There are two tensile test machines - one of a 100 ton capacity and
another of a 20 ton capacity.

The important parameters that are considered are


– Peak load
Breaking load
Maximum
displacement Area
Ultimate stress
Elongation
Reduction in
area Yield stress

l Grain structure
A very important feature of a metal is the average size of the grain.
The size of the grain determines the properties of the metal. For
example, smaller grain size increases tensile strength and tends to
increase ductility. A larger grain size is preferred for improved high-
temperature creep properties. Creep is the permanent deformation
that increases with time under constant load or stress. Creep
becomes progressively easier with increasing temperature.

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Grain size are reported in terms of grains per unit are or volume
average diameter or as grain size number derived from area
measurements. This will be done by a metallurgical microscope with
an image analyzer. This indicates the type of structure having the
material and it reveals defects of the material like porosity, shrinkage
etc.
There are 8 different grain size distributions of Iron Carbon. The
required range is 6 to 8. This is evaluated by measuring the grains per
unit volume.

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l Charpy Impact test

It is a test to determine the behavior of the material when subjected


to higher rates of loading, usually in bending, tension or torsion. The
loads that are suddenly applied to a structure are known as shock or
impact load. These loads build up rapid stress and affect the resisting
properties of material. The property of a material is associated with
work required to cause rupture.

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In charpy test, the specimen is place d as ‘cantilever beam’. The
specimens have U-shaped notch of 45°. The notch is located on
tension side of specimen during impact loading. Depth of notch is
generally taken as t.5 to t/3 where ‘t’ is thickness of the specimen.

Specimen Charpy Impact test

Charpy Impact testing equipment

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CHEMICAL LAB

Chemical lab consists of analysis of various consumables to check for their


parameters and compositions. Two types of analysis are conducted. They are:
l Wet analysis
l Instrumental analysis

In Wet analysis, individual analysis of consumables is made by dissolving them


either in water/acid or any liquid medium. It is a classical method which involves
observation to analyze materials. Most of the analyzing is done in the liquid
phase. Wet techniques often depend on the formation of a product of the
chemical reaction that is easily detected and measured . Some tests are conducted
by using certain reagents to indicate the presence of a specific chemical in an
unknown solution. Few tests are based on volumetric analysis for volume
measurements.

In Instrumental analysis, the consumables and specimens are tested using


scientific instruments. It is used to measure the property of the analyte (material).

The various types of instruments used in M-lab are:

l LECO Analyzer:
It is an elemental carbon and sulfur analyzer that has a variable power
combustion furnace, and has an enhanced IR cell design. It has available
automation that makes it a valuable resource for any industrial
environment requiring accurate analysis of carbon and/or sulfur. The unit
gives fast analysis in less than a minute.

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l Particle size analyzer:
A particle size analyzer is used to test the size of the fused silica that is used
in spraying the cope and drag. The particle size is important because if it
does not conform to the required size, the silica might clog at the tip of the
nozzle, hence making it difficult for spraying. A laser beam is used to count
the particles and the size is measured.

l XRF:
Wavelength dispersive X-Ray fluorescence spectrometer is an instrument
used for rapid quantitative elemental analysis of major and minor atomic
elements, from beryllium (Be) through uranium (U), in a wide variety of
sample types with minimal standards. It is a Micro analysis technique to
analyze samples as small as 500 µm. The principle of working is based on
Brooks’ law. It is the latest instrument, eliminating the necessity of
chemical analysis, thus saving time.

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l Mono quartz distillation unit
l Kinematic viscometer
l Flame photometer
l Flash point apparatus
l Melting point apparatus
l Electro chemical Analyzer
l Flow length apparatus
l Viscometer
l Electrolytic Analyzer
l Centrifugal apparatus
l Muffle furnace

REFRACTORY LAB

Refractory means difficult to melt or work (resistant to heat). A refractory


material is one that retains its strength at high temperatures. Refractories
can be defined as "non-metallic materials having those chemical and
physical properties that make them applicable for structures or as
components of systems that are exposed to environments above 1,000 °F
(811 K; 538 °C)”. Refractory materials are used in linings for furnaces, kilns,
incinerators and reactors. They are also used to make crucibles and moulds
for casting glass and metals.

Refractory lab is an important part of the RWf since they use refractory
consumables such as refractory castables and Alumina bricks. To ensure
that they are heat resistant, tests are conducted in the Refractory lab.

Refractory lab consists of Flue gas analyzer, permeter (Atomic clock


permeability), muffle furnace, RVL machine.

l Flue gas analyzer: Flue gas is the gas exiting to the atmosphere via a
flue, which is a pipe or channel for conveying exhaust gases from a
fireplace, oven, furnace, boiler or steam generator. A device that
monitors the composition of the flue gas of a boiler heating unit to

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determine if the mixture of air and fuel is at the proper ratio for
maximum heat output.
l Atomic clock permeability: Permeability is a property of foundry sand
with respect to how well the sand can vent, i.e. how well gases pass
through the sand. And in other words, permeability is the property
by which we can know the ability of material to transmit fluid/gases.
The permeability is commonly tested to see if it is correct for the
casting conditions to find Permeability number permeter is used.
l Muffle furnace: A muffle furnace is front-loading box-type oven or
kiln for high temperature. It is used in many research facilities to
determine what proportion of a sample is non-combustible and non-
volatile.

EMMS

EMMS is an abbreviation for Electrical Mechanical Machine Shop.

The preparation of specimen for testing, tools for machining, and cross section
of wheels are done here. Operations such as grinding, turning, milling, and
finishing are carried out.

TOOLS

Single point cutting tool: A single point cutting tool is a simplest type consisting of
a single effective cutting edge that removes the excess material from the work
piece. Lathe tool (chamfering tool, parting tool, facing tool, etc.), shaper tools
(tools used in shaping machine), planer tools, boring tools etc are the examples of
single point cutting tool.

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Multipoint cutting tool: A multipoint cutting tool has more than one cutting edge
and includes milling cutters, drill bit, reamers, broachers, grinding wheel etc.

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Chip removal process:

When the cutting tool is forced to move against the work piece, the tool exerts a
compressive force on the work piece. The material of the work piece is stressed
beyond its yield point causing it to deform plastically and shear off. The sheared
portion of the metal begins to flow along the cutting tool face in the form of small
pieces called chips.

Three different types of chips are formed, they are

l Continuous chips
l Continuous chips with built up edge
l Discontinuous chips

TURNING (LATHE)

Turning is a machining process used for the generation of external cylindrical and
conical surfaces on a rotating work piece by means of a single point traversing
cutting tool. The process is usually performed on a lathe, wherein a single point
cutting tool is fed against a rotating work piece. Both the work piece and the tool
are held rigidly on the lathe.

l Turret lathe is used for the preparation of cope and drag mould.

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MILLING

Milling is a manufacturing process in which the excess material from the work
piece is removed by a rotating multi point cutting tool called milling cutter. In
milling, the cutter is held in the spindle of the machine and made to rotate at
suitable speeds. The work piece, which is held rigidly by a suitable device is fed
slowly against the rotating cutter. As the work piece advances against the rotating
cutter, each tooth of the cutter removes metal from the surface of the work piece
to produce the desired shape.

Milling machines are preferred for small and medium sized jobs and are used for
producing flat, angular or curved surfaces for cutting threads, toothed gears,
keyways, slots and wide variety of operations.82

GRINDING

Grinding is a process of removing excess material from the work piece by the
mechanical action of abrasive particles that are held together by an adhesive,
generally in the form of solid wheel. The wheel known as grinding wheel is
rotated at high speeds, and when the surface of the rotating wheel is brought in
contact with the work piece, material is removed in the form of fine chips. The
depth of cut is obtained by downward movement of the grinding wheel. The
process removes very little material in the form of fine chips when compared to
that of turning, milling or drilling, and this makes it to be called a finishing
process. Grinding is employed to produce a work piece of high accuracy and
surface finish.

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Spectro Lab

The testing of sample that has to be further used or subjected for wheel
manufacture is done at the spectro lab. The sample (solidified metal) for testing is
obtained from the electric arc furnace to determine the composition of various
metal constituents within the required range.

The instrument or tester used for this purpose is ARL Metal Analyzer (M-402
optical emission spectrometer).

ARL Metal Analyzer (M-402 optical emission spectrometer)

PRINCIPLE: The principle of optical emission spectrometry involves applying


electrical energy in the form of spark generated between an electrode (tungsten)
and a metal sample, whereby the vaporized atoms are brought to a high energy
state within a so called discharge plasma.

WORKING: The polished sample is placed between two tungsten electrodes and
an arc is struck. In doing so the electrons are excited. Inductively coupled plasma
(ICP) is used as an excitation source. Optical emission refers to emission using
spark discharge, direct current arc discharge or glow discharge for generating the
excitation discharge. This method involves statistical processing of the spark pulse
generated emission spectra obtained from spark discharges in an inert (argon)
atmosphere.

The excited atoms and ions in the discharge plasma create a unique emission
spectrum specific to each element. Thus, a single element generates numerous
characteristic emission spectral lines. Therefore the light generated by the
discharge can be said to be a collection of the spectral lines generated by the
elements in the sample. This light is split by a diffraction grating to extract the
emission spectrum for the target elements. The intensity of each emission
spectrum depends on the concentration of the element in the sample. Detectors
(photo multiplier tubes) measure the presence or absence of the spectrum
extracted for each element and the intensity of the spectrum to perform
qualitative and quantitative analysis of the elements. After detecting, the
concentration of each element in the sample is displayed.

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The following element compositions are acquired:
l Carbon
l Manganese
l Silicon
l Phosphorous
l Sulphur
l Chromium
l Nickel
l Copper
l Molybdenum
l Aluminum
l Vanadium
l Lead
l Titanium
l Tin

The optical emission spectrometer offers rapid elemental analysis of solid metal
samples, making it indispensable for quality control in steel making processes.
It offers fast and accurate metal analysis.

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ADVANTAGES/BENEFITS:

l Stability, accuracy, precision and low detection limits.


l Robustness and reliability.
l Easy integration to increase productivity.

HYDROGEN TESTING MACHINE:

The presence of hydrogen and other supplementary gases is tested using


this machine. The working principle is based on Wheatstone bridge.

A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure an unknown


electrical resistance. It consists of four resistors where three resistors of known
resistances are used to determine the unknown resistance. At the point of
balance the ratio of the opposite resistances are equal.

In working, nitrogen gas is constantly supplied for same resistance in all


arms. Where the gas pass through Anhydrone. Based on normal distribution,
the constant rate of hydrogen diffusion is determined.

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