1.

CONTOURS:

Surveyors and engineers use contours to obtain an accurate quantitative representation of

the terrain. Because planimetric features and contours are located simultaneously in most
field topographic surveys, it is important to understand contours and their characteristics
before discussing the various field procedures used to position them.

A contour line is a imaginary line which connects points

of equal elevation. Such lines are drawn on the plan of an
area after establishing reduced levels of several points in
the area. The contour lines in an area are drawn keeping
difference in elevation of between two consecutive lines
constant. For example, Fig. 1 shows contours in an area
with contour interval of 1 m. On contour lines the level of Fig. 1
lines is also written. For a better understanding, water in a lake can be assumed a level
surface, so the shoreline is an apparent contour line.

On maps, contours represent the planimetric locations of the traces of level surfaces for
different elevations. Contours are drawn on maps by interpolating between points whose
positions and elevations have been observed and plotted. Computerized mapping and
contouring systems are replacing manual plotting methods, but the principles of plotting
terrain points and of interpolating contours are still basically the same in either method.

1.1. CONTOUR INTERVAL:

The vertical distance between consecutive level surfaces forming the contours on a map
(the elevation difference represented between adjacent contours) is called the contour
interval. For the small-scale U.S. Geological Survey quadrangle maps (plotted at 1:24,000
scale), depending on the nature of the terrain one of the following contour intervals is
used: 5, 10, 20, 40, or 80 ft. For larger-scale
maps used in engineering design, in the
English system of units contour intervals of 1,
2, 5, or 10 ft are commonly used. In the metric
system, a contour interval of 0.5, 1, 2, 5, or 10
m is generally selected. Figure 17.2 is a
topographic map having 10-ft contours.

CONTOURS 1
CONTOURS 2
1.2. CHOICE OF CONTOUR INTERVAL:

The contour interval selected depends on a map’s purpose and scale, and upon the
diversity of relief in the area. As examples, on a map to be used for designing the streets
and water and sewer systems for a subdivision, a contour interval of 1 or 2 ft would
perhaps be necessary, whereas a 10- or 20-ft contour interval may be suitable for
mapping a large ravine to determine the reservoir capacity that would result from
constructing a dam. Also, a smaller contour interval will normally be necessary to
adequately depict gently rolling terrain with only moderate elevation differences, while
rugged areas with large elevation differences normally require a larger contour interval so
that the contours do not become too congested on the map. In general, reducing the
contour interval requires more costly and precise fieldwork. In regions where both flat
coastal areas and mountainous terrain are included in a map, supplementary contours, at
one half or one fourth the basic contour interval, are often drawn (and shown with
dashed lines).Spot elevations are used on maps to mark unique or critical points such as
peaks, potholes, valleys, streams, and highway crossings. They may also be used in lieu of
contours for defining elevations on relatively flat terrain that extends over a large area.
Topographic mapping convention calls for drawing only those contours that are evenly
divisible by the contour interval. Thus, for the 10-ft contour interval on the map in Figure
17.2, contours such as the 1100, 1110, 1120, and 1130 are shown. Elevations are shown
in breaks in the contour lines, and to avoid confusion, at least every fifth contour is
labeled. To aid in reading topographic maps, every fifth contour (each that is evenly
divisible by five times the contour interval) is drawn using a heavier line. Thus, in Figure
17.2, the 1100, 1150, 1200, and so on contours are drawn more heavily.

1.3. CONTOUR CHARACTERISTICS:

Although each contour line in nature has a unique shape, all contours adhere to a set of
general characteristics. Important ones, fundamental to their proper field location and
correct plotting, are listed.
1. Contour lines must close on themselves, either on or off a map. They cannot dead end.
2. Contours are perpendicular to the direction of maximum slope.
3. The slope between adjacent contour lines is assumed to be uniform. (Thus, it is
necessary that breaks (changes) in grade be located in topographic surveys.)
4. The distance between contours indicates the steepness of a slope. Wide separation
denotes gentle slopes; close spacing, steep slopes; even and parallel spacing, uniform
slope.
5. Irregular contours signify rough, rugged country. Smooth lines imply more uniformly
rolling terrain.

CONTOURS 3
 6. Concentric closed contours that increase in elevation represent hills. A contour forming
a closed loop around lower ground is called a depression contour (Spot elevations and
hachures inside the lowest contour and pointing to the bottom of a hole or sink with no
outlet make map reading easier.)
7. Contours of different elevations never meet except on a vertical surface such as a wall,
cliff, or natural bridge. They cross only in the rare case of a cave or overhanging shelf.
Knife-edge conditions are never found in natural formations.
8. A contour cannot branch into two contours of the same elevation.
9. Contour lines crossing a stream point upstream and form V’s; they point down the
ridge and form U’s when crossing a ridge crest.
10. Contour lines go in pairs up valleys and along the sides of ridge tops.
11. A single contour of a given elevation cannot exist between two equalheight contours
of higher or lower elevation. For example, an 820-ft contour cannot exist alone between
two 810- or two 830-ft contours.
12. Cuts and fills for earth dams, levees, highways, railroads, canals, etc., produce straight
or geometrically curved contour lines with uniform, or uniformly graduated spacing.
Contours cross sloping or crowned streets in typical V- or U-shaped lines.

Keeping these characteristics in mind will (1) make it easier to visualize contours when
looking at an area, (2) assist in selecting the best array of points to locate in the field
when conducting a topographic survey, and (3) prevent serious mistakes in drawing
contours.

2. METHODS OF LOCATING CONTOURS:

Contours can be established by either the direct method (trace-contour method) or the
indirect method (controlling-point method). The controlling-point method is generally
more convenient and faster, and therefore it is most often selected. It is also the most
frequent choice when data is entered into a computer for automated contouring. These
two methods are described in the subsections that follow.

2.1. DIRECT METHOD:

It consists in finding vertical and horizontal controls of the points which lie on the selected
contour line.

For vertical control leveling instrument is commonly used. A level is set on a commanding
position in the area after taking fly levels from the nearby bench mark. The plane of
collimation/height of instrument is found and the required staff reading for a contour line
CONTOURS 4
 is calculated. The instrument man asks staff man to move up and down in the area till the
required staff reading is found. A surveyor establishes the horizontal control of that point
using his instruments. After that instrument man directs the staff man to another point
where the same staff reading can be found. It is followed by establishing horizontal
control. Thus several points are established on a contour line on one or two contour lines
and suitably noted down. Plane table survey is ideally suited for this work. After required
points are established from the instrument setting, the instrument is shifted to another
point to cover more area. The level and survey instrument need not be shifted at the
same time. It is better if both are nearby so as to communicate easily. For getting speed in
leveling sometimes hand level and Abney levels are also used. This method is slow,
tedious but accurate. It is suitable for small areas

2.2. INDIRECT METHODS:

In this method, levels are taken at some selected points and their levels are reduced. Thus
in this method horizontal control is established first and then the levels of those points
found. After locating the points on the plan, reduced levels are marked and contour lines
are interpolated between the selected points.

For selecting points anyone of the following methods may be used:

(a) Method of squares,

(b) Method of cross-section, or

(c) Radial line method.

2.2.1. Method of Squares: In this

method area is divided into a
number of squares and all grid
points are marked (Ref. Fig. 2).

Commonly used size of square varies

from 5 m × 5 m to 20 m × 20 m.
Levels of all grid points are
established by leveling. Then grid Fig. 2

CONTOURS 5
square is plotted on the drawing sheet. Reduced levels of grid points marked and contour
lines are drawn by interpolion [Ref. Fig. 2].

2.2.2. Method of Cross-section: In this method cross-sectional points are taken at regular
interval. By leveling the reduced level of all those points are established. The points are
marked on the drawing sheets, their reduced levels (RL) are marked and contour lines
interpolated.

Fig. 3

Figure 2 shows a typical planning of this work. The spacing of cross-section depends upon
the nature of the ground, scale of the map and the contour interval required. It varies
from 20 m to 100 m. Closer intervals are required if ground level varies abruptly. The
cross- sectional line need not be always
being at right angles to the main line. This
method is ideally suited for road and
railway projects.

2.2.3. Radial Line Method: [Fig. 4]. In this

method several radial lines are taken from
a point in the area. The direction of each
line is noted. On these lines at selected
distances points are marked and levels
determined. This method is ideally suited
for hilly areas. In this survey theodolite with Fig. 4
tacheometry facility is commonly used.

CONTOURS 6
For interpolating contour points between the two points any one of the following method
may be used:

(a) Estimation

(b) Arithmetic calculation

(c) Mechanical or graphical method.

Mechanical or graphical method of interpolation consists in linearly interpolating contour

points using tracing sheet:

On a tracing sheet several parallel lines are drawn at regular interval. Every 10th or 5th
line is made darker for easy counting. If RL of A is 97.4 and that of B is 99.2 m. Assume the
bottom most dark line represents. 97 m RL and every parallel line is at 0.2 m intervals.
Then hold the second parallel line on A. Rotate the tracing sheet so that 100.2 the parallel
line passes through point B. Then the intersection of dark lines on AB represents the
points on 98 m and 99 m contours [Ref. Fig. 4]. Similarly the contour points along any line
connecting two neighboring points may be obtained and the points pricked. This method
maintains the accuracy of arithmetic calculations at the same time it is fast.

Fig. 5

After locating contour points smooth contour lines are drawn connecting corresponding
points on a contour line. French curves may be used for drawing smooth lines. A surveyor
should not lose the sight of the characteristic feature on the ground. Every fifth contour

CONTOURS 7
 line is made thicker for easy readability. On every contour line its elevation is written. If
the map size is large, it is written at the ends also

3. USES OF CONTOUR MAPS:

Contour maps are extremely useful for various engineering works:

1. A civil engineer studies the contours and finds out the nature of the ground to
identify. Suitable site for the project works to be taken up.
2. By drawing the section in the plan, it is possible to find out profile of the ground
along that line. It helps in finding out depth of cutting and filling, if formation level
of road/railway is decided.
3. Intervisibility of any two points can be found by drawing profile of the ground along
that line.
4. The routes of the railway, road, canal or sewer lines can be decided so as to
minimize and balance earthworks.
5. Catchment area and hence quantity of water flow at any point of nalla or river can
be found. This study is very important in locating bunds, dams and also to find out
flood levels.
6. From the contours, it is possible to determine the capacity of a reservoir.

4. REFERENCES:

1. Elementary Surveying: An Introduction To Geomatics, 13th edition, Charles D. Ghilani

& Paul R. Wolf

2. http://theconstructor.org/surveying/contour-maps-uses/6441/

3. http://theconstructor.org/surveying/methods-of-contouring/6451/

CONTOURS 8