Introduction To Petroleum Engineering

Gubkin State University of Oil and Gas
Basics of oil and gas
Fabrizio La Vita
Drilling Department
flav986@gmail.com
Moscow 12/15
1
Oil & Gas Industry Characteristics
• Large investment, can reach billion of US$.

• High risk in all aspects (people safety,
environment, investment, reputation).
• High reward/return.
• Long term business from initial investment until
revenue generated, even longer until break even
point (can be more than 20 years).
• Complex operation, involves multi discipline
experts from both technical and non-technical.
• Strategic value (economic & politic).
• Global impact.
2
Oil & Gas Industry Sectors
Upstream
Midstream
Downstream
Finding, lifting, and
processing oil & gas from Transportation and Further processing of
subsurface into surface and storage of crude oil and crude oil and natural gas
ready for transportation. natural gas from E&P into useful final product
Also known as exploration plant for further or raw material for
and Production (E&P). processing by pipeline, other industry.
railway, road, or tanker. Also known as Refining
& Marketing (R&M)
3
Upstream Oil & Gas Life Cycle
LICENSING
• Activities to offer the right to manage an area (block) which is expected to contain
oil & gas
EXPLORATION
• Activities to search for oil & gas deposits on the reservoir beneath the earth
surface within block’s boundary
APPRAISAL
• Activities to define the oil & gas volume and characteristic more precisely after
discovery
DEVELOPMENT
• Activities to build the subsurface & surface facilities to produce oil & gas safely &
efficiently
PRODUCTION
• Activities to extract, process, and export oil & gas as per contract agreement
ABANDONMENT
• Activities to plug wells permanently, remove surface facilities, and restore the
block as per initial state
4
Licensing Round
• Government has the area (including oil & gas beneath the surface) but no
resource (money, man power, technology), while Oil Company have the resource,
but not the area.
• Government, via host authority (government regulatory body or national oil

company) will offer certain area known as “block” to oil companies in an activity
called “Licensing Round.”
• Government will offer raw data & petroleum agreement to attract oil companies
to invest for exploration & production (E&P) activities.
• Oil companies will compete each other in a bidding / tender stage to obtain the
right for E&P in a certain block. The winner will be granted the right (contract) to
manage E&P activities in a certain period and get compensation based on the
agreement.
• In this stage, government need to attract investment by offering “interesting

package” while keep protecting the national interest.
5
Exploration & Appraisal
EXPLORATION APPRAISAL
• Activities to find oil & gas prospect • It is required to determine the
beneath the earth surface by means reservoir size which define the volume &
of gravity survey, magnetic survey, to get better characteristic of oil & gas.
and seismic reflection survey.
• Volume will be measured in million
• Once prospect is likely to be found, barrels (MMbbls) oil and billion cubic
exploration (wildcat) drilling will be feet (Bcf) gas, both original in place
conducted to determine the presence volume (Oil Initial In Place / OIIP and Gas
of oil & gas reserve. Initial In Place / GIIP) & recoverable
volume.
• Most wildcat drilling fail to find oil &
gas (dry hole), only few (less than • Important characteristic includes
25%) hits oil & gas layer (discovery). pressure, temperature, oil viscosity,
hydrocarbon composition,
• After discovery, more drilling is compartmentalization, and
required to “appraise” the reservoir. contaminants.
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Reserve Type
Once appraisal conducted, it will determine the quantity of petroleum which can be recovered /
produced. Typically, only 30% of oil and 70% of gas can be recovered, can be more if advance
technique applied like water injection & submersible pump.
• Proved (1P) : Quantities of oil and gas, which, by analysis of geoscience and engineering data,
can be estimated with reasonable certainty to be economically producible–from a given date
forward, from known reservoirs, and under existing economic conditions, operating methods,
and government regulations. At least 90% probability (P90) that the quantities actually
recovered will be equal or exceed the estimate.
• Unproved : Reserves are based on technical data similar to that used in estimates of proved
reserves; but technical, contractual, economic, or regulatory uncertainties preclude such
reserves being classified as proved. Unproved reserves may be further classified as probable
reserves and possible reserves.
– Possible (2P) : Unproved reserves which analysis of technical data suggests are more likely
than not to be recoverable. At least a 50% probability (P50) that the quantities actually
recovered will equal or exceed the sum of estimated proved plus probable reserves.
– Probable (3P) : Unproved reserve which analysis of technical data suggests are less likely to
be recoverable than probable reserves. At least a 10% probability (P10) that the quantities
actually recovered will equal or exceed the sum of estimated proved plus probable plus possible
reserves. 7
Field Development Plan (FDP)
Once the estimated recoverable value is determined, the Company will prepare a plan to
monetize the reserve, called Field Development Plan / Plan of Development (PoD).
• FDP shall contain at least :

Subsurface characteristic (OIIP, GIIP, contaminants, etc)
Recoverable reserve in P90-P50-P10
Production Rate & Field Life
Production Facilities (number & type of wells, surface facilities type)
Project Plan (including Cost, Schedule, Quality)
Project Economics
Other aspects like Risk, Health Safety Environment (HSE)
• FDP shall be approved by the host authority. Once approved, the Company will conduct a
tender for facilities development.
• In the same time, Company will secure the hydrocarbon sales, especially gas, known as
Gas Sales Agreement (GSA). While for oil, it will be absorbed by the market as per oil price
trend.
• Once the GSA secured and cost of development known from proposed tender price, the
Company will further calculate the project economic. If it meet the criteria, the Company
will sanction (commit to invest money) the project, known as Final Investment Decision 8
(FID)
Production Period
Plateau phase
Production rate
Tertiary
Primary recovery
recovery
Secondary
recovery
Time
• Typical production phase start with ramp up period (increase production rate up to
peak, normally less than a year), then plateau (maintain peak for several years, for oil
production normally less than 5 years while for gas production between 5 to 10 years),
then declining until reach economic limit (timing when operating cost is higher than
production revenue) or end of contractual period.
• Plateau & decline phase can be extended by applying secondary recovery (i.e. gas
injection & water injection) and tertiary recovery (i.e. chemical injection & steam
injection), however cost to benefit ratio must be carefully calculated since
secondary/tertiary recovery is more expensive than primary recovery.
9
Abandonment
• The last phase in upstream life cycle is

abandonment.
• The activities comprises well plug &

abandonment (P&A) and surface facilities
removal.
• Well must be permanently closed and ealed,

so no more hydrocarbon can escape to the
surface.
• Surface facilities must be removed until few

meter below seabed, or left on the seabed as
an artificial reef after free hydrocarbon
condition reached.
• Site must be restore to as close as its original

condition.
10
Composition and physical properties of hydrocarbons
Petroleum is a naturally occurring liquid, gaseous or solid mix, composed

principally of hydrocarbons, that accumulates in underground reservoirs.
Natural
Gas Bitumen
Black Oil
From point of view of the chemistry

• Hydrocarbon: any organic compound – gaseous, liquid or solid –
consisting solely of carbon (C) and hydrogen (H)
In petroleum industry practice

• Both hydrocarbon and petroleum are used to indicate a mixture of natural
hydrocarbons, usually with other minor components. Petroleum occurs in the
subsurface as gas (dry and wet gas), liquid (crude oil, condensate), or
semisolid, or mutual solutions of these
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Composition and physical properties of hydrocarbons
Physical properties of a petroleum fluid are determined by its composition, and

they vary as function of Temperature and Pressure.
The temperature and pressure change relative to the reservoir conditions, during
production where the pressure is lowered to fulfil transport, and storage condition
T > 200° C P = 150MPa
Changing in pressure lead to a change in the state of the mixture from a single
phase state to a two-phase state.
12
Origin, migration and accumulation of petroleum
HOW DOES PETROLEUM ORIGINATE?
13
As a general rule, the origin of petroleum is never in the reservoir accumulation

from which it is produced. Instead, petroleum have experienced a long series of
processes prior to accumulation in the reservoir.
Oil and gas are generated by the thermal degradation of kerogen in the source
beds (Kerogen is the organic matter that occurs into the source rocks, insoluble in
organic solvents).
With increasing burial, the temperature in these rocks rises and, above a
certain threshold temperature, the chemically labile portion of the kerogen
begins to transform into petroleum compounds.
Petroleum accumulation forms in sedimentary basins and can be discovered by

exploration.
14
15
ELEMENT
• Source Rock
• Reservoir Rock
• Migration Path
• Seal
• Trap
PROCESSES
1. Petroelum Generation
2. Petroelum Migration –
Primary
3. Petroelum Migration –
Secondary
4. Petroelum Accumulation in
trap and its preservation
5. Seepage of petroleum at
Eart’s surface as consqeunce
of fracturing of cap rock
16
1. Occurrence of source rocks which generate petroleum under proper subsurface

temperature conditions
2. Sediment compaction leading to expulsion of petroleum from the source into

reservoir ( primary migration)
3. Occurrence of reservoir rocks of sufficient porosity and permeability allowing flow

the petroleum through the pore system (secondary migration)
4. Structural configurations of sedimentary strata whereby the reservoir rocks form

traps, in order to contain the accumulation of petroleum under the subsurface.
17
5. Traps are sealed above by an impermeable sediment layer defined cap rock, in order
to keep petroleum accumulation in place
6. Correct timing respect to the process of generation, migration and trap formation
has occurred during the history of a sedimentary basin
7. Favorable conditions for the preservation of petroleum accumulation during an

extended period of geological time without any destructive phenomena like:
fracturing of cap rock, dissipation of accumulation, cracking of oil into gas
18
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS AND PROCESSES
ELEMENT
• Source Rock
• Reservoir Rock
• Migration Path
• Seal
• Trap
PROCESSES
1. Petroelum Generation
2. Petroelum Migration – Primary
3. Petroelum Migration – Secondary
4. Petroelum Accumulation in trap and its preservation
5. Seepage of petroleum at Eart’s surface as consqeunce
of fracturing of cap rock
19
Source rock: a sedimentary rock with a sufficient amount of suitable organic matter to
generate and expel commercial quantities of hydrocarbons.
SILICLASTIC ROCKS
(clay-rich)
Mudstones, Shales
A petroleum source rock is characterized by:
 sufficient content of finely dispersed organic matter of biological origin;
 this organic matter must be of a specific composition, i.e. hydrogen-rich;
The source rock must be buried at certain depths and subjected to proper subsurface
temperatures in order to initiate the process of petroleum generation by the thermal
degradation of kerogen.
20
Sedimentary rocks
 Mud Rocks:
Mudstone (also called mud rock) is a fine grained sedimentary
rock whose original constituents were clays or muds.
With increased pressure over time the platy clay minerals

may become aligned, with the appearance of facility or parallel
layering.
This finely bedded material that splits readily into thin layers is
called shale, as distinct from mudstone. Mud rocks, such as
mudstone and shale comprise some 70% of all sedimentary
rocks.
• Clay & Clay Stone
• Mud & Mudstone
• Argillite
• Slat Clay stone
• Shale (formed from clay that is compacted together by
pressure)
• Loess
• Organic Rich Mud rock
• Siltstone
Shale 21
Reservoir rock: a rock in which oil and gas accumulates; a rock having sufficient porosity
and permeability to store and transmit petroleum fluids.
CLASTIC ROCKS CARBONATE ROCKS
Sandstone Limestone, Dolomite
Most hydrocarbons accumulate in clastic rocks which also contain most of the reserves in
the largest known reservoirs. Reservoirs are located mostly in sands that have undergone
varying degrees of cementation; cemented sands are called sandstone.
Carbonate rocks too, can contain large hydrocarbon reservoirs, especially those that have
undergone dolomitization, which determines a notable increase in porosity and
permeability. The sedimentation environments of rocks of chemical origin are mainly
marine and the result of evaporation.
22
Sedimentary rocks
Types of Sediments:
1. Terrigenous clastic 4. Ironstones

sediments 5. Phosphate deposits
2. Carbonate Rocks 6. Siliceous sediments
3. Evaporites 7. Volcanic Rocks
1‐Terrigenous Clastic Sediments

 Sandstones:
Sandstone (sometimes known as Arenite) is a sedimentary
rock composed mainly of sand‐sized minerals or rock grains.
Most sandstone is composed of quartz and/or feldspar
because these are the most common minerals in the Earth's
crust.
• Black Sandstone: if Sand contain Tin Oxide
• Argillaceous S.S.: if Sand contain Clay
• Calcareous S.S.: if Sand contain CaCO3
Grain Supported Sandstones: (Arenite)
 Arenite
 Arkosic Arenite
 Lith Arenite Phyll Arenite
 Calc Lithite 23
Sedimentary rocks
2‐Carbonate Sediments
 Limestone
Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed largely of the
mineral calcite. Like most other sedimentary rocks,
limestones are comprised of grains. Other carbonate grains
comprising limestones are oids, peloids, intraclasts, and
extraclasts. Some limestones do not consist of grains at
all and are formed completely by the chemical precipitation
of calcite or aragonite. Limestone
 Dolomite
Composed of calcium magnesium carbonate
CaMg(CO3)2 (known as magnesium L.S)
Dolomite
24
Seal (Cap) rock: a rock or a fault that prevent upward migration of hydrocarbons acting like
a barrier. Their usual concave shape prevent lateral migration of hydrocarbons.
Clay, Evaporites rocks ( Anhydrite) and salt are an excellent cap rock
To be assumed as an effective cap rock, rock’s permeability must be less than 104 Darcys
without interconnected pores. Cap rocks are more efficient if the hydrocarbon is in liquid
state. For gas hydrocarbons, if the rock is slightly permeable with porous filled with water,
the gas will gradually displace water and spread through the cap. 25
Sedimentary rocks
3 - Evaporites
Evaporites are water‐soluble mineral sediments that result from the evaporation of water.
Evaporites are considered sedimentary rocks.
 Gypsum
It is a major rock forming mineral that produces massive beds,
usually from precipitation out of highly saline waters,
composed of calcium sulfate dehydrate, with the chemical
formula CaSO4∙2H2O
 Anhydrite
From aqueous solution calcium sulfate is deposited as crystals
of gypsum, but when the solution contains an excess of Gypsum
sodium or potassium chloride anhydrite is deposited if
temperature is above 40°C.
Chemical formula: CaSO4
 Halite
It is commonly known as rock salt. Halite forms isometric
crystals. The mineral is typically colorless or white It
commonly occurs with other evaporite deposit minerals such
as several of the sulfates,halides, and borates.
Anhydrite
Chemical formula: NaCl
26
Hydrocarbons trap: A configuration of rocks suitable for containing hydrocarbons and

sealed by a relatively impermeable formation through which hydrocarbons will not migrate.
Traps are divided into three types: structural, stratigraphic, and mixed
Structural traps It is formed where the space of petroleum is limited by a structural feature
 Anticline traps: trap whose closure is

controlled by the presence of an anticline.
 Fault trap: in which closure is controlled

by the presence of at least one fault
surface.
27
 Salt domes traps: Salt domes traps are

caused when plastic salt is forced upwards
through layers
Stratigraphic traps: It is the trap created by the limits of reservoir rock itself, without
any structural control.
It is formed by changes in rock type or pinch-outs, unconformities, or sedimentary
features such as reefs.
Pinch-out trap: The termination by thinning or

tapering out ("pinching out") of a
reservoir against a nonporous sealing rock
creates a favorable geometry to trap
hydrocarbons.
28
Unconformity trap: trap whose closure is
controlled by the presence of an
unconformity.
Reef trap: sedimentary rock, most commonly

produced by organisms that secrete shells such
as corals. Because the rocks that surround reefs
can differ in composition and permeability,
porous reefs can form stratigraphic traps for
hydrocarbons.
29
Physical parameters of a reservoir rock
A reservoir is characterized by different physical parameters. Temperature, pressure,

gas saturation, porosity and permeability characterize fluids characterization and their
phase.
The mentioned factors come into play in the development of a reservoir and interact
with one another. For example a change in temperature or pressure can determine a
change of phase.
Temperature varies directly with depth. The geothermic gradient (on average, 1°C every
30 m of depth) is influenced by geographic location and other local factors such as the
possible presence of volcanic activity or the flow of underground waters.
Reference temperatures are often obtained during drilling or production, and they are
largely influenced by those operations. In these conditions, the temperature of the
sediment and of the fluid it contains are not in equilibrium, and the measured gradient
is lower than the real one.
30
The minimum pressure of a reservoir is the hydrostatic one . That value is hardly ever
reached in practice as a result of the presence of the lithostatic (or geostatic) load of the
superposed sediments, which influences the bottom hole pressures and always produces
higher gradient values, usually of about 1.5 atm
Gas saturation. The oil in the subsurface always contains a certain percentage of
dissolved gas.
If it is greater than the amount of gas soluble in oil at the existing temperature and
pressure, the gravity force causes the gas to concentrate towards the summit (gas cap).
If the percentage of dissolved gas is lower, the gas remains in solution until a decrease in
pressure (production phase). The gas cap hydrocarbons facilitates the extraction of oil
which rises towards the surface as a result of the push effect when the gas expands (gas
drive).
31
Porosity (total porosity) is the percentage of pore volume or void space, or that volume
within rock that can contain fluids
Porosity is determined by the totality of empty spaces present in the reservoir rock(pores,
but also by empty spaces, interstices or fractures, that intersect the rock.)
Φ= Vpor/ Vtot
32
Effective porosity (or efficient) is represented by the volume of the pores in which the
fluid is also effectively able to flow. Pumice, for example, which has a total porosity of
more than 50%, has no effective porosity; the pores it contains are not interconnected
and fluids are therefore unable to infiltrate and penetrate it.
Porosity can vary considerably inside a reservoir rock, both vertically and laterally, as a
function of variations in the nature of the rock itself because, it is in influenced by the
sedimentation environment in space (lateral variation) and over time (vertical variation).
It is primary, when formed during the deposition of the sedimentary rock, or secondary,
as result either of chemical processes, or physical processes
33
Permeability is the property that allows fluids to pass through rock . It is a characteristic of
the porous media and give the measure of the productive capacity of a reservoir due to
the fluids flowing rock by filtration through pores (permeability by porosity) or by direct
transmission through discontinuities. It is measured in Darcy. Darcy measures the fluid
flows through the medium in laminar regime at the flow rate of 1 cm/s per cm2 under p =
1 atm per cm.
Absolute Permeability is the measure of the media permeability when it is present a fluid
in the rock. It depend by the characteristics of the rock.
Effective Permeability is ability of the rock to transmit a particular fluid respect to another
when they are both present in the porous media at the same time
34
Relative Permeability is the ratio between absolute permeability and effective permeability.
It assumes values between 0 and 1. I t measure the capacity of a fluid to flow respect in the
media, respect to an other
Knowing the permeability value during the evaluaton process of a reservoir allow to :
 To evaluate the pressure variation into the reservoir
 Define the mobile ratio λ= keff/μ
 Variation of mobile ration affect the capacity of the fluids to move in vertial or horizontal
direction inside the reservoir, facilitating the mobility of a fluid respect to another
35
Water drive
The reserovir is limited below or lateral by an aquifer which replace the volume of
hydrocarbons during production by soustaining the pressure inside the reserovir. The oil
recovery is 30 -60 %
The production of hydrocarbons is considered secondary when it occurs due to the water
flooding or gas injection for pressure maintenance
A displacement process occurs when fluid in place is removed by another fluid

(water or gas).
It can be natural or artificial through external injection of water or gas to enhance the
recovery of oil.
RF= 40 -50 %
36
The term drilling indicates the whole complex of operations necessary to construct wells
of circular section applying excavation techniques not requiring direct access by man.
Why drilling a well?

• To gain information (e.g. Exploration & Appraisal wells)
• To produce hydrocarbons or support their production through Injection of gas and

liquids
 Safety Zero accidents in a harsh and hazardous environment
 Environment Zero pollution
 Team-work Multi-tasks, works with Service Companies
 Adaptation Activities in different countries
 Decisions Diagnostic following drilling hazards must be done immediately;

High requirements for decision-making and work execution
 Context
In continuous evolution; depends mainly on oil price.
(economics)
More and more complex and difficult to discover
 Reservoirs 37
Development process
EXPLORATION
DELINEATION
STUDIES
Geoscience DEVELOPMENT
PRODUCTION
studies Technico –
economical
studies
Drilling
Drilling Drilling Drilling activities including activities
Well test Devel wells Wells maintenance/ including
WO Infill drilling Wells P&A
decommissioning
Investment Site restoration

decision
FIRST OIL END OF PRODUCTION?

DISCOVERY
% of total (approx) 50 to 65 % (approx) 35 to 50 %

cost
(approx)
(approx) 2 to 4 years (approx) 10 to 15 years ??
2 years (approx) 1 to 3 years
38
Onshore project Offshore project
Drilling = Drilling =
30%
1014 MUSD 1324 MUSD 22%
9380 MUSD
1400 10000
9000
1200 Other costs
Other costs
8000
1000 7000 Drilling

Drilling
6000
MUSD
MUSD
800
5000 SSPS
O Package 4 O
D 600 D 4000
M M
SURF
400 3000
2000
200 Package 3
1000 FPSO
Package 2
0 Package 1&5 0
Initial budget Initial budget
39
NO TO COPY -- N
Drilling phases
EXPLORATION
• WILDCAT: Prospect in an area where no hydrocarbons have been produced.
Uncertainty(ies) still exist i.e.: source rock, migration path, traps…(well drilled on
geological basin studies)
• EXPLORATOR: Site selection is based on seismic data (well drilled on a “prospect”)
drilling data in the prospective horizon are not known
APPRAISAL
• APPRAISAL: Delineates the reservoir’s boundaries; wells drilled to evaluate a
discovery and/or results of tests on exploratory well
DEVELOPMENT
• PRODUCTION: To produce hydrocarbons
• INJECTION: For hydrocarbon secondary recovery
MAINTANANCE
• WORKOVER: for maintenance of the well integrity or the maintenance of
“well performance”.
ABANDONMENT
• When a well becomes uneconomic the wells team return to install downhole
cement plugs to isolate hydrocarbon zones and the wellhead is removed.
40
 Depth reference
 Measure Depth (MD) is the
distance measured along the
course of the borehole from
the surface reference point
 TrueVertical Dept (TVD) is

the vertical distance
calculate from the surface
reference point
 TVD and MD can be the

same only in vertical well
 In practice, TVD is always

less than MD 42
Directional drilling
Directional drilling is controlling technique of the direction and

deviation of a wellbore to a predetermined underground target
or location.
The first controlled directionally drilled well was drilled in the

Huntington Beach Field in 1930 to tap offshore reserves from
land locations.
Directional drilling became more widely

accepted after a relief well was drilled
near Conroe, Texas in 1934.
43
Today, directional drilling is an integral part of the petroleum
industry.
It enables oil companies to produce reserves that would not
be possible without directional drilling.
44
Directional wells are commonly drilled …

For increasing well productivity (horizontal, multilateral
wells)
To gain access to remaining reserves from new wells or

re-entries requiring
Complex directional profiles
 For a reduction of the number of wells
 for a reduction of the $ / bbl

45
 Inclination Reference
Inclination (α) is the angle, measured in

degrees, by which the wellbore or
survey-instrument axis varies from a
true vertical line.
By oilfield convention, 0° is vertical

and 90° is horizontal
46
 Directional Measurement
Hole direction is the angle (φ), measured in
degrees, of the horizontal component of
the borehole or survey-instrument axis from a
known north reference.
This reference is true north, magnetic north, or

grid north, and is measured clockwise by
convention.
Hole direction is measured in degrees and is

expressed in either azimuth (0 to 360°) or
quadrant (NE, SE,SW, NW) form
47
Directional well profiles
Common
terminology for a
no vertical well
profile
48
Main applications
49
Main applications
50
Main applications
51
Main applications
52
Main applications
53
Main applications
54
Main applications
55
Main applications
56
The using of steerable system in directional drilling allows to plan and drill wells
with complex path, involving 3-D dimensional trajectory.
This is particularly true in the case of re-drills, where old wells are sidetracked
and drilled to new targets.
57
Determining the Kick-off Point (KOP)
The selection is made by considering the geometrical well-path and the geological characteristics.
The most distant targets have the shallowest KOPs
The optimum inclination of the well is a function of the maximum permissible build rate (and drop rate if
applicable) and the location of the target.
Avoid to kick-off in unconsolidated clays formations
Determining Build and Drop Rates (DLS)
They are the rates at which the well deviates from the vertical (N-S-W-E).
• The total depth of the well. • The formations through which the build section
must pass. Higher build rates are often not
• Maximum Torque and Drag limitations. possible to achieve in soft formations Mechanical
limitations of the drill string or casing.
• High dogleg severity in the build section o results
in high torque and drag. Severe limiting factor in • Mechanical limitations of logging tools and
deeper wells. production strings.
“Optimum build/drop rates (DLS) in conventional wells vary from place to place but
are commonly in the range of 1.5° to 3° per 100 ft (30m).”
Tangent angle of the well (or drift angle)
It is the inclination (in degrees from the vertical) of the long straight section of the well after the build-up
section of the well. The tangent angle will generally be between 10° and 60° since it is difficult to control the
trajectory of the well at angles below 10° and it is difficult to run wire line tools into wells at angles greater
than 60°.
J-shape profile
Also called Deep Kick off wells
Features:
• Deep KOP
• Build-up section
• Short tangent section (optional)
Applications: Disadvantages:
• Appraisal wells to assess • Formations are harder so the
the extent of a newly initial deflection may be more
discovered reservoir difficult to achieve
• Repositioning of the • Harder to achieve desired tool

bottom part of the hole or face orientation with downhole
re-drilling motor deflection assemblies
(more reactive torque)
• Salt dome drilling
• Longer trip time for any BHA
changes required
59
S-shape profile
Features: There are several variations
- Shallow KOP - Build, hold &drop back

vertical
- Build-up section - Build, hold, drop &hold*
- Tangent section - Build, hold& continuous

drop through reservoir
- Drop-off section
Applications: Disadvantages:
• Multiple pay zones • Increased torque &

• Reduces final angle in drag
reservoir • Risk of key seating
• Lease or target • Logging problems due
limitations to inclination
• Well spacing
requirements
• Deep wells with small
horizontal
displacements
60
Extended reach well
Features:
• MD 2:1 TVD
• Shallow kick-off point (KOP)
• Build-up section (which may have more

than one build up rate)
TVD
• Tangent section
Applications:
MD • Deep wells with large horizontal
displacements
• Moderately deep wells with moderate

horizontal displacement, where
intermediate casing is not required
61
Horizontal well
1. Reduced water and gas coning because of

reduced drawdown in the reservoir for a
given production rate, thereby reducing
the remedial work required in the future.
2. Increased production rate because of the

greater wellbore length exposed to the
pay zone.
3. Reduced pressure drop around the

wellbore.
4. Lower fluid velocities around the

wellbore.
5. A general reduction in sand production

from a combination of Items 3 and 4.
6. Larger and more efficient drainage

pattern leading to increased overall
reserves recovery.
62
Horizontal well
Horizontal wells are normally characterized by
their buildup rates and are broadly classified
into four groups that dictate the drilling and
completion practices required
63
CASING SETTING DEPTH GUIDANCE
66
Casing
 Supports the walls of the hole
 Prevents the migration of fluids

from layers at high pressure to
ones at low pressure
 Eliminate circulation losses
 Protects the hole against

damages
 Acts as an anchorage for the

safety equipment
67
Casing
Conductor pipe
Surface casing
Intermediate casing
Production casing
68
Casing
Conductor pipe
• It is the first string of casing to be used.

• Depth from 10 ft to 300 ft.
• Size range from 16 to 36 inches
• Large enough to allow the other casing strings to be run through
it.
Purposes of conductor pipe are to:
• The conductor isolates unconsolidated formations and water sands

• Protects against shallow gas.
• It is usually the string onto which the casing head is installed.
• A diverter or a blowout prevention (BOP) stack may be installed onto this
string.
• When cemented, this string is typically cemented to the surface or to the
mudline in offshore wells.
69
Casing
Surface casing
• Number depends on the depth of

the unconsolidated formations
• Size range 20 inch - 13-3/8 inch
• Different grades depend on the
different well conditions (P &T)
Purposes of surface casing are to:

• Protect fresh water formations
• Seal off unconsolidated formations
and lost circulation zones
• Provide a place to install the B.O.P.
• Protect “build” sections on deviated
wells
70
Casing
Intermediate casing
• Normally from 2 to 3 and have

always decreasing size
• Sizes range 9 5/8 and 13 3/8 inch

• Isolating the formations which
can create potential hole
problems (circulation losses,
abnormal pressures, instability,
etc.)
• Permitting the installation of
higher pressure rated safety
equipment.
71
Casing
Production casing
• Size of production casing

depends on expected
production rate, the higher
production rate larger inside
diameter
• Size rate 3 - 7 inch
• Isolating producing formations

• Providing for selective
production in multi-zone
production areas.
72
Casing
Liner is a string of casing that does not reach

the surface. They are usually “hung”
(attached to the intermediate casing using an
arrangement of packers and slips) from the
base of the intermediate casing and reach to
the bottom of the hole.
The major advantage of a liner:
• Cost of the string is reduced

• Running and cementing times reduced
During the course of the well, if the liner
has to be extended to the surface
(making it another string of casing), the
string attaching the liner to the surface is
known as a “tie-back” string. 73
Pressure in wellbore
Hydrostatic pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by a column of fluid. The

pressure is a function of the average fluid density and the vertical height or depth of
the fluid column.
PH = Units Coefficient x MW x TVD
PH (in psi) = 0.052 x mud weight (ppg) x depth (ft)
or,
PH (in kg/cm2) = 0.1 x mud weight (kg/l) x depth (m)
A
Units … conversions:
feet x 0.3048 --- >meter
psi x 0.07 --- > kg/cm²
ppg x 0.12 --- > kg / l
kgf / cm² x 14.22 --- > psi
kg / l x 8.345 --- > ppg
Hydrostatic pressures can easily be converted to equivalent mud weights and

pressure gradients.
Hydrostatic pressure gradient is given by: HG = HP x 10 / D [kg/cm2/10m]
74
As said, for an adequate characterization of a formation from a pressure regime

standpoint, the following parameters have to be determined:
 Overburden Pressure, Pov

 Pore Pressure, Pp
 Fracture Pressure, Pfr
These pressures are strictly dependent one from the other. In fact, pore pressures
and overburden pressures are related between them by the compaction process
in accordance with the effective stress principle and together allow the calculation
of fracture pressures.
The overburden and pore pressures are linked together through the so called
effective pressure. It represents how the forces, due to the weight of the
sediments and acting on a certain area laying at a defined depth, are distributed
between the solid and the liquid components of the considered rock. The effective
pressure, σ or Pc, is, therefore, given by:
σ (or Pc) = Pov - Pp

Overburden or geostatic or lithostatic pressure is the pressure exerted on a

given formation by the weight of sediments having an average density
equal to ρb, that extend from the surface to the considered depth, H:
Pov = (ρb · H) / 10
where:
Pov = overburden pressure, kgF/cm2
H = depth, m
ρb = average sediment density, g/cm3
Pore Pressure, also called Formation Pressure, Pp, is the pressure of the fluid
contained in the pore spaces of the rocks.
In a sedimentary basin three categories of Pore Pressure can be encountered:
 Negative pressure anomaly (subnormal pressure or underpressure): Pp < Ph
 Normal pressure: Pp = Ph
 Positive pressure anomaly (abnormal pressure or overpressure): Pp > Ph
The timely and reliable detection and quantification of overpressures is fundamental

for safe and cost-efficient drilling operations. A great deal of efforts have to be made
to properly predict abnormally pressured formations.
77
Normal pore pressure is equal to the hydrostatic pressure of a column of formation fluid
extending from the surface to the subsurface formation being considered. Normal pore
pressure is not a constant. The magnitude of normal pore pressure varies with the
concentration of dissolved salts, type of fluid, gases present and temperature gradient
Abnormal pore pressure is defined as any pore pressure that is greater than the
hydrostatic pressure of the formation water occupying the pore space. Abnormal
pressure is sometimes called overpressure or geopressure. Abnormal pressure can be
thought of as being made up of a normal hydrostatic component plus an extra amount of
pressure. This excess pressure is the reason why surface control equipment (e.g. BOPs)
are required when drilling oil and gas wells.
Subnormal pore pressure is defined as any formation pressure that is less than the
corresponding fluid hydrostatic pressure at a given depth.
Subnormal pore pressures are encountered less frequently than abnormal pore pressures
and are often developed long after the formation is deposited. Subnormal pressures may
have natural causes related to the stratigraphic, tectonic and geochemical history of an
area, or may have been caused artificially by the production of reservoir fluids.
78
Abnormal pore pressure is developed as a result of a combination
of geological, geochemical, geophysical and mechanical process.
These causes may be summarized under:
 Depositional Effects
 Diagenetic Processes
 Tectonic Effects
 Structural Causes
 Thermodynamic Effects
79
80
Fracture Pressure is the pressure necessary to fracture a formation.

This pressure is a function of the overburden pressure, the pore
pressure and the mechanical properties of the rock matrix (expressed
by the K coefficient).
The general and empirical formula for fracture gradient is:
Pfr = Pp + K (Pov – Pp)

where:
- Pfr = fracture pressure, kg/cm2
- Pp = pore pressure, kg/cm2
- Pov = overburden pressure, kg/cm2
- K = matrix stress coefficient
PREDICTING FORMATION PORE PRESSURES

Formation pressures can be the major factors affecting drilling operations. Unfortunately,
formation pressures can be very difficult to locate and/or to quantify precisely where
abnormal pressures exist.
Proper detection and evaluation of formation pore pressures will help in more effective
overall well planning, including:
 Safe and economical selection of casing points
 Proper engineering of equipment to minimize potential hazards (e.g. : selection of BOP

WP, avoiding pipe sticking), to minimise magnitude of well kicks
 Optimization of penetration rates under controlled drilling mud conditions, minimizing

formation damages.
Casing design
Once the three pressure gradient curves depth have been obtained, it is possible
to take following decisions:
1. Define the density of the mud versus depth;

2. The next step consists in determining the depths at which the various
casing strings shall be run, that is the casing setting depths. This also
implies the number of casing strings required to case the hole from surface
to bottom;
3. Knowing the depths of setting and the pressures acting in the well, it is
then possible to calculate the stresses at which the various casing strings
will be subjected during drilling and production and calculate the
mechanical properties the casings should have in order to withstand these
stresses.
Mud density determination
4. The mud weight (or density) should be slightly higher than the pore pressure
gradient (usually 100 g/litre), when in static conditions (no mud circulation),
and below the fracture gradient (plus a certain safety margin depending on
the particular situation), when in dynamic conditions (with mud circulation).
5. This means that in overpressure zones, the mud density must be increased
with the depth as does the pore pressure gradient.
6. For practical reasons, at the rig site the mud density is increased following
step by step patterns, and not continuously.
85
Mud density determination
1.00 1.50 2.00
0 2.50
FRACTURE
500 MUD DENSITY GRADIENT
(theoretical)
100
0
150 MUD DENSITY
0 (actual)
200
0
2500
3000
PORE
3500 PRESSURE
GRADIENT
4000
4500
5000
Casing depth
The next step consists in the determination of the depths at which the various
casing strings shall be run, taking into account safety margins, knowledge of the
area, previous experiences, expected hole problems.
This sequence of calculations will also define the number of casing strings
required to case the hole from surface down to bottom.
87
SELECTION CRITERIA AND PROCEDURE
The procedure usually followed to determine the casing points is fairly simple and
is based on a “bottom up” procedure, that is:
1. Firstly, it is assumed that the final production casing will be set at bottomhole
if the well is hydrocarbon bearing. This will be the production casing string. In
case the well will not be productive, this string will not be run.
2. To determine the immediately previous casing, a straight line is traced, which

starts from the bottom of the well in correspondence of the maximum mud
density predicted there. This straight line will intersect the fracture gradient
curve at a certain depth, where both the fracture gradient and the mud
density coincide. For safety reasons this depth is increased by some hundred
meters (depending on the trend of the gradients), so that the density of the
mud in hole will be lower than the fracture gradient of the open hole by a set
amount. This is an intermediate casing string.
3. The procedure continues in the same way and other intermediate casings
can be required before reaching the surface. 88
4. A first large diameter casing, the conductor pipe (42”, 30”), is usually set at
around 30-50 m with the purpose to protect the shallower formations
from caving or collapsing or for avoiding any eventual stability problem of
the drilling rig. If this casing is driven, it is called the drive pipe.
5. A second casing, the surface casing (30”, 26”, 20”), is also positioned at a
depth between 100 and 500 m, with the scope to make possible the
installation of the BOPs and excluding areas with low facture gradients.
6. The number of casing strings required in a well varies between 4 and 7,

depending on the depth, pressure gradients trend and targets to be
reached.
89
Casing setting depth: a bottom up approach
EQUIVALENT MUD WEIGHT
Normal pressure
CONDUCTOR PIPE
SURFACE CASING
d
Fracture
gradient
Fracture
gradient less
DEPTH
safety margin
Pore c INTERMEDIATE CASING
pressure b
gradient
pore pressure
+ safety margin
a PRODUCTION CASING
Target depth
Oil wells can be drilled onshore or offshore. Normally two basic design of rigs are used:
the derrick (A) and the mast (B), both with a similar shape but with some constructive
differences which makes the second type easier to install and transport and, therefore,
more suitable for onshore operations than the first type, used generally offshore.
A. DERRICK B. MAST 91
ROTARY TABLE
DRILL BIT
TRAVELLING BLOCK AND HOOK TOP DRIVE

92
LIGHT RIGS
2000 m 650 HP
MEDIUM RIGS
4000 m 1300 HP
HEAVY RIGS
6000 m 2000 HP
ULTRA-HEAVY RIGS
> 6000 m 3000 HP +
93
Main Components of a Rotary Drilling Rig
Draw works and Rotary Table
Drillers Control Room “Doghouse”
94
Hoisting system
The hoisting system is a large pulley system which is used to lower

and raise equipment in and out of the well. In particular, the
hoisting system is used to raise and lower the drill string and casing
in and out of the well.
Normally, the structural part has two basic design : the derrick
and the mast, both with a similar shape but with some
constructive differences which makes the second type easier to
install and transport and, therefore, more suitable for onshore
operations than the first type, used generally offshore.
95
DERRICK MAST
Rotation system
The system of rotation is intended to cause the drill string to rotate, and it consists of the rotary table,
the kelly and the swivel.
96
Rotation system
In modern rigs there is often also a top drive which groups

together the functions of the three items of equipment
mentioned above.
Using top drive is not longer necessary to have swivel and
kelly, and in theory also without rotary table.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Drilling by stands, Structural modifications
allowing greater control to the drill rig
of drilling
The reduction of the time More complex
required to connect the More costs and more
pipes  LESS ACCIDENTS maintenance
Performing the trip-out
operation while
circulating mud and
rotating the string
Intermediate connections
are eliminated
97
The drill string
The drill string is an assemblage of

hollow pipes of circular section,
extending from the surface to the
bottom of the hole.
THREE FUNCTIONS:
 It takes the drilling bit to the bottom of the

hole, while transmitting its rotation and its
vertical load to it
 It permits the circulation of the drilling

fluid to the bottom of the hole
 It guides and controls the trajectory of the

hole
98
The drill string
The drill string is an assemblage of

hollow pipes of circular section,
extending from the surface to the
bottom of the hole.
THREE FUNCTIONS:
 It takes the drilling bit to the bottom of the

hole, while transmitting its rotation and its
vertical load to it
 It permits the circulation of the drilling

fluid to the bottom of the hole
 It guides and controls the trajectory of the

hole
99
The drill string
typical ….
•Size (OD 3 ½” and 5”)
•Length (30 ft)
•Weight (13.3 lbs/ft and 19.5 lbs/ft)
•API shouldered connections Drill Pipes
typical …. Heavy Weight (intermediate stiffness pipes)

•Weight (25.3 lbs/ft and 49.3 lbs/ft)
X-over
Drill Collars
Jar (Shock tool to be activated
while drilling string stuck)
typical ….
•Size (OD 4 ¾” to 9 1/2”) Drill Collars BHA
•Length (30 ft approx) Stabilizer (for hole reaming) (Bottom
Total weight / joint (1043 lbs Drill Collar Hole
to 6727 lbs) Shock absorber (vibrations damper) Assembly
Stabilizer
Drill Collar (Short Drill Collar)
Near bit
Drilling bit
100
The drill string
HEAVY Special
JAR stabilizer with
WEIGHT
roller cutters.
Placed on the
Reaming the
neutral point of
wall of the
the BHA
hole, taking it
(the changes SHOCK
to the nominal
from tension to ADSORBER
diameter of
compression),
the bit, and
Possible to give Placed
eliminate
upward bumps in above the
small
case of stuck bit
variations in
REAMER diameter to reduce
the axial
vibrations
STABILIZER generated
Transition pipe. Provide a
during
gradual transition from heavy Placed in between
drilling
drill collars to lightweight drill the drill collars, to
pipe , prevent stress make the string
concentration at the top of more rigid
drill. Reducing torque and controlling the
differential pressure sticking. borehole trajectory 101
Downhole motor/mud motor
 Faster rate of penetration

 Reduced drilling times
 Reduced drill-string rotation speed
 Less wear and fatigue of drill-string connections
 Less drill-string torque
Most convenient application in steerable system ( directional drilling).
Downhole motor allows the offset stabilization. It stabilizes the bit affected
by changing in direction.
102
BITS TECHNOLOGY
07. DRILLING BITS

TECHNOLOGY
103
BIT SELECTION
The selection of the proper bits for a well is an important decision that has a big impact
on costs. Many factors need to be considered and evaluated:
• Method of drilling
• Formation type and properties
• Mud system
• Rig cost
• Bit cost
Drilling bit performance is function of several operating parameters:

a) Weight on bit (WOB)
b) Rotations per minute (RPM)
c) Mud properties
d) Hydraulic efficiency
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BIT DEFINITION
Bits can be divided into two main categories:
 Roller Cone Bits
-Milled Tooth Bits

-Insert Bits
 Fixed Cutter Bits
-Natural Diamond Bits

- Synthetic Diamond Bits (PDC Bits, TSP Bits, Impregnated
Bits)
- Drag bits (usually employed to drill water wells)
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105
How Bits Drill
The main mechanisms according to which a bit works are the following:
 scraping or gouging
 ploughing and grinding
 chipping and crushing
 shearing
 erosion (from the drilling fluid)
Roller cone bits work:

- with the mechanisms of gouging and scraping when drilling soft formations;
- with the mechanisms of chipping and crushing (crater mechanism) when drilling hard
formations.
Diamond bits work:

- with the mechanism of ploughing and grinding.
PDC bits work:

- with the mechanism of shear
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ROLLER CONE BITS
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107
Roller Cone Structure
API Pin
Lubricant Reservoir
Cover
Nozzle Boss
Tungsten Carbide
Leg Hardfacing
Nozzle
Shirttail Cone
Outer Row (Gage) Inner Row
Cutting Structure Cutting Structure
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Roller Cone Bit Cutting Action: Soft Formations
• Scraping & Gouging
– Indentation & Fracture
– Tooth Displacement
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Roller Cone Bit Cutting Action: Hard Formations
• Chipping & Crushing
1. Tooth Impact 3. Fracture
2. Wedge Formation 4. Post-Fracture

07. DRILLING BITS
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110
Roller Cone Bit Design
The design of roller cone bits can be described in terms of

the four principle elements of their design. The following
aspects of the design will be dealt with in detail:
• Bearing assemblies
• Cones
• Cutting elements
• Fluid circulation
111
Bearings and Seals
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Bearing Assembly
• Roller bearings, which form the outer assembly and help to support the radial loading (or
WOB)
• Ball bearings, which resist longitudinal or thrust loads and also help to secure the cones on
the journals
• Friction bearing, in the nose assembly which helps to support the radial loading. The friction
bearing consists of a special bushing pressed into the nose of the cone. This combines with
the pilot pin on the journal to produce a low coefficient of friction to resist seizure and wear.
113
Major Bearing Types
a. Roller Bearings b. Friction Bearings

– Typically used in large bit – Typically used in small bit
sizes sizes
– Also referred to as “Anti- – Also referred to as “Journal”
Friction” bearings bearings
JOURNAL
CONE
07. DRILLING BITS

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a. Roller Bearing
Rollers
07. DRILLING BITS

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115
b. Friction Bearing
Bearing Sleeve
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117
Lubrification
Cone lubrication is an essential factor in determining a bit life. Two types of bearing
are adopted for ensuring an adequate lubrication:
 open bearing
 sealed bearing
In the open bearing type bits, the lubrication is ensured by the drilling fluid itself; but
because of the presence in the mud of abrasive solids, this type of lubrication is used
only in large size bits (above 17 ½”), where the bits are not required to drill for long
periods of time.
The sealed bearing type bits have a sealed lubrication system, which prevents
contaminants to enter the bearing and lubricant to escape. The sealing can be
provided by:
- an o-ring, manufactured with elastomers;
- a metal-to-metal seal.
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Open Bearing
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Cones
07. DRILLING BITS

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124
Geometric Elements of Bit Design
• Directly influence the type of Cutting Action
A. Journal Angle
B. Cone Profile Angles
C. Offset
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A. Journal Angle
• Definition
– “..is the angle formed by Bit Axis
a line perpendicular to
the axis (or centerline) of
the journal and the axis
(or centerline) of the
bit.”
Journal Angle
Journal Axis
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A. Soft vs. Hard Journal Angle
• Soft to Medium Formations • Medium to Hard Formations

– 32½º Journal Angle – 36º Journal Angle
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127
• Inner Cone Profile Angle
• Outer Cone Profile Angle
07. DRILLING BITS

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Outer Cone Angle

(Gage Row)
Intermediate Cone Angle

(Middle Row)
Inner Cone Angle

(Nose Row)
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129
C. Bit Offset
• Definition of Offset:
– “..the horizontal distance of the cone axis from the centre of the
wellbore” or as “the angle of which is necessary to rotate the cone axis
to make it pass through the centre of the wellbore”.
• Offset measured in inches
– Very Soft formations typically 3/8” or up to 4o
– Very Hard formations typically 1/32” or down to 0o
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C. Bit Offset
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Cutting Structures
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Cutting Structure
The cutting structure determines the distinction of the roller cone bits into:
- milled tooth bits
- tungsten carbide insert bits.
The design of the cutting structure will therefore be based on the hardness of
the formation for which it will be used.
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Milled Tooth Bits: Cutting Structure
Milled tooth bits for soft and hard formations are visually recognizable on
account of the height and number of their cutters:
• Bits for soft formations have long and sparse cutters.

• Bits for hard formations have short and closely arranged cutters.
Another feature of roller-cone bits is the cutters’ location on the cones; this
is arranged so that each cutter row of each cone strikes its own rock portion
on its circumferential path. This feature allows the entire borehole surface
area to be subject to the bit action.
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Number 1 Cone
Partially Deleted Heel Row

Tooth
Spearpoint Tooth Hardfacing

(Leading flank)
Nose Row
Intermesh Area
or Groove
Middle Row
Gage Row
Number 3 Cone Number 2 Cone
Pitch Break
07. DRILLING BITS
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138
Soft Formation Bits

A soft formation bit is characterized by a
limited number of teeth, the way they
are relatively spaced from one another
and their considerable length.
Soft formation bits mainly work through:

• scraping
• gouging
Operations are carried out with light

weights (approximately 2 t/in of
diameter) and a high rotational speed
(100-200 RPM) of the drill string.
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Hard Formation Bits

Hard formation bits have a high number
of teeth and a high density of short
cutters.
Hard formation bits mainly work

through:
• crushing
• chipping
Operation are carried out with heavy

weights (approximately 3.6 t/in of
diameter), because formations oppose
considerable resistance to penetration,
and a slow rotational speed of
approximately 50-60 RPM.
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140
Very Soft Soft Medium-Soft Medium
12¼” Bits
0.375” 0.281” 0.281” 0.186”
Offset
(3/8”) (9/32”) (9/32”) (3/16”)
Total Rows 7 8 9 12
Total Teeth 65 78 109 160
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Roller Cone Bits Hardfacing
Hardfacing is the application of

tungsten-carbide on the gauge
and teeth to provide increased
resistance to abrasion. Without
hard-facing a bit would lose
gauge and the teeth would dull
quickly.
Hardfacing provides wear

resistance to the teeth and
resistance to fracture.
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Steel Tooth Bits
Advantages Disadvantages
Long teeth are better in soft Can drill only a limited

formations because they dig variety of formations
more
Cheaper than TC insert
cutters
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Tungsten Carbide Insert Bits
In these three-cone bits the cutting structure is formed by tungsten
carbide INSERTS pressed into appropriate holes bored in the cones.
Designations of cones (1-2-3) and insert rows are the same as with
tooth bits.
Inserts have different lengths and shapes in function of the bit

hardness:
 soft formations require long and sparse inserts;
 hard formations require short and closely arranged inserts;
 small and round inserts are placed on the shoulders of the bit.
Figure 7
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144
Insert Shape: Inner Rows
Soft
Medium
to Hard
Soft Hard
to Medium
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145
Pitch Break Number 1 Cone
Gage Row Insert

Inner Row
Chisel Crest Insert
Teeth Rows
Intermesh Area
or Groove
Number 3 Cone Number 2 Cone
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• Tungsten Carbide (WC) provides Wear Resistance

– Third hardest material known to man
– However, it is structurally weak
• Cobalt provides Strength and Toughness

– Cobalt binder typically 6 to 16% by weight
Tungsten Carbide (1500x)

84% Tungsten Carbide
16% Cobalt
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Very Soft Soft Medium-Soft
10 rows / 92 inserts 11 rows / 114 inserts 12 rows / 120 inserts

77/8” Bits Medium-Hard Hard Very Hard
12 rows / 125 inserts 14 rows / 144 inserts 17 rows / 180 inserts

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Advantages Disadvantages
Tungsten carbide wears Much more expensive than

very little so the inserts last milled tooth bits
longer
The same tungsten carbide Cannot drill as fast as a
bit can drill many different steel tooth bit in soft-to-
types of formations medium formations
Harder than steel – but also
more brittle
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Fluid circulation
151
• CLEANING OF THE CUTTING STRUCTURE
• CUTTINGS REMOVAL FROM THE HOLE BOTTOM
• AND EFFICIENT CUTTINGS EVACUATION TO THE SURFACE
Fluid circulation Fluid circulation through

through water courses jet nozzles 152
Watercourses
An important part of a rock bit is the

watercourse, without which the bit
could not function as intended.
The design of the passageways and

nozzles that direct the fluid when
coming out from the bit differentiates Figure 23
between two types of watercourses:

1. Conventional watercourse that
directs the fluid onto the cutters
2. Jet watercourses that direct the
fluid onto the bottom of the hole
(central nozzle and extended nozzles)
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Design Factors Summary
Formation Strength
Soft Med. Soft Med. Hard Hard Very Hard
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154
IADC ROLLER CONE BIT
CLASSIFICATION
07. DRILLING BITS

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155
IADC Bit Classification
A wide range of bits is available in the marketplace. There are many different
kinds of bits with different features.
For this reason, the International Association of Drilling Contractors, IADC,
approved a standard classification system to compare bits having similar
features through the use of a numeric code.
This standardization, which has been introduced in 1972 and revised in 1992,
is extremely useful, because it allows engineers to rapidly find bits with
similar features, even if they are built by different manufacturers.
07. DRILLING BITS

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IADC ROLLER CONE BIT Classification
• 4-Character Design/Application Code

– First 3 Characters are NUMERIC
– 4th Character is ALPHABETIC
• Examples
135M 447X 637Y
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IADC Bit Classification
• Numeric Characters define:

– Series 1st
– Type 2nd
– Bearing & Gage 3rd
• Alphabetic Character defines:

– Features Available 4th
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Series
1. First Character: Series
• General Formation Characteristics

– Compressive Strength
– Abrasivity
• Eight (8) Series

– Milled Tooth Bits : Series 1, 2 and 3
– Insert Bits : Series 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8
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Classification Chart: Series
135M
447X
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Typical Formations Hardness
Hardness UCS (psi) Examples

Ultra Soft < 1,000 gumbo, clay
unconsolidated sands, chalk,

Very Soft 1,000 - 4,000 salt, claystone
Soft 4,000 - 8,000 coal, siltstone, schist, sands
sandstone, slate, shale,

Medium 8,000 - 17,000 limestone, dolomite
quartzite, basalt, gabbro,
Hard 17,000 - 27,000 limestone, dolomite
Very Hard > 27,000 marble, granite, gneiss
UCS = Uniaxial Unconfined Compressive Strength
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Type
2. Second Character: Type
• Degree of Formation Hardness
• Each Series is divided into 4 “Types”

Type 1 Softest Formation in a Series
Increasing Rock Hardness
Type 4 Hardest Formation in a Series
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Classification Chart: Type
135M
447X
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Bearing & Gage
3. Third Character: Bearing & Gage

• Bearing Design and Gage Protection
• Seven (7) Categories

– 1. Non-Sealed (Open) Roller Bearing
– 2. Roller Bearing Air Cooled
– 3. Non-Sealed (Open) Roller Bearing Gage Protected
– 4. Sealed Roller Bearing
– 5. Sealed Roller Bearing Gage Protected
– 6. Sealed Friction Bearing
– 7. Sealed Friction Bearing Gage Protected
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Classification Chart: Bearing & Gage
135M
447X
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Example - Milled Tooth
MSDGH IADC 135
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Example - TCI
F2 IADC 517
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Features Available
4. Fourth Character
– Features Available (Optional)
– Sixteen (16) Alphabetic Characters
– Most Significant Feature or Application Listed
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IADC Features Available
• A - Air Application • L - Lug Pads
• B - Special Bearing/Seal • M - Motor Application
• C - Center Jet • S - Standard Milled Tooth
• D - Deviation Control • T - Two-Cone Bit
• E - Extended Nozzles • W - Enhanced Cutting Structure
• G - Gage/Body Protection • X - Chisel Tooth Insert
• H - Horizontal Application • Y - Conical Tooth Insert
• J - Jet Deflection • Z - Other Shape Inserts
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Classification Chart: Features Available
135M
447X
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FIXED CUTTER BITS
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Types
Fixed Cutter Bit Styles

 Drag Bits
 Natural Diamond Bits
 Synthetic Diamond Bits (PDC: Polycrystalline Diamond
Compact Bits, TSP: Thermally Stable Polycrystalline Diamond
Bits, Impregnated Bits)
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Types
Drag Bits
A drag bit is a drill bit usually designed for
use in soft formations such as sand, clay or
some soft rock. They do not work well in
coarse gravel or hard rock formations.
Uses include water wells drilling, mining,
geothermal, environmental and exploration Figure 27 Drag Bits
drilling. Whenever possible, they should be
used to drill pilot holes because they
produce cuttings that are very easy to log.
They are not in current use and are
mentioned here only for their historical
importance.
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Natural Diamond Bits
Some of the most important benefits of diamond bits over roller bits are:
• Bit failure potential is reduced because there are no moving parts.
• Less drilling energy is required by their shearing cutting action compared to
the cracking and grinding action of the roller bit.
• Bit weight is reduced, therefore deviation control is improved.
• The low weights required and lack of moving parts make them well suited
for turbine drilling.
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Natural Diamond Bits are made by three main components:

• the cutters;
• the body or blank;
• the shank.
The cutters are natural diamonds placed on the surface of the bit, from the
nose to the gage, according to well-defined configurations or plots. They are
immersed in a matrix composed by a mixture of tungsten carbide and a
metallic binder.
During the construction process, diamonds are included in the matrix by

fusing it (each natural diamond bit is hand-built according to the instructions
received from the oil company that placed the order).
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Diamond Bit Terminology & Features
Crown
Cutters
Junk Slot Diamond Gauge
Shank
Breaker Slot
API Pin
Connection
A Diamond Bit can have different profiles depending on the formation to be drilled:
• a “single-cone profile” presents a rounded shape, which determines a limited load on each cutter. The bit is
subjected to a slow wear and long life;
• the “double-cone profile” has a narrower attack front and is very aggressive in its central part. The tapered
zone maintains the hole in gauge. The bits with this profile ensure higher ROP, but also a more rapid wear;
• the “parabolic profile” has a front more rounded than the previous type; it represents a compromise
between the two previous profiles;
• the “concave profile” has a flat front; it is mainly used in directional drilling.
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This type of bits is not equipped with nozzles. Hydraulics has the main
purpose of cooling the bit face and removing drilled cuttings.
The exit holes of the drilling fluid are positioned in the centre of the bit. Fluid
is then directed into grooves carved out of the bit face.
Grooves are designed according to two main configurations:

• Radial flow
• Cross-pad flow or feeder-collector flow.
In both configurations, the outflow of drilling fluid from the bit centre takes
place through a “crowfoot” that distributes the flow into three branches.
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Collector
Crowfoot
Feeder
Waterways
Pad / Rib
Crowfoot
Cross-Pad Flow Radial Flow

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Natural Diamond Mechanics
• Natural Diamond Bits drill

by ploughing and grinding
the rock
• Normally require higher

RPM for better performance
(e.g. high speed motor or
turbine)
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Synthetic Diamond Bits
Synthetic diamond bits fall into two main categories:

• PDC – polycrystalline diamond compact bits
• TSP – thermally stable polycrystalline bits
General Electric was the first company to produce synthetic

diamonds on an industrial scale in the Fifties.
Same advantages and disadvantages as natural diamond bits but use

small discs of synthetic diamond to provide the scraping cutting
surface.
The small discs may be manufactured in any size and shape and are
not sensitive to failure along cleavage planes as with natural diamond
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TSP Bits
If uses in high temperature environments are predicted, it is possible to employ

construction techniques capable of producing industrial diamonds with a higher
degree of thermal stability, namely the TSP diamonds or thermally stable
polycrystalline diamonds.
There are two main construction techniques:

• a technique is based on the acid treatment of the synthetic diamonds produced by
the method described above, in order to dissolve cobalt;
• the second technique requires the use of silicon carbide as a bonding agent for the
diamond particles.
Both these techniques allow the realization of industrial diamonds with a thermal
stability of about 1150oC. The disadvantage is that TSP diamonds can not be welded
onto any substrate, differently from PDC bits, but they must be included in the bit
matrix. TSP bits are produced by means of techniques similar to those described about
natural diamond bits. In general terms, they are suitable to drill hard and abrasive
formations.
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Polycrystalline Diamond Compact PDC Bits
PDC bits were introduced in the 1970s and combine the high abrasion
resistance of the diamonds with the strength and impact resistance of
tungsten carbide.
The advancement in PDC design and performance in recent years has been
significant and there are now many manufacturers with a wide variety of bits
available.
Due to the diversity of bits and bit features available, there is no IADC
classification system similar to roller bits but simply a code to provide a
means of characterizing the general physical characteristics of fixed cutter
drill bits.
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PDC cutters are built in standard dimensions ranging from 8 mm to 24 mm:

• Very small cutters (8 mm wide) are used in hard formations.
• Small cutters (13 mm wide) are used in medium to medium hard formations.
• Large cutters (19 mm wide) are suitable for soft to medium formations.
• Very large cutters (24 mm wide) are used in soft formations. Cutters as wide as 48 mm
have also been used sporadically.
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PDC Bits
Steel Body Matrix Body

PDC Bits
Profiles of PDC Bits
PDC bits have three basic profiles:

(a) Flat profile (shallow), used to drill hard but not abrasive formation
(b) Double cone profile (taper) offers a larger work surface and is thus suitable
to drill harder formations.
(c) Parabolic profile, used in combination with a turbine to drill soft but
abrasive formations
b c
a
Figure 37- PDC BIT PROFILES
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A further discriminating construction feature is the number of blades, that

have the following main functions:
• Supporting the cutting structure. The positioning of cutters on blades creates
an adequate support structure capable of absorbing the forces engendered on
the cutter itself. Generally speaking, when moderately hard formations require
a bit with many cutters, the tool will also be equipped with many blades.
• Determining the hydraulic flow profile. Blades are set according to well
defined paths, so that the drilling fluid flows optimizing both cutting removal
from the bit surfaces and its cooling.
• Increasing the frontal exposure of the cutter.
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PDC Mechanics
• PDC cutters cut the
Weight on bit
formation in shear.
• The shearing action is the

most efficient cutting action
Rotation
when operating under
identical conditions.
PDC Bit - Shearing

PDC Mechanics
One important feature of PDC bits is their back rake angle.

• Angle at which a PDC cutter attacks a formation.
• Higher back rake angles improve impact and wear resistance.
• Lower back rakes increase ROP.
• Back rakes can be varied to achieve maximum ROP and
durability.
+ B.R
PDC Mechanics
• Formation Hardness
• Back Rake Angle
– Very soft clays/shales.
– 5° to 10° – Low angle produces highest ROPs
– All formations.
– Best in soft formations (e.g. shale)
– 15°
– All formations.
– Improves cutter life.
– Best in abrasive/sand formations
– 20° – Harder formations

– Typically used on gage
– More durability and reduction of
vibration
– 30°
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IADC FIXED CUTTER BITS CLASSIFICATION
To take into account the wide range of fixed cutter bits including natural
diamond and PDC, IADC introduced a classification system consisting of a
four character code:
Code 1 - Cutter Type and Body Material (D, M, T, S, O)
Code 2 - Bit Profile (1-9)
Code 3 - Hydraulic Design (1-9)
Code 4 - Cutter Size and Density (1-9).
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Code 1: Cutter Type and Body Material
The subgroup classification is simply a five letter designation categorizing the

type of cutter and body material.
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Code 2: Bit Profile
The code numbers (1-9) categorize the bit profile by shape.
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Code 3: Hydraulic Design
The code numbers (1-9) describe the hydraulic features.
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Code 4: Cutter Size and Density
The code numbers (1-9) categorize the cutter size and cutter material.
EXAMPLE OF CLASSIFICATION
A fixed cutter bit with the code M442 corresponds to a PDC bit with matrix
body, medium taper-deep cone, changeable jets-ribbed design with large size
cutter of medium density.
07. DRILLING BITS
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Introduction To Petroleum Engineering

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Introduction To Petroleum Engineering

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Gubkin State University of Oil and Gas

Basics of oil and gas

• Large investment, can reach billion of US$.

• Government, via host authority (government regulatory body or national oil

• In this stage, government need to attract investment by offering “interesting

• FDP shall contain at least :

• The last phase in upstream life cycle is

• The activities comprises well plug &

• Well must be permanently closed and ealed,

• Surface facilities must be removed until few

• Site must be restore to as close as its original

Petroleum is a naturally occurring liquid, gaseous or solid mix, composed

From point of view of the chemistry

In petroleum industry practice

Physical properties of a petroleum fluid are determined by its composition, and

T > 200° C P = 150MPa

HOW DOES PETROLEUM ORIGINATE?

As a general rule, the origin of petroleum is never in the reservoir accumulation

Petroleum accumulation forms in sedimentary basins and can be discovered by

1. Occurrence of source rocks which generate petroleum under proper subsurface

2. Sediment compaction leading to expulsion of petroleum from the source into

3. Occurrence of reservoir rocks of sufficient porosity and permeability allowing flow

4. Structural configurations of sedimentary strata whereby the reservoir rocks form

7. Favorable conditions for the preservation of petroleum accumulation during an

ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS AND PROCESSES

A petroleum source rock is characterized by:

 sufficient content of finely dispersed organic matter of biological origin;

 this organic matter must be of a specific composition, i.e. hydrogen-rich;

With increased pressure over time the platy clay minerals

CLASTIC ROCKS CARBONATE ROCKS

Sandstone Limestone, Dolomite

1. Terrigenous clastic 4. Ironstones

1‐Terrigenous Clastic Sediments

Hydrocarbons trap: A configuration of rocks suitable for containing hydrocarbons and

 Anticline traps: trap whose closure is

 Fault trap: in which closure is controlled

 Salt domes traps: Salt domes traps are

Pinch-out trap: The termination by thinning or

Reef trap: sedimentary rock, most commonly

A reservoir is characterized by different physical parameters. Temperature, pressure,

A displacement process occurs when fluid in place is removed by another fluid

Why drilling a well?

• To produce hydrocarbons or support their production through Injection of gas and

 Safety Zero accidents in a harsh and hazardous environment

 Environment Zero pollution

 Team-work Multi-tasks, works with Service Companies

 Adaptation Activities in different countries

 Decisions Diagnostic following drilling hazards must be done immediately;

Investment Site restoration

FIRST OIL END OF PRODUCTION?

% of total (approx) 50 to 65 % (approx) 35 to 50 %

1000 7000 Drilling

 TrueVertical Dept (TVD) is

 TVD and MD can be the

 In practice, TVD is always

Directional drilling is controlling technique of the direction and

The first controlled directionally drilled well was drilled in the

Directional drilling became more widely

Directional wells are commonly drilled …

To gain access to remaining reserves from new wells or

Complex directional profiles

 For a reduction of the number of wells