Medical Hypotheses (2003) 60(5), 671–688
ª 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Is AIDS really caused by a virus?
Lawrence Broxmeyer
Med-America Research, Whitestone, New York, USA
PROLOGUE
University of Liverpool, Liverpool, England, 1988
The results were disquieting. Researchers at the Uni-
versity of Liverpool, England, led by A.M. al-Sumidaie in
1988, had found a retrovirus in 97% of the women they
tested for breast cancer (1).
Did this finding mean that breast cancer was also
caused by a retrovirus? Certainly not. Al-Sumidaie knew
very well as a viral researcher that he could take cells
from a patient’s body and coax out a lot of harmless
retroviruses to which a patient had been exposed. When
in the retroviral business, you detected retroviruses and
over the years it had been done in multiple sclerosis,
sarcomas and leukemias. Yet little more evidence than
Al-Sumidaie now had in front of him was available when
the HIV retrovirus was called the probable cause of
AIDS.
REFERENCES
1. al-Sumidaie A. M. LeptsG Retrovirus in human breast cancer:
detection of reverse transcriptase in human monocytes. J R
Coll Surg Edinb 1988; 33(3): 151–153.
EPIDEMIC
Manhattan, 1979
By 1979, doctors in Manhattan began to notice a
strange new disease killing what had been up to then
healthy gay men. As reports mounted, the Centers for
Disease Control (CDC) was forced to circulate similar
notices of homosexual men in New York and Los An-
geles with a weakened immune system dying from
Received 4 March 2002
Accepted 6 December 2002
Correspondence to: Dr. Lawrence Broxmeyer MD, Med-America Research,
148-14A 11th Avenue, Whitestone, NY 11357, USA;
E-mail: MEDAMERICA1@cs.com
doi:10.1016/S0306-9877(03)00019-7
heretofore rare causes (1). From its conception AIDS was
a nightmare of anguished victims, washed with wave
after wave of terrible disease, whose physicians, like so
many medical priests, helplessly watched them die. U.S.
Coastal hospitals in San Francisco, New York and Los
Angeles soon turned into war zones.
Rare diseases like Pneumocystis carinii, a tiny one-
celled protozoa, filled gay lungs to the point of suffoca-
tion and requests for pentamidine aerosols trickled and
then poured into the CDC.
Another uncommon killer, Kaposi’s Sarcoma (KS),
became the most common form of AIDS cancer.
Nor was it only gays at risk. Drug addicts sharing
needles and hemophiliacs, given pooled clotting factor
VIII from blood so they would not bleed to death, soon
became prey, again developing Kaposi’s sarcoma and
pneumocystis pneumonia. America’s entire blood supply
was in jeopardy, for by the early 1980s, gay and
bisexual men accounted for 1 of 4 American blood
donors.
AIDS throttled the immune system, in some cases
shutting it down, and the primary site of attack always
seemed traceable to the body’s T-cells: white blood
cell lymphocytes which held the body’s invaders at
bay.
By 1977 much evidence indicated that the basis of
cellular immunity was tied in with T-cells lymphocytes-
colorless, motile, cellular elements of lymph. Chief in
importance among these was the T-helper or CD4 lym-
phocyte, which fought infection. It soon became appar-
ent that in AIDS CD4 cells were either severely depleted
or they fell off the blood map altogether.
Without delay, the same virologists who for decades
had failed miserably to find a viral cause for cancer,
pounced on AIDS, dismissing any possibility other than
a virus: ignoring that it could just as easily be either one
or a combination of older microbes presenting in an all-
new way.
Virologists initially told physicians to pass on the
word that Cytomegalovirus (1) caused AIDS. Doctors
671
672 Broxmeyer
dutifully obeyed, not fully realizing that all people, with
time, are infected with Cytomegalovirus.
Epidemiologist–retrovirologist Donald Francis, who
would direct laboratory efforts for AIDS at the CDC, and
was also assistant director of the CDC’s Division of Viral
Diseases, had his own peculiar theory which he shared
with epidemiologist James Curran, eventual director of
AIDS research at CDC: combine hepatitis with feline
leukemia in cats-a retrovirus on which Francis wrote his
doctorate and you had Kaposi’s and the opportunistic
infections seen in AIDS. Or maybe, just maybe, it was a
retrovirus similar to the cat retrovirus alone that was
solely responsible. Curran and Francis had worked to-
gether years ago developing the Hepatitis B vaccine.
Francis, one of the few at CDC who had actively
wiped out smallpox worldwide, was considered an ex-
pert on both epidemics and the feline leukemic virus. He
would now combine his fields of expertise and quickly
conclude that AIDS was cat leukemia in people. It was an
impulsive long shot and by most treated as such, at least
initially.
REFERENCES
1. MMWR, Morb Mortal Weekly Rep 30:250–2. 1981.
CANCER STRUGGLES
America, Turn of the century
The history of retroviruses mirrored cancer research.
By the turn of the 20th century American medicine had
come to the conclusion that it was not a matter of
whether infectious disease caused cancer, but which
one. Incredibly, just 20 years before, the germ theory of
disease, ignored by organized medicine for 150 years,
had finally been accepted. Robert Koch, discoverer of
the cause of tuberculosis, had seen to that. But as the
‘Father of Bacteriology’ and perhaps the greatest physi-
cian that ever lived, when Koch presented his Berlin
paper his immediate problem was in convincing the
German medical establishment that TB was not a ‘virus’.
Under this backdrop and in 1904, Ellermann and
Bang, searching for an infectious bacterial cause for
chicken leukemia (4), succeeded in its transfer from one
fowl to another by injecting cell-free tissue infiltrates.
They sought a bacteria, but simply because it passed
through a filter, the responsible agent was assumed to be
a virus.
That same year, the first lentivirus, related to HIV,
was isolated as a filterable equine infectious agent by
Valle and Carre at the Pasteur Institute (16). Yet Roux, an
authority on ‘invisible microbes’ at the time, shrugged
off Valle and Carre’s finding as no more than ‘small
bacteria’ (14).
Medical Hypotheses (2003) 60(5), 671–688
Most authorities now realize that there are some vi-
ruses almost as large as bacteria and some bacteria as
small as viruses, forms of which can easily pass through
filters. This realization has been disputed by HIV en-
thusiasts Francis et al. (5) when they mentioned ‘since
the infectious agent had obviously passed through a
filter, it had to be a virus’.
It did not.
Peyton Rous was credited with the discovery and
isolation of the first retrovirus. By 1911, Rous wanted to
know why if one chicken got cancer, others followed
(13). Rous, who reproduced the tumor at will in Plym-
outh Rock fowls, favored a bacterial cause over a filter-
able virus. However, it was a question that he never
definitely answered.
By 1933 Shope reported a viral tumor in cottontail
rabbits. Bittner reported on a milk-born mouse breast
cancer attributed to still another virus (1).
In the 1950s, and with the advent of the electron
microscope, particles later questionably ascribed to ret-
roviruses were readily being detected. As a result, and at
a time when established medicine had about-faced and
was now firmly set against an infectious cause for cancer,
two controversial minority camps splintered from
mainstream, each diametrically opposed.
There were the virologists, who claimed that cancer
was viral, and another group which did careful, peer-re-
viewed research at the height of U.S. Post-World War II
technology, demonstrating that the retroviruses in Rous,
Bittner and Shope tumors were actually filterable forms of
mycobacterial-like bacteria of the Actinomycetales (10).
Tuberculosis-like, these ‘viruses’ stained with acid-
fast dyes; readily passed through a filter, but actually
were a class of bacteria having many of the characteris-
tics of the mycobacteria such as tuberculosis.
This work, spearheaded by physician-researcher Vir-
ginia Livingston of Rutgers (9), validated earlier work
on Rous as a bacteria (3,6). Soon others would join
(2,7,15).
Livingston’s network questioned the very existence of
retroviruses and the retrovirologists did not like it. A
scientific life-and-death cancer struggle ensued.
By 1960, biologist turned retrovirologist Howard Te-
min sought an explanation for his observation as to why
retroviruses, composed of RNA, Rous among them, were
inhibited by Actinomycin D – an antibiotic and known
bacterial DNA inhibitor. Based on this finding, Temin
elaborately hypothesized the concept of reverse tran-
scription. But since antibiotics did not affect viruses,
Temin’s observation regarding Actinomycin D’s inhibi-
tion of Rous made more sense if Rous was bacterial.
Nevertheless, in reaction to Temin, cancer viral
investigators of the 1960s and 1970s reacted by
ª 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

misinterpreting his non-specific enzyme discovery (re-
verse transcriptase), which arose primarily as a function
of normal cellular healing, for a primary indicator for the
newly scrutinized retroviruses – which it was not. And in
the 1970s, it was as a direct result of Temin’s enzyme
that ‘oncoviruses’, purported to cause cancer, suddenly
became known as ‘retroviruses’.
It was to Livingston’s solid disadvantage that when
Richard Nixon signed his National Cancer Act on De-
cember 23, 1971, he unwittingly placed virologist Frank
Rauscher as director of the just established National
Cancer Program (NCP). With Rauscher at the controls it
was only a matter of time before cancer virologists, ret-
rovirologists and immunologists were pushed to the
vanguard of ‘America’s War on Cancer’. Once en-
trenched, they would remain at the helm even as, in-
credibly, their failed cancer attempts now turned
towards finding a viral cause for AIDS.
Bacterial L-forms, the connecting link between vi-
ruses and bacteria, were first described by Klieneberger
at England’s Lister Institute for which they were named.
L-forms were ‘cell-wall-deficient’ because they either had
a disruption or lack of a rigid bacterial cell wall. This lack
of rigidity allowed them the plasticity to assume many
forms (pleomorphic), some of them viral-like but all
different from their classical parent and poorly demon-
strated by ordinary staining (8). Of all the bacteria, L-
forms predominate and are crucial to the survival of the
mycobacteria whose cell-wall-deficient (CWD) forms
escape destruction by the body’s immune system. And
at the same time CWD forms of the mycobacteria react
in Elisa blood tests (11), similar to the ‘HIV virus’, and
can simulate it in everyway.
Some years later, when HIV discoverer Luc Montag-
nier was interviewed for a French AIDS documentary,
film-maker Djamel Tabi asked how he had isolated HIV.
Incredibly, Montagnier’s reply was that he did not iso-
late HIV, he just found something that looked like a
retrovirus (12).
Klieneberger, as well as Livingston, also saw parallels
between the filterable forms of tuberculosis and ‘myco-
plasmic-like forms’ because without intact cell walls they
were often mistaken for the virus-like bacteria myco-
plasma, which has no cell wall (8). The differentiation
between mycoplasma and cell-wall-deficient bacteria is
difficult at best (11).
REFERENCES
1. Bittner J. J. Some possible effects of nursing on the mammary
gland tumor incidence of mice. Science 1936; 84: 162.
2. Diller I. Donnelly experiments with mammalian tumor
isolates. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1970; 174(2): 655–674.
ª 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Is AIDS really caused by a virus? 673
3. Duran-Reynals F. Neoplastic infection and cancer. Am J Med
1950; 8(4): 440–511.
4. Ellermann V., Bang O. Experimentelle Leukamie bei
Huhnern. Zbt Bakt 1908; 46: 595–609.
5. Francis D. P., Curran J. W. EssexM Epidemic acquired
immune deficiency syndrome: epidemilogic evidence for a
transmissible agent. J Natl Cancer Inst 1983; 71: 1–4.
6. Glover T., Scott M. A. Study of the Rous Chicken Sarcoma
No. 1. Canada Lancet and Practicioner 1926; 66(2):
49–62.
7. Alexander-Jackson E. A specific type of microorganism
isolated from animal and human cancer: bacteriology of the
organism. Growth 1954; 18: 37–51.
8. Klieneberger-Nobel E. Origin, development and
signifincance of L-forms in bacterial cultures. J Gen
Microbiol 1949; 3: 434–442.
9. Livingston V. A. Specific type of organism cultured from
malignancy: bacteriology and proposed classification. Ann
N Y Acad Sci 1970; 174: 636–654.
10. Livingston V. Cancer: A New Breakthrough. Los Angeles:
Nash Publishing, 1972.
11. Mattman L. Cell Wall Deficient Forms – Stealth Pathogens.
Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1993.
12. Null G. AIDS: A second opinion. Townsend Letter for
Doctors and Patients, June 2000.
13. Rous P. A. Sarcoma of the Fowl transmissible by an agent
separable from the tumor cells. J Exp Med 1911; 13:
397–411.
14. Roux E. Sur les microbes dits inviibles. Bull Inst Pasteur
1903; 1: 7–12, 49–56.
15. Seibert F. B., Feldman R. L. Morphological, biological, and
immunological studies on isolates from tumors and
leukemic bloods. N Y Acad Sci 1970; 174(2):
690–728.
16. Vallee H., Carre H. Nature infectieuse de l’ anemie du
chevale. C R Acad Sci Paris 1904; 139: 331–333.
SHYH-CHING LO
Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, Washington, 1989
Dr. Shyh-Ching Lo was a senior scientist at the pres-
tigious, world-renowned Armed Forces Institute of Pa-
thology in Washington. As he watched events unfold
and it became obvious that it was going to be dictum
that HIV caused AIDS, he just had one problem: when-
ever he examined someone who had died of AIDS, he
could never find HIV, not even a trace of HIV-infected
tissue damage. So Lo began his own search for an AIDS
cause which led him to a ‘virus-like infectious agent’ (8).
Knowing he was onto something, Shyh-Ching Lo fol-
lowed his conscience, against the grain of most other
scientists, and finally isolated a mycoplasma. And in one
study of 24 people with AIDS, he found antibody titers to
it in practically everyone (9). Shyh-Ching Lo co-pub-
lished again with Saillard (13).
That same year Livingston died and a year later Luc
Montagnier, the discoverer of HIV, almost got booed off
a 1991 San Francisco podium at the Sixth International
AIDS conference for endorsing Lo’s mycoplasma as a
necessary co-factor for the AIDS virus to become fatal
Medical Hypotheses (2003) 60(5), 671–688
674 Broxmeyer
(10). This ‘co-factor’ theory was, in effect, Montagnier’s
way of admitting that HIV, the virus he had discovered,
wasn’t virulent enough in itself to even approach what
happened in AIDS.
Montagnier and Lemaitre had done a hornet’s nest of
an experiment which put HIV advocates on the edge of
their chairs. In 1990 they published that cells cultured
with ‘HIV’, which normally died, grew well in the pres-
ence of two antibiotics, minocycline and doxycycline (5).
Antibiotics do not affect viruses, so it was not working
against HIV – it was a bacteria. Montagnier decided that
that bacteria was probably Lo’s mycoplasma. He had
done so, unaware of the fact that the two particular an-
tibiotics he was using also had activity against Living-
ston’s mycobacteria (3,12,14,15).
Rutgers-Presbyterian Hospital Laboratory for the Study
of Proliferative Diseases, Bureau of Biological Research,
Rutgers University, New Jersey, 1950
Livingston associate and prominent Cornell microbi-
ologist Eleanor Alexander-Jackson (1), a lifelong col-
league, had a problem.
As long as she held her reputation as one of the
leading tuberculosis experts in the world, American
medicine would embrace her, but when she tried to at-
tribute cancer to Livingston’s tuberculosis-like germ, it
would move to crush her.
Alexander-Jackson, whose advanced mycobacterial
staining and culture techniques appeared in a 1944 issue
of Science, carefully set a trap insured to ensnare virol-
ogists. Rous, as a retrovirus, was supposed to be an RNA
virus; Alexander-Jackson knew that finding DNA in it
would automatically mean that it was bacterial. It was
understood that Retroviral DNA should be present only
in human or animal cells and nowhere else. Her paper on
the ‘Ultraviolet Spectrogramic Microscope Studies of
Rous Sarcoma Virus Cultured in Cell Free Medium’
demonstrated that there was DNA present in the Rous
tumor agent, characteristic of bacteria (2). Why was it
still being called a virus?
When Livingston confronted Rous that his ‘retrovirus’
could be dried, shelved, stored and mixed months later
in saline only to grow out on bacterial culture plates, he
reminded her that he had never said it was a virus,
carefully using ‘tumor agent’.
To be certain, the Livingston network concluded that
oncogenic, supposedly cancer-causing viruses, were in
fact L-forms of the mycobacteria and related organisms.
And they came much too close to proving their point to
suit American retrovirologists.
HIV co-discoverer Robert Gallo, threatened, huffed:
‘What is going on in this country? This is insanity! She can
have her theories and what can I say? I don’t know of
anything to support it. I can’t see any basis and I don’t
Medical Hypotheses (2003) 60(5), 671–688
know what to say or what analogy to give you’ (11). But
Livingston’s findings, with worldwide stature, were not
about the theory of retroviruses yet to be isolated. She
had, in fact, come much closer than any of the retrovi-
rologists in proving a direct causation between her or-
ganism and cancer by showing that it manufactured
human growth hormone, long associated with malig-
nancy (7).
Before her death, Livingston would give one more
clue towards unraveling what had become AIDS. There
were ‘less known’ and ‘little publicized’ microorganisms
that were transmitted sexually. Through bacteriological
studies she had confirmed that the very same L-forms of
mycobacteria she found in Rous, by some called myco-
plasma, could be found in the semen of man (6).
REFERENCES
1. Alexander-Jackson E. A. Specific type of microorganism
isolated from animal and human cancer: bacteriology of the
organism. Growth 1954; 18: 37–51.
2. Alexander-Jackson E. Ultraviolet spectrogramic microscope
studies of Rous Sarcoma. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1970; 174(2):
765.
3. Burns D. N., Rohatgi P. K. Disseminated Mycobacterium
fortuitum successfully treated with combination therapy
including ciprofloxin. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990; 142(2): 468–
470.
4. Gupta I., Kocher J. Mycobacterium haemophilum
osteomyelitis in an AIDS patient. N J Med 1992; 89(3): 201–
202.
5. Lemaitre M., Guetard D. Protective activity of tetracycline
analogs against the cytopathic effect of the human
immunodeficiency viruses in CEM cells. Res Virol 1990;
141(1): 5–16.
6. Livingston V. Cancer: A New Breakthrough. Los Angeles:
Nash Publishing, 1972.
7. Livingston V., Wuerthele-Caspe, Livingston A. F. Some
cultural, immunological and biochemical properties of
progenitor cryptocides. Trans N Y Acad Sci Ser II 1974;
36(6): 569–582.
8. Lo S. C. Isolation and identification of a novel virus from
patients with AIDS. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1986; 35(4), 675–6.
9. Lo S. C., Dawson M. S. Identification of Mycoplasma
incognitos infection in patients with AIDS; an
immunohistochemical, in situ hybridization and
ultrastructural study. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1989; 41(5):
601–616.
10. Ostrom N. Co-discoverer of AIDS virus says it may have
microbial accomplice. New York Native 1991; October 21.
11. Parachini A. New ‘cure’ for cancer stirs controversy. Los
Angeles Times 1984; April 6.
12. Roussel G., Igual J. Clarithromycin with minocycline and
clofazimne for Mycobacterium avium intracellulare complex
lung disease in patients without the acquired immune
deficiency syndrome. GETIM. Groups d’Etude et de
Traitement des Infections a Mycobceries. Int J Tuberc Lung
Dis 1998; 2(6): 462–470.
13. Saillard C., Carle P. Genetic and serologic relatedness
between Mycoplasma fermentans strains and a mycoplasma
ª 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

recently identified in tissures of AIDS and non-AIDS
patients. Res Virol 1990; 141(3): 385–395.
14. Tasaka S., Urano T. A case of Mycobacterium fortuitum
pulmonary disease in a healthy young woman successfully
treated with ciprofloxacin and doxycycline. Kekkaku 1995;
70(1): 31–35.
15. Tsukamura M. Chemotherapy of lung disease due to
Mycobacterium avium–Mycobacterium intracellulare
complex by a combination of sulfadimethoxine,
minocycline and Kitasamycin. Kekkaku 1984; 59(1):
33–37.
IN THE SEMEN OF MAN
Although tuberculosis was rarely thought of as a sexu-
ally transmitted disease, the potential for this had always
existed. In the presence of prostatitis, it may be trans-
mitted through the semen (20).
Anyone who watched AIDS evolve in not only gay
America but heterosexually in Africa and Asia could not
help but be struck by its travel and spread along the
epidemiologic highways of sex, drugs, migrants, prosti-
tutes, bath houses and venereal disease clinics.
Yet the realization that sexual transmission of AIDS
could occur between a man with risk factors and a wo-
man came late (3). Soon thereafter, female to male
transmission, originally thought unlikely, was also
found to occur (29). By 1984, the pivotal importance
female prostitutes played in the propagation of AIDS in
equatorial Africa had become evident (33).
But despite the magnifying forces of high tech tests
such as Polymerase Chain Reactors (PCRs), protein
broths which make multiple copies of hard to find
pathogens, and which critics contest vastly exaggerates
HIV by making numerous copies of fragments of nucleic
acid which might or might not even be HIV, HIV can be
detected only in a distinct minority of semen samples:
one in 25 (34).
On the other hand, ignored and unnoticed, the very
real possibility of the genital transmission of M. tuber-
culosis, a disease affecting almost 2 billion people, inti-
mately linked with and considered a reliable sign of AIDS
(4,5), and frequently found in the genitourinary tract
(38). Tuberculosis and Mycobacterium avium (also called
Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare or MAI) are not only
the recognized leading causes of infectious disease in
AIDS today, they are by far the most important infec-
tions in AIDS.
The Research Center for Genitourinary Tuberculosis,
Kingsbridge Veterans Hospital, Bronx New York, 1954
By 1954, a pattern emerged at Dr. John Lattimer’s
Center for Genitourinary Tuberculosis. Men who devel-
oped tuberculosis epididymitis (inflammation of the
testicles) were usually found to have an active focus of
ª 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Is AIDS really caused by a virus? 675
tubercular infection in their prostate and cultures of
their semen were frequently positive for tubercle bacilli
(20).
Documenting sexual transmission, what puzzled
John Lattimer most was why more husbands with
prostatic TB were not infecting their wives. Two possi-
bilities came to mind. First, the resistance of the thick
stratified vaginal epithelium to tubercular infection;
second, the scorched earth policy of prostatic tubercu-
losis, whereby it sought to destroy glandular elements
of the prostate (Ibid)), severely decreasing semen vol-
ume. Many of his male patients, in fact, complained that
orgasm produced only slight moisture at the tip of their
penis with over half of his experimental groups having a
semen volume of less than 0.5cc: too scanty to infect
the vaginal or vulvar epithelium, if it reached them at
all. As almost a testament to this finding, of 40 men with
tuberculous genital infections, only one produced a
child (Ibid).
Nevertheless, seeing sexual spread in a disease with
staggering numbers right in front of him, he gave notice
to the scientific world (20). But few listened and ade-
quate descriptions of tuberculosis as a sexually trans-
mitted disease never really reached medical texts.
Niagara Penisula Sanatorium, St. Catharines, Ont.,
Canada, December 1954
Dr. Edgar T. Peer was more than a bit skeptical as he
reviewed Lattimer’s study regarding the seminal trans-
mission of tuberculosis.
He himself had recovered tubercle bacilli from a pa-
tient’s semen in 1952, but dismissed the finding as lab
error. He would later write that like most dismissals of
the tubercle bacilli on similar grounds, it would come
back to haunt him.
By 1954, Peer’s cases of sexually transmitted tuber-
culosis were mounting and struck by similarities beyond
coincidence, he saw an ‘extremely probable source’ of
tuberculosis coming from the male genital tract.
Peer published, warning that if physicians did not
wake up to the possibility of sexually transmitted genital
tuberculosis, its diagnosis would continue to be unsus-
pected and underestimated (28), which one day could
lead to potentially catastrophic consequences.
Nor were Peer and Lattimer alone. Netter mentioned
that the spread of the tubercle bacilli through the female
genital tract of the tubercle bacilli by coitus with a tu-
berculous male could not be denied (26). In fact, wher-
ever culture of the seminal fluid showed Mycobacterium
tuberculosis, there was a possibility of transmission of
genital tuberculosis from male to female via the semen
through sexual intercourse (6). While Lattimer (21) and
Peer (28) showed that the development of tuberculous
Medical Hypotheses (2003) 60(5), 671–688
676 Broxmeyer
ulcers in the vagina or vulva resulting in swollen lymph
nodes in the groin was due to semen positive males
harboring M. tuberculosis, Hellerstrom clocked the ac-
tual incubation period from the date of coitus during
which the wife was exposed – to the development of the
vaginal or vulval ulcer and enlargement of inguinal
lymph nodes at approximately 3–4 weeks (14).
Heins offered a better idea of the potential potency of
sexually transmitted mycobacteria such as tuberculosis,
demonstrating that even the tame Mycobacteria
smegmatis found in the smegma genital secretions of
both men and women, when introduced into the vaginas
of female mice, resulted in the immediate death of over
half of an experimental group of 14 (13).
Lattimer’s cases were compiled from European and
American literature. The ulcer and enlarged nodes in the
female, often misdiagnosed, closely resembled lympho-
granuloma inguinale, syphilis or chancroids (Ibid) dis-
eases that could coexist with tubercular sexually
transmitted disease (20).
And, just as men could transmit mycobacterial dis-
ease to women, so too could women infect men (21). By
1870 Soloweitschnick had documented the first obser-
vation of a tuberculous ulceration of the penis (2).
Lewis cited 110 cases of tuberculosis of the penis
written up before 1946. Twenty-nine additional cases
were subsequently reported by Lal (19). In his series of
primary cases, Lewis pointed to 14 of venereal origin –
12 penile ulcerations being definitely the result of coitus
and 2 as a result of oral sex (21).
Penile ulcers attributed to primary HIV (15) were al-
ready well documented in TB literature (16,17,21,37).
And ‘giant cells’ claimed to originate from HIV (22,30)
were decades ago seen at the base of these ulcers (21).
Long a hallmark of tuberculosis, multi-nucleated giant
cells form and engulf the tubercle bacilli in an attempt to
kill them (23).
Lewis mentions that of all the ways in which the
penis could be infected with tubercle bacilli, direct
contact was by far the most common. Although he
documented transmission mostly through vaginal sex
and occasionally oral sex, rectal transmission was not
explored (21).
To explain cases claimed not to arise from direct
vaginal inoculation, woman to man, Lewis borrowed
from Verneuil’s hypothesis, somehow overlooked by
later writers. In 1883, Verneuil, in Hypothesis On the
Origin of Genital Tuberculosis In The Two Sexes, pro-
posed a mechanism whereby men with infected urine or
semen first inoculated the vaginal vault of their partners,
and then, through subsequent sex became themselves
re-inoculated at the corona or frenulum of their own
penises (35).
Medical Hypotheses (2003) 60(5), 671–688
Years passed. Voices of warning persisted.
By 1972, five years before gays started dying in the
U.S., Rolland wrote Genital Tuberculosis, a Forgotten
Disease? (31) And ironically, in 1979, on the eve of AIDS
recognition, Gondzik and Jasiewicz showed that even in
the laboratory, genitally infected tubercular male guinea
pigs could infect healthy females through their semen
by an HIV-compatible ratio of 1 in 6 or 17%, prompting
him to warn his patients that not only was tuberculosis
probably a sexually transmitted disease, but also the
necessity of the application of suitable contraceptives
such as condoms to avoid it (12).
Gondzik’s solution and date of publication are chill-
ing; his findings significant. Even in syphilis at its most
infectious stage, successful transmission in humans was
possible only in 30% of contacts (32).
Two years later, investigators in South Africa, itself
perched on the precipice of a devastating sexually
transmitted AIDS epidemic, issued a report of 91 cases of
tuberculosis of the penis (25,36). This was followed by
documentation in which ‘HIV’ in young African females
came only after first contracting genital TB (11).
Moreover, the fact that Mycobacterium avium-
intracellulare-fowl or swine tuberculosis, considered
an ‘atypical’ tuberculosis could also act like a sexu-
ally transmitted disease, set up an explosive sc enario
(8–10).
Avium had, in the short space of 30 years, gone from
relative obscurity to the leading infectious disease in U.S.
AIDS. And despite the fact that DePaepe’s group used
only conventional Ziehl-Neelsen stain without culture of
either testicular tissue or semen, they still found M.
avium in these specimens in 32% of AIDS patients with
systemic M. avium, the same M. avium that would
eventually kill most U.S. AIDS patients that did not die
from another AIDS-related disease (27).
Queens Hospital Center, Long Island Jewish-Hillside
Medical Center, Jamaica, New York, 1984
Dr. Pascal De Caprariis saw before him a dying
30-year-old Haitian man with AIDS. A biopsy of the
lymph node in the patient’s groin showed Mycobacte-
rium avium-intracellulare seemingly gone systemic,
spreading to the liver. Despite using different combi-
nations totaling seven different anti-mycobacterials, the
patient died.
Then, just before death an ulcerative lesion of the
corona of the penis formed. Tests for herpes were neg-
ative. Upon culture and only upon culture, Mycobacte-
rium avium was isolated from the penile crater, and De
Caprariis started speculating that with this and the right
groin lymphatic swelling, sexual transmission of Avium
seemed neither far-fetched nor improbable (9).
ª 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Department of Microbiology, Mount Sinai Hospital,
New York, 1985
Avium, although ubiquitous, was also in animal res-
ervoirs, swine among them (7). For American microbi-
ologist Beca Damsker, who found overwhelming
mycobacterial infections of the colon and rectal tissues
in U.S. gay AIDS time and again, an anorectal portal of
transmission had to be considered important. She had,
with regularity, found Avium or swine tuberculosis in
gay stool and biopsy specimens (8). There was also the
specter of the predilection of some homosexuals for
bestiality, sexual activities with animals, a potential
vector of transmission to man, which when combined
with the fragility of the rectal mucosa to local trauma or
intercourse and antigenic challenge (24), could lead to
calamitous unchecked multiplication of M. avium-in-
tracellulare, possibly of animal origin, in the intestinal
mucosa leading towards AIDS spread into the blood with
resultant targeting of other systems (8).
Tuberculosis in swine is almost always caused by M.
avium (18) and such avian tuberculosis leads to some of
the highest financial losses in the swine and poultry farm
industry (1).
Although M. avium-intracellulare was thought of as an
‘opportunistic’ infection which occurred only late in the
immunosuppression of AIDS, Damsker encouraged a
better analysis of the temporal relationship between M.
avium-intracellulare infection and American AIDS, fore-
seeing that what doctors were documenting in AIDS could
be nothing but a stepwise increment of M. avim-intra-
cellulare, present from the beginning but ever increasing,
both in the scope of its infection, immune suppression,
and lowered CD4 count (8). In theorizing such, Beca
Damsker presented a very possible cause for AIDS.
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1. Berthelsen J. D. Economics of the avian TB problem in
swine. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1974; 164: 307–308.
2. Brunati J. Tuberculosis of the penis; surgical form-case. Rev
Chir Paris 1937; 75: 213–233.
3. Centers for Disease Control (CDC) Immunodeficiency
among female sexual partners of males with acquired
immune deficiency syndrom (AIDS) – New York. Morb
Mortal Weekly Rep 1983; 31: 700–1.
4. CDC Tuberculosis – United States, 1985 – and the possible
impact of human T-lymphotropic virus type III/
lymphadenopathy associated virus infection. Morb Mortal
Weekly Rep 1986; 35: 74–6.
5. CDC Diagnosis and management of mycobacterial infection
and disease of persons with human immunodeficiency virus
infection. Ann Int Med 1987; 106: 254–6.
6. Chakravarty S. C., Sircar D. K. Genital tuberculosis in males.
Seminal fluid culture and vaso-seminal vesiculography
studies. J Indian Med Assoc 1968; 51(6): 283–286.
7. Chapman J. S. The Atypical Mycobacteria and Human
Mycobacteriosis. New York: Plenum Press, 1977.
ª 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
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8. Damsker B., Bottone E. J. Mycobacterium avium-
Mycobacterium intracellulare from the intestinal tracts of
patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome:
concepts regarding acquisition and pathogenesis. J Infect Dis
1985; 151(1): 179–181.
9. De Caprariis P. J., Giron J. A. Mycobacterium avium-
intracellulare infection and possible venereal transmission.
Ann Intern Med 1984; 101(5): 721.
10. De Paepe M. E., Guerrieri C., Waxman M. Opportunistic
infections of the testes in the acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome. Mt Sinai J Med 1990; 57(1): 25–29.
11. Giannacopoulos K. C., Hatzidaki E. G. Genital tuberculosis
in a HIV infected woman. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol
1998; 80(2): 227–229.
12. Gondzik M., Jasiewicz J. Experimental study on the
possibility of tuberculosis transmission by coitus. Z Urol
Nphrol 1979; 72(12): 911–914.
13. Heins H. C., Jr, Dennis E. J. The possible role of smegma in
carcinoma of the cervix. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1958; 76:
726–735.
14. Hellerstrom S. Acta Dermato-Venereol 1937; 18(4): 465.
15. Hirschel B. In: Polsky, Clumeck (eds). HIV and AIDS.
London: Mosby-Wolfe, 1999.
16. Jaisankar T. J., Bhagath R. G. Penile Lupus vulgaris. Int J
Dermatol 1994; 33(4): 272–274.
17. Jeyakumar W., Ganesh R. Papulonecrotic tuberculids of the
glans penis: case report. Genitourin Med 1988; 64: 130–132.
18. Karlson A. G. The incidence of tuberculosis in animals in the
USA. Bull Int Union Against Tuberc 1968; 40: 61–63.
19. Lal D. N., Sekhon G. S. Tuberculosis of the penis. J Indian
Med Assoc 1971; 56: 316–318.
20. Lattimer J. K., Colmore H. P. Transmission of genital
tuberculosis from husband to wife via the semen. Am Rev
Tuberc 1954; 69(4): 618–624.
21. Lewis E. L. Tuberculosis of the penis. Report of 5 new cases
and complete review of the literature. J Urol 1946; 56: 737.
22. Lifson J. D., Reyes G. R. AIDS retrovirus induced
cytopathology; giant cell formation and involvement of CD4
antigen. Science 1986; 232(4754): 1123–1127.
23. Livingston V. Cancer: A New Breakthrough. Los Angeles:
Nash Publishing, 1972.
24. Mavligit G. M., Talpaz M. Chronic immune stimulation by
sperm alloantigens. Support for the hypothesis that
spermatozoa induce immune dysregulation in homosexual
males. JAMA 1984; 251(2): 237–245.
25. Morrison J. G. L., Fourie E. D. The papulonecrotic
tuberculide: from Arthus reaction to Lupus vulgaris. Br J
Dermatol 1974; 91: 263–270.
26. Netter FH. Reproductive system. The Ciba Collection of
Medical Illustrations. New Jersey: West Caldwell, 1987; 2:
188.
27. Nightingale S. D., Byrd L. T. Mycobacterium avium–
intracellulare complex bacteremia in human
immunodeficiency virus positive patients. J Infect Dis 1992;
165: 1082–1085.
28. Peer E. T. Genitourinary transmission of tuberculosis. Am
Rev Tuberc 1957; 75: 153.
29. Piot P., Quinn T. C. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
in a heterosexual population in Zaire. Lancet 1984; 2:
65–69.
30. Popovic M. Detection, isolation and continuous production
of cytopathic retroviruses (HTLV-III) from patients with
AIDS and pre-AIDS. Science 1984; 224(4648):
497–500.
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31. Rolland R., Schellekens L. Genital tuberculosis, a forgotten
disease. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd 1972; 116(52): 2377–2378.
32. Smith L. H., Wyngaarden J. B. Cecil Textbook of Medicine.
Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders, 1988.
33. Van de Perre P., Clumeck N. Female prostitutes: a risk group
for infection with human T-cell lymphotropic virus type III.
Lancet 1985; 2: 524–526.
34. Van Voorhis B. J., Martinez A. Detection of human
immunodeficiency virus type 1 in semen from seropositive
men using culture and polymerase chain reaction
deoxyribonucleic acid amplification techniques. Fertil Steril
1991; 55: 588–594.
35. Verneuil A. Hypothesis on the origin of genital tuberculosis
in the two sexes. Gaz Hebt d Med 1883; 25: 225.
36. Wilson-Jones E., Winkelmann R. K. Papulonecrotic
tuberculosis; a neglected disease in Western countries. J Am
Acad Dermatol 1986; 14: 815–826.
37. Wood B. An unusual cause of penile ulceration. South
African Med J 1991; 79(1): 284.
38. Wyngaarden J. B., 19th ed Cecil Textbook of Medicine; vol.
2. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders, 1992: 1740.
TRAGIC COST OF PREMATURE CONSENSUS
Pasteur Institute, Paris, January, 1983
The Pasteur Institute squeezed head of cancer virol-
ogy, Luc Montagnier, into the pressure cooker of finding
an AIDS retrovirus when its production of Hepatitis B
vaccine, accounting for a significant part of its income,
and in part processed from pooled American homosex-
ual blood, came under fire.
Montagnier, unsuspectingly looking for a virus clo-
sely related to Gallo’s HTLV-1, instead came upon LAV
(Lymphadenopathy Associated Virus), first identified
by Francoise Barre-Sinoussi, a member of his team at
Pasteur’s Virology.
LAV was so named because the French homosexual
fashion designer it was first isolated from had enlarged,
inflamed neck nodes (lymphadenopathy), a common
early AIDS feature. Thirty-three and promiscuous, he
had also visited New York City in 1979 and had a 50-
gay-partner-a-year history.
Betting the obvious that the agent responsible for AIDS
could be more readily detected in these swollen lymph
nodes, Barre, in January, 1983, packed a small piece of the
homosexual’s just biopsied lymph node en Toto in ice at
Paris’s Pitie-Salpetriere Hospital and delivered it to Mon-
tagnier at Pasteur. This patient did not yet have full-blown
AIDS, but his history and symptoms were strongly sug-
gestive (1). He would die 5 years later of the disease.
At Pasteur, Montagnier put the tissue into cell cul-
tures of T-lymphocytes. Immediately questions arose as
to the procedure. Looking only for a retrovirus, the team
cultured whole tissue lymph node lysates. The ‘virus’
was never isolated in its pure form. It would be the be-
ginning of a long, long line of research work based on
indirect evidence.
Medical Hypotheses (2003) 60(5), 671–688
Later, looking at Montagnier’s tissue cultures micro-
scopically there were many granules, some of which
were felt to look like retroviruses; but they were inside
cells and tissues – not whole viral particles and had dif-
ferent shapes and sizes. No two were alike. They seemed
to show all forms of ‘viral maturation’, but were they
viral?
As early as 1928, Eleanor Alexander-Jackson began
discovering unusual, and to that point, unrecognized
forms of the TB Bacillus. Jackson marveled at the
many forms of tuberculosis, including the tiny gran-
ules which the German Much saw in 1908 and soon
became known as Much’s granules (4). In 1910 Fontes
proved Much’s granules, as a sub-classification of
Kleinberger’s L-forms, were filterable and therefore
also often mistaken for viruses. In fact, in certain cir-
cles the variable acid-fast granules were called ‘the TB
virus’ (2).
Even prior to Livingston (1970), Mellon and Fisher
had warned that filterable forms of M. Avium and M.
Tuberculosis could easily be mistaken for the virus
Montagnier and Barre thought they had (3) and might
explain ‘the common finding by French workers of acid-
fast bacilli in the glands of guinea-pigs into which viral-
like (cell free) filtrates of tuberculosis material had been
injected (3)’.
REFERENCES
1. Barre-Sinoussi F., Chermann J. C. Isolation of a
T-lymphotropic retrovirus from a patient at risk for
acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Science 1983;
220: 868–871.
2. Fontes A. Bemerkungen uber die Tuberkulose Infektion und
ihr virus. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 1910; 2: 141–146.
3. Mellon, Fisher New studies on the filtrability of pure cultures
of the tubercle group of microorganisms. J Infect Dis 1932;
51: 117–128.
4. Much H. Die Variation des tuberkelbacillus in form and
wirkung. Beitr Klim Tuberk 1931; 77: 60–71.
THE RACE
Pasteur Institute, Paris, 1983
Gallo’s leukemic retrovirus (HTLV), which Barre and
Montagnier thought they had isolated, should have led
to the wild proliferation of lymphocytes. But all that
Barre found in subsequent trips to the lab was how well
it was slaughtering them. What also puzzled her was that
retroviruses typically didn’t kill cells. How could she
explain this?
By January 25th, 1983, Barre’s reverse transcriptase
radioactivity counter was showing increased numbers,
which to her meant the ‘retrovirus’ LAV was multi-
plying.
ª 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

But reverse transcriptase was nonspecific and was also
found elevated in events leading to the death of CD4
lymphocytes by tuberculosis (16), as well as in M. avium
infection of neck lymph nodes (2), probably the very
event Barre was watching. Why had she not considered
these as possible AIDS causes?
In actuality, previously having been viral cancer
researchers, Barre and Montagnier where solely at-
tuned, intellectually and technologically to detecting
retroviruses. Barre had been trained in mouse retroviral
techniques requiring the measurement of reverse trans-
criptase in Robert Bassin’s National Cancer Institute
(NCI) lab. Her procedures were not designed to explore
for some unknown pathogen. In effect, Barre and Mon-
tagnier found a retrovirus because that was all that they
were looking for.
Within weeks Montagnier called a staff meeting. The
new ‘retrovirus’ wasn’t Gallo’s HTLV. He didn’t assert
that his group had proved that HAV caused AIDS, but it
was possible. In the future he would send samples of the
tissue culture to Gallo who headed AIDS research at NCI
to stimulate further research.
Approximately 1 year later, after receiving
French samples from Montagnier, retrovirologist Gallo
isolated and announced HTLV-3 as the AIDS retrovi-
rus, which proved to be the same as LAV: a produc-
tive Lentivirus infection with all forms of viral
maturation.
A colleague had suggested that Montagnier charac-
terize his virus as a Lentivirus (Lenti means slow) on a
hunch. Lentiviruses were large viruses which, after en-
tering cells, did not leap into activity at once, but later
shot into action.
But so-called slow viruses had been implicated, but
never proven, in diseases such as Creutzfeldt-Jacob and
Alzheimer’s. Prominent American retrovirologist Peter
Duesberg, who did much of the pioneer work on retro-
viral ultrastructure, knew that as direct pathogens the
retroviruses were not ‘slow’ viruses, even lentiviruses
like visna with which HIV was often compared. Rather, if
Visna reached high enough blood concentration, it was
rapidly pathogenic (10). HIV, however, was not to be
found in such high blood titer. Perplexed, Duesberg
summed that there was no such thing as a slow virus,
‘only slow virologists (7)’.
The discovery of LAV (HIV) allowed virologists to take
the high ground in American medicine. No longer would
practicing physicians like Livingston, who had seen
disease face to face, assume leadership on policy issues.
The new medical shamans would be laboratory gene
splicers, molecular biologists, virologists and immunol-
ogists who told doctors what to think. A dangerous
precedent was being set.
ª 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Is AIDS really caused by a virus? 679
Cambridge University Clinical School, Cambridge,
England, September, 1983
Former viral cancer researcher Abraham Karpas,
worked out of the Department of Hematological
Medicine at Cambridge. By September, 1983 he had
identified a ‘transmissible agent’ through electron mi-
crographs of the blood of a gay AIDS patient (8).
Karpas was having a problem with Gallo’s HTLV1 and
was unable to confirm previous reports of this purported
AIDS retrovirus in Africans. Many blood tests finding
HTLV1 positive by previous investigators were found
negative when retested in Karpas’s lab (9).
Karpas, probably the second man in the world to see
the AIDS agent, fired off a quick report on his trans-
missible agent complete with a microphotograph, but
was having difficulty getting the paper published. He
had the honesty to admit that he wasn’t certain that the
55 nm particles with their 10 nm electrodense cores were
viruses at all and began his paper with the phrase
‘assuming it is a virus’, though he later found them
identical to Montagnier’s HIV.
Experts sided with Karpas’s restraint. Not only were
retroviral particles ‘no proof that a virus was involved’,
but such particles were ubiquitous – a statement sup-
ported by O’Hara’s Harvard study which found ‘viral
particles, morphologically indistinguishable’ in 90% of
the enlarged lymph nodes in both AIDS and non-AIDS
patients (13). O’Hara’s study stood out as the one study
to date which used suitable controls, finding ‘viral par-
ticles’ indistinguishable from HIV in a variety of swollen
lymph nodes without HIV.
Similarly, African studies of the lymph nodes of pa-
tients with HIV also showed them indistinguishable
from those with just tuberculosis and without AIDS
(12,15). O’Hara concluded ‘The presence of such parti-
cles do not, by themselves indicate infection with HIV’.
Yet it was photomicrographs of the same particles which
first informed the world that there was an HIV.
In Reproduction of RNA Tumor Viruses, Badar warned
that in vitro cultures, even virus free, ‘can be induced to
produce particles which resemble RNA tumor viruses in
every physical and chemical respect (3)’, an event many
saw applicable to the rigors Montagnier and Gallo put
their AIDS tissues thru.
Oddly, it would not be until 1997 that two indepen-
dent groups would examine these HIV particles in ac-
cordance with accepted international procedure (6,4).
Both teams saw an excess of fluid filled, many formed
(pleomorphic) ‘contaminating’ vesicles, ranging in size
from 50 to 500 nm as opposed to a minor population of
particles of about 100 nm.
The latter were assumed to be viral, but proved, ac-
cording to critics, to be too large, of a wrong shape and
Medical Hypotheses (2003) 60(5), 671–688
680 Broxmeyer
containing too much material to be retroviruses. In fact,
both the particles and vesicles of Bess and Gluschankof
shared common antigenic determinants could easily
have been, and do seem reminiscent of the variably acid-
fast mycobacterial L-forms pointed out and electronically
microphotographed by Seibert (14), Alexander-Jackson
(1), Livingston (11) and Cantwell (5). Livingston showed a
protoplast with L-form inclusions budding out vesicles
from its surface not unlike the vesicles in the 1997 AIDS
verification studies, while Seibert and Cantwell showed
particles similar to those attributed to HIV. And the
‘substantial amount’ of both RNA and DNA found by
Bess points to bacterial or mycobacterial origin.
Suddenly, it seemed as if the world had been sold a
bill of sale on a non-existent virus.
REFERENCES
1. Alexander-Jackson A. Specific type of microorganism
isolated from animal and human cancer: bacteriology of the
organism. Growth 1954; 18: 37–51.
2. April M. M., Garelick J. M. Reverse transcriptase in situ
polymerase chain readtion in atypical mycobacterial
adenitis. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1996; 122(11):
1214–1218.
3. Bader J. P. Reproduction of RNA humor viruses.
Comprehensive Virol 1975; 4: 253.
4. Bess J. W. Microvesicles are a source of contaminating
cellular proteins found in purified HIV-preparations.
Virology 1997; 230(1): 134–144.
5. Cantwell A. R. Histologic observation of variably acid-fast
coccoid forms suggestive of cell wall deficient bacteria in
Hodgkin’s disease. A report of four cases. Growth 1981; 45:
168–187.
6. Gluschankof P., Mondor I. Cell membrane vesicles are a
major contaminant of gradient enriched human
immunodeficiency virus Type-1 preparations. Virology
1997; 230(1): 125–133.
7. Health Education AIDS Liaison (HEAL), HIV 101: 10 Scientific
Reasons Why HIV Cannot Cause Aids. Toronto, 2001.
8. Karpas A. Unusual virus produced by cultured cells from a
patient with AIDS. Letter to Editor. Mol Biol Med 1983; 1:
457–459.
9. Karpas A., Maayan S. Lack of antibodies to adult T cell
leukemia virus and to AIDS virus in Israeli Falashas. Nature
1986; 319: 794.
10. Lairmore M. D., Rosadio R. H. Ovine lentivirus lymphoid
interstitial pneumonia. Rapid induction in neonatal lambs.
Am J Pathol 1986; 125: 173–181.
11. Livingston V. Cancer: A New Breakthrough. Los Angeles:
Nash Publishing, 1972.
12. Nambuya A., Sewankambo N. Tuberculosis lymphadenitis
associated with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in
Uganda. J Clin Pathol 1988; 41: 93–96.
13. O’Hara C. J., Groopman J. E. The ultrastructural and
immunohistochemical demonstration of viral particles in
lymph nodes from human immunodeficiency virus-related
and non-human immunodeficiency virus-related
lymphadenopathy syndromes. Hum Pathol 1988; 19(5):
545–549.
Medical Hypotheses (2003) 60(5), 671–688
14. Seibert F. B., Feldmann F. M. Morphological, biological, and
immunological studies on isolates from tumors and
leukemic blood. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1970; 174(3): 690–728.
15. Voetberg A., Lucas S. B. Tuberculosis or persistent
generalized lymphadenopathy in HIV disease. Lancet 1991;
337: 56–57.
16. Watson E., Hill L. L. Apojptosis in Mycobacterium
tuberculosis infection in mice exhibiting varied
immunopathology. J Pathol 2000; 190(2): 211–2203.
SMOKE AND MIRRORS
Like chameleons, HIV scientists continued to change
their colors to blend into whatever new facts came
along, much of it from the mycobacterial literature
found in AIDS. And since the doctors and scientists who
bought into the HIV theory were in the clear majority,
and that majority ruled, their funding and literature
mushroomed into a self-fulfilling archive while those
that did not agree found themselves labeled heretics,
lost tenure, research funding and even their jobs.
By 1983, the certain knowledge that AIDS had begun
its wholesale slaughter of Africans, mainly through het-
erosexual sex, sent shudders down the back of a world in
which, not since the last great sexual pandemic of syphilis
five centuries ago, had there been anything comparable.
Men and woman were transmitting AIDS back and forth
sexually in heretofore unheralded numbers.
Wave after wave of epidemic tuberculosis had hit the
world. It was a disease of big numbers. In the 100 years
from 1850 to 1950, it was estimated that 1 billion per-
sons died from tuberculosis (3).
From England it spread to the shores of Western and
then Eastern Europe and by 1900, North and South
American waves began to peak. But in the developing
countries of Asia and Africa, where the AIDS epidemic
was new in 1983, epidemic waves of tuberculosis had
not yet reached their zenith (10). As this epidemic con-
tinued to seethe, it was these very countries that would
show the highest TB mortality and morbidity, even be-
fore AIDS came into the picture (7), and would prove to
be the future epicenters for AIDS.
Foreigners called the all-too-common African AIDS
wasting syndrome ‘slim disease’; Africans, just ‘slim’.
Serwadda wrote about it in Slim Disease: a New Disease in
Uganda (9) but of 82 patients diagnosed with this
wasting syndrome, he found 44% to have disseminated
tuberculosis. Referring to what he felt to be the tip of an
iceberg, Serwadda suggested that a substantial propor-
tion, if not all, Slim Disease was actually due to dis-
seminated tuberculosis (2). In addition, disseminated M.
Avium too was believed to be a major cause of wasting
syndrome in patients with AIDS with approximately 40%
having nausea or diarrhea (6,8).
ª 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

True, tuberculosis and diarrhea, prominent in African
AIDS, had been killing Africans for some time, but sud-
denly they had become untreatable. A new name was
needed for an old affliction. And that name, AIDS, was
supplied, hurriedly, perhaps too hurriedly.
It was in Africa that those who hailed HIV as the cause
of AIDS faced their first and most serious challenge over
extremely suspicious coincidences. Not only were over
65% of African AIDS patients not HIV-positive (Lancet,
Oct. 17, 1992), but, of those that tested positive, data
suggested that the antigens in HIV-1 Elisa and Western
Blots, originally claimed to belong solely to HIV, were
cross-reacting with the mycobacteria (5).
Mycobacterial cell wall components, phenolic glyco-
lipid (PGL) and lipoara-binomannan (LAM) were noted
not only to strongly cross-react with p24, the sacred cow
of ‘HIV isolation’, but p31, also favored in the detection
of HIV in the blood (5).
Even the most prominent and persistently detected
antigen in AIDS tests (11), p41, could be found in bac-
teria such as the tuberculosis.
Defensively, HIV enthusiasts shot back that tuber-
culosis in AIDS was merely an ‘opportunistic infection’,
a label that most North American AIDS experts were
originally extremely reluctant to assign. To John and
Kaur, in a Lancet article, the term ‘opportunistic’
seemed inappropriate. Infections due to normally non-
disease-causing microbes were ‘opportunistic (4)’.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis was the only infectious
pathogen ever to force the UN to issue a (1993) global
emergency.
Many physicians, wary of the invented terms used to
describe HIV, still remained silent. Makeshift expres-
sions, like ARC (Aids Related Complex), PGL (Persistent
Generalized Lymphadenopathy) and ‘pre-AIDS’ were
scrutinized in disbelief. There were similar forms of la-
tent TB, yet none were ready to call them pre-tubercu-
losis or tuberculosis-related complex (TRC).
By 1986 Montagnier’s group, puzzled, found a patient
in West Africa with AIDS but no HIV antibodies in the
blood. Rather than rethink the whole HIV hypothesis,
the discoverer of HIV proceeded to simply say that it was
another retrovirus at work: HIV2, said to be responsible
for a large West African epidemic, mainly transmitted
through heterosexual intercourse (1).
Lacor Hospital in Gulu, Uganda, was in effect a TB
sanitarium, but roughly half of the patients who re-
mained there for two months or more came down with
AIDS. And so Africans died, with the bleeding gums and
anemia claimed at different times to come from both
HIV and TB, but their blood was HIV-negative. In a
word, they died of wasting, etc. or consumption.
ª 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Is AIDS really caused by a virus? 681
REFERENCES
1. Clavel F., Guetard D. Isolation of a new human retrovirus
from West African patients with AIDS. Science 1986; 233:
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2. DeCock K. M. Tuberculosis and HIV infection in
sub-Saharan Africa. JAMA 1992; 268: 12.
3. Iseman M. D. Evolution of drug resistant tuberculosis: a tale
of two species. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994; 91: 2428–2429.
4. John J. J., Kaur A. Tuberculosis and HIV infection. Lancet
1993; 342(2): 676.
5. Kashala O. Infection with human immunodeficiency virus
type 1 (HIV-1) and human T-cell lymphotropic viruses
among leprosy patients and contacts: correlation between
HIV-1 cross-reactivity and antibodies to
lipoarabinomannan. J Infect Dis 1994; 169(2): 296–304.
6. Kemper C. A., Meng T. C. Treatment of Mycobacterium
avium complex bacteremia in AIDS with a four-drug oral
regimine: rifampin, ethambutol, clofazimine and
ciprofloxacin. Ann Intern Med 1992; 116: 466–472.
7. Lowell AM. Tuberculosis in the World. DHEW Publication
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8. Modilevsky T., Sattler F. R. Mycobacterial disease in patients
with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Arch Intern
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9. Serwadda D. Slim disease: a new disease in Uganda and its
association with HTLV-III infection. Lancet 1985; 2(8460):
849–852.
10. Stead W. W., Asim K. D. Epidemiologic and host factors in
Tuberculosis. In: Praeger Monographs in Infectious Disease;
vol. 2. New York: Praeger, 1983.
11. Veronese F. M. Characterization of gp41 as the
transmembrane protein coded by the HTLV-III/LAV
envelope gene. Science 1985; 229: 1402.
AMBIGUOUS SLAUGHTER
The scientific vagueness and deception to bolster the
HIV theory continued.
Important to the basic mechanism of AIDS is the de-
struction of CD4 (T-cells) lymphocytes, key to the
body’s resistance against infection. As this CD4 cell
count falls in the blood of an AIDS patient, many
treacherous infections are able to jump on board.
HIV was early on claimed to destroy these CD4 white
blood cells, yet the exact mechanism for this was never
made clear (17).
What Papadopulos-Eleopulos makes clear is that ret-
roviruses were never known to kill cells. It was the one
thing retrovirologists always knew and agreed upon.
Therefore, she asked, how could they kill CD4? Instead,
it seemed to her that CD4 T Lymphocyte death might be
due to the many non-HIV factors present in HIV inocu-
late, including other infectious agents (28).
And although low CD4 has been made synonymous
with HIV by many, the fact is that known AIDS-risk
groups may have low CD4, even in the face of persis-
tently negative HIV antibody tests (7,9,26).
Medical Hypotheses (2003) 60(5), 671–688
682 Broxmeyer
That HIV is not the cause of apoptosis (or immune
cell destruction) of CD4+ is indicated by the fact that
in chronically infected retroviral cell lines, where HIV is
incessantly produced, apoptosis is not detected (28).
Discoverer Luc Montagnier and others have confirmed
that HIV does not kill T-cells like CD4+ directly
(11,20).
On the other hand, virulent TB can depress the CD4
count (34), and does kill T-cells like CD4+ directly, as
well as macrophages through nitric oxide secretion (32).
In 1978, the first European measurement of a low
CD4 in AIDS was on a patient with disseminated atypical
Mycobacteria fortuitum (5), closely related to Mycobac-
terium tuberculosis.
By 1987, Canadian researchers realized that myco-
bacteria such as tuberculosis alone could be responsible
for direct CD4 killing and much of the immunosup-
pression found in AIDS. Furthermore, such a tubercular
immune system throttle could persist for life, even when
the disease wasn’t progressive (19).
In the same vein, Mudaki, in Zaire, showed how fast a
CD4 count could shrink below 200/ul just by tubercu-
losis, without HIV (25). Moreover, TB often presented
before the development of immune dysfunction, either
with or without HIV (30).
In fact of all the infections involved in AIDS, none
were associated with as low CD4 cell counts as were
mycobacterial infections (27). And those patients with
either M. Avium or M. tuberculosis in their blood had
significantly lower CD4 counts (14).
Yet there had to be more – a missing link. It has long
been known that a low CD4 count in and of itself did not
automatically lead to the severe immunodepression
found in AIDS (18).
Case Western Reserve University, Ohio, July, 1998
Although previously demonstrated (19,8), the fe-
rocity of a tubercular attack shown in papers such as
Hirsh’s 1999 Ohio study amplified that not only were
30% of CD4 and non-CD4 cells slaughtered within 98
hours of co-culture with TB, a 20-fold increase (15),
but B cells (6,22) and macrophages (12,24) were also
decimated.
The fact that both TB specific and non-specific T
cells were equally affected would account for tuber-
culosis’s silent role in the depressed responsiveness
towards non-TB antigens such as Candidal thrush,
Pnuemocystis, and other opportunistic organisms; non-
CD4 lymphocytes hold a possible role in keeping these
at bay.
But it was in the annihilation of infection swallowing
macrophages, critical to reticuloendothelial ultrastruc-
ture, that M. Tuberculosis, M. avium (4), or both working
together, furnished the key to AIDS devastation.
Medical Hypotheses (2003) 60(5), 671–688
California Pacific Medical Center Research Institute,
San francisco, California, 1999
A stagnant HIV hypothesis, much in need of rejuve-
nation, was expanded to include infection of macro-
phages, long the home base of tuberculosis and now
claimed to be the most important reservoir of the AIDS
‘virus’ from which a sustained, long term attack on the
body’s lymphocytes could proceed (16). Although
Duesberg and Levy saw HIV infection of macrophages as
possible, their subsequent killing by HIV was not (10,21).
Indeed, the missing link in AIDS was the macrophage.
It had long been known that certain white blood cells
called macrophages ate (phagocytosed) bacteria. But how
tuberculosis and the mycobacteria, naturally endowed
with their own thick, lipid-rich cell envelopes, became
the greatest assassins ever, presently responsible for a
human death every 15 s (http://www.stoptb.org/tuber-
culosis/#facts.html) had to do with how they resisted ly-
sosomal degradation inside the macrophage, multiplied
there (1), and ate it up, from the inside out (13). Inside
every macrophage swim two thin-membraned vacuoles:
one, the phagosome, containing ingested bacteria; the
other the lysosome containing lysozyme, a destructive
enzyme tailored to kill bacteria. Usually, with infection,
the two fuse or join, the acidic and enzymatic content of
the lysosome killing bacterial elements harbored in the
phagosome. It is how the macrophage defends the body.
But after eons of evolution virulent mycobacteria and
tuberculosis have developed a survival strategy which
includes coating the phagosomes they find themselves in
with proteins to prevent their enzymatic destruction (29),
punching holes into the phagosomal membrane for nu-
trition and release of toxic products (33), evading enzy-
matic destruction even in those cases where vacular
fusion has taken place (2), and learning to escape from
such fused vacuoles (23), only to eventually kill the
macrophage as the hunter becomes the hunted. Thus TB
and the mycobacteria enjoy and thrive in a macrophagal
lifestyle deadly to most other pathogens (31).
At California Pacific Research Institute, for example,
Bermudez, Parker and Petrofsky watched ferocious AIDS
Mycobacterium Avium destroy 28–46% more macro-
phages than uninfected cultures (4). And although it was
known that both Avium and tuberculosis could escape
dying macrophages only to kill and infect others, in the
case of AIDS Avium, Bermudez saw a particularly men-
acing event in front of him: macrophage kill only made
Avium more virulent and hungrier than ever (3), as it
sought out its next macrophage victim.
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macrophages to Mycobacterium tuberculosis, with
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observations on fusion of lysosomes and phagosomes. J Exp
Med 1971; 134: 713–740.
2. Armstong J. A., Hart P. D. Phagosome–lysosome
interactions in cultured macrophages infected with virulent
tubercle bacilli. Reversal of the usual nonfusion pattern and
observations on bacterial survival. J Exp Med 1975; 142: 1–
16.
3. Bermudez L. E., Parker A. Growth within macrophages
increases the efficiency of Mycobacterium avium to invade
other macrophages by complement receptor independent
pathway. Infect Immun 1997; 65: 1916–1925.
4. Bermudez L. E., Parker A. Apoptosis of Mycobacterium
avium-infected macrophages is mediated by both tumour
necrosis factor TNF and Fas, and involves the activation of
caspases. Clin Exp Immunol 1999; 116: 94–99.
5. Bultmann B. D., Flad H. D. Disseminatred mycobacterial
histiocytosis due to M. fortuitum associated with helper
T-lymphocyte immune deficiency. Virchow’s Arch 1982;
395: 217–225.
6. Chaouchi N., Arvanitakis L. Characterization of
transforming growth factor-B1 induced apoptosis in normal
human B cells and lymphoma B cell lines. Oncogene 1995;
11: 1615–1622.
7. Detels R., English P. A. Patterns of CD4+ cell changes after
HIV-1 infection indicate the existence of a codeterminant of
AIDS. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1988; 1: 390–395.
8. Dlugovitzky D., Luchesi S. Circulating immune complexes
in patients with advanced tuberculosis and their association
with autoantibodies and reduced CD4+ lymphocytes. Braz J
Med Biol Res 1995; 28(3): 331–335.
9. Donahoe R. M., Bueso-Ramos C. Mechanistic implications of
the findings that opiates and other drugs of abuse moderate
T-cell surface receptors and antigenic markers. Ann N Y
Acad Sci 1987; 496: 711–721.
10. Duesberg P. H. Aids epidemiology: inconsistencies with
human immunodeficiency virus and with infectious disease.
Proc Natl Acad Sci 1991; 88: 1575–1579.
11. Duesberg P. H. AIDS acquired by drug consumption and
other noncontiguous risk factors. Pharmacol Ther 1992; 55:
201–277.
12. Fratazzi C., Arbeit R. D. Macrophage apoptosis in
mycobacterial infections. J Leukoc Biol 1999; 66(5): 763–
764.
13. Gangadharam P. R., Pratt P. F. In vitro response of murine
alveolar and peritoneal macrophages to Mycobacterium
intracellulare. Am Rev Respir Dis 1983; 128(6): 1044–1047.
14. Gilks C. F., Richard J. B. Disseminated Mycobacterium avium
infection among HIV infected patients in Kenya. J Acquir
Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retroviral 1995; 8(2): 195–198.
15. Hirsch C. S., Toossi Z. Apoptosis and T cell
hyporesponsiveness in pulmonary tuberculosis. J Infect Dis
1999; 179: 945–953.
16. Ho D. D., Rota T. R. Infection of monocyte-macrophages by
human T-lymphotropic virus type III. J Clin Invest 1986; 77:
1712–1715.
17. Jaworowski A., Crowe S. M. Does HIV cause depletion of
CD4+ T cells in vivo by the induction of apoptosis? Immunol
Cell Biol 1999; 77(1): 90–98.
18. John J. J., Kaur A. Tuberculosis and HIV infection. Lancet
1993; 342(2): 676.
19. Lamoureux G., Davignon L. Is prior mycobacterial infection
a common predisposing factor to AIDS in Haitians and
Africans? Ann Inst Pasteur Immunol 1987; 138(4):
521–529.
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20. Lemaitre M., Guetard D. Protective activity of tetracycline
analogs against the cytopathic effect of the human
immunodeficiency viruses in CEM cells. Res Virol 1990;
141(1): 5–16.
21. Levy J. Mysteries of HIV-challenges for therapy and
prevention. Nature 1988; 333: 519–522.
22. McDonald I., Wang H. Transforming growth facor B1
cooperates with anti-immunoglobulin for the induction of
aptosis in group I (biopsy-like) Burkitt lymphoma cell lines.
Blood 1996; 87: 1147–1154.
23. McDonough K. A., Kress Y. Pathogenesis of tuberculosis:
interaction of Mycobacterium tuberculosis with
macrophages (published erratum appears in Infect Immun
1993 Sep.; 61(9): 4021–4) Infect Immun 1993; 61(7):
2763–2773.
24. Molloy A., Laochumroonvorapong P. Apoptosis, but not
necrosis, of infected monocytes is coupled with killing of
intracellular bacillus Calmette-Guerin. J Exp Med 1994; 180:
1499–1509.
25. Mudaki Y., Perriens J. H. Spectrum of immunodeficiency in
HIV-1-infected patients with pulmonary tuberculosis in
Zaire. Lancet 1993; 342(8864): 143–146.
26. Novick D. M., Brown D. J. C. Influence of sexual preference
and chronic hepatitis B virus infection on T lymphocyte
subsets, natural killer activity, and suppressor. Hepatol
1986; 3: 363–370.
27. Ohtomo K., Wang S. Secondary infections of AIDS autopsy
cases in Japan with special emphasis on Mycobacterium
avium-intracellulare complex infection. Tohoku J Exp Med
2000; 192(2): 99–109.
28. Papadopulos-Eleopulos E., Turner V. E. A critical analysis of
the HIV-T4-Cell AIDS hypothesis. Genetica 1995; 95: 5–24.
29. Pieters J. Entry and survival of pathogenic mycobacteria in
macrophages. Microbes Infect 2001; 3(3): 249–255.
30. Reeve P. A. Tuberculosis & HIV infection. Lancet 1993;
342(2): 676.
31. Rhoades E. R., Ullrich H. J. How to establish a lasting
relationship with your host: lessons learned from
Mycobacterium spp. Immunol Cell Biol 2000; 78(4):
301–310.
32. Rojas M., Olivier M. TNF-alpha and IL-10 modulate the
induction of apoptosis by virulent Mycobacterium
tuberculosis in murine macrophages. J Immunol 1999;
162(10): 6122–6131.
33. Teitelbaum R., Cammer M. Mycobacterial infection of
macrophages results in membrane-permeable phagosomes.
Proc Natl Acad Sci 1999; 96(26): 15190–15195.
34. WHO: Statement of AIDS and Tuberculosis. Geneva: WHO,
1989.
VIRAL MIRAGE
By 1995 David Ho, head of New York’s Aaron Diamond
AIDS Research Center, assumed the mantel of titular head
of the U.S. AIDS establishment; he and his colleagues
proclaiming a new proactive stance, asserting that HIV
was never inactive and multiplied astronomically in the
body each day, killing CD4 cells. But there was still no
hard physical evidence, only theory, as to how HIV killed.
Ho speculated that the carnage took place in the lymph
nodes, so that there were few signs of infected CD4 in the
blood. Then HIV not involved in this hypothesized
Medical Hypotheses (2003) 60(5), 671–688
684 Broxmeyer
slaughter shot out into the blood stream, creating a ‘viral
load’. To eradicate viral load, Ho was suggesting early and
aggressive anti-viral drugs taken in potent ‘cocktails’,
with serious side-effects, and probably for the life of the
patient. The problem was, as Robert Gallo later noted, that
just about everyone he knew realized from the start that
Ho’s theory was absolutely wrong.
Nevertheless, soon HIV scientists were proclaiming
that the amount of virus in the blood was the most im-
portant determinant in AIDS prognosis (9). But the fact is
that HIV is so sparse in the blood as to require Poly-
merase Chain Reactors (PCR), a nucleic acid broth which
makes copious copies of hard-to-find pathogens, to even
detect it.
PCR inventor Kary Mullis would not support the use
of his test to amplify and exaggerate what is being per-
ceived as HIV in measuring ‘the viral load’, as is cur-
rently being done. To many, the massive amounts of
RNA supposedly representing HIV in the circulation
were suspect. Furthermore, dissidents wanted to know if
you made a thousand copies of a dollar bill, how many
real dollar bills did you still really have?
The ‘viral load test’, presently in use makes only
copies of fragments of nucleic acids attributed to HIV (6)
– does not count HIV itself. Since it does not count HIV
itself and other infections, in particular the mycobacte-
ria, can also yield similar nucleic acid fragments, a po-
sitive viral load test cannot be regarded as signaling HIV
itself. Meanwhile, nobody ever questioned the validity
of using a non-quantitative PCR in the detection of an-
other hard to find pathogen. . . . . . tuberculosis.
By 1994, British researcher John Kay walked up to a
New Hampshire podium before the Proteolytic Enzyme
Conference and announced that Hoffman-LaRoche’s
protease inhibitor RO31-8959, now called saquinavir or
Inverase, hadn’t worked out clinically in an 18-month
trial with 400 AIDS patients (3). The reason given was that
after an initial improvement in symptoms, HIV developed
resistance to the agent and that for the time being Roche
was imposing a blackout on the disappointing trial. Bio-
chemist Dr. David Rasnick, an expert on the proteases,
saw things differently. The inhibitors were performing
their job as designed and that was to block HIV produc-
tion. It wasn’t mutation or resistance that were the prob-
lems, it was that HIV did not cause AIDS (Ibid).
By 1984, Rasnick, with extensive protease experience,
was in a pivotal position to capitalize on their momen-
tum but quickly decided that to kill a harmless retrovirus
was an exercise in futility; often at the risk of severe and
as-yet-unknown side-effects, some fatal in animals.
Although it was generally acknowledged by the HIV
establishment that by the 1990s Highly Active Antiret-
roviral Therapy (HAART) made headway in braking the
Medical Hypotheses (2003) 60(5), 671–688
steep rise in both AIDS and AIDS-related deaths in the
U.S., no randomized study has ever been done compar-
ing those on these drugs to those that are not (10).
Furthermore, the precipitous drop in AIDS deaths in
1995 predates the introduction of the protease inhibi-
tors, which first came onto the market in late 1996, by
one year. This seems much akin to tuberculosis, which
began to decrease long before any specific measures or
drugs were used against it (4).
HAART, to be sure, from its onset was palliative.
Nevertheless, with HAART, in many cases, the CD4+
count is partially restored and supposedly therefore the
necessity for continuing drugs specifically against M.
Avium in certain cases stopped. But M. avium infection
rebounds when these anti-HIV drugs are stopped or fail
(8). Furthermore, the antiretrovirals in HAART were not
the only agents which could restore a CD4 count. This
restoration also occurred in patients with HIV and TB
when anti-TB treatment was used, as in John’s study
where a CD4 count of 89/ll climbed to 760/ll (5).
In truth, the entire story has not been nearly unrav-
eled regarding America’s potent anti-retroviral drugs.
Regush mentions that the types of antiviral drugs used
in ‘cocktails’ ‘have antimicrobial properties that could,
to varying degrees, target other infections that are
common to AIDS’ (10).
FDA approval for any of these agents did not require
information as to whether they were bactericidal.
Therefore, studies which show that widespread HAART
reduces the risk for TB or may bring about the further
decline of TB among persons infected with HIV (7) can
never answer with certainty that the reason for this is not
some heretofore unknown direct antimycobacterial ac-
tivity on the part of HAART.
For example, in 1999 Bermudez et al. (1) documented
that the intense macrophage and lymphocyte killing by
American AIDS M. avium was significantly reduced by
protease inhibitors called caspases.
These investigators, in effect, established that certain
protease inhibitors, a first line of defense against ‘HIV’
found in HAART, were able to curtail Mycobacteria
avium-intracellulare’s virulence, thus pinpointing a
much more specific and satisfying reason as to why, all
of a sudden, MAI prophylaxis was not necessary and
symptomatic improvement noted then that HAART was
‘bolstering the immune system’. But the question re-
mained: At what price?
REFERENCES
1. Bermudez L. E., Parker A. Apoptosis of Mycobacterium
Avium infected macrophages is mediated by both tumor
necrosis factor (TNF) and Fas and involves the activation of
caspases. Clin Exp Immunol 1999; 116: 94–99.
ª 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

2. Centers for Disease Control. Weekly surveillance report.
October 20, 1986.
3. Conlan MG. Interview with David Rasnick Ph.D.: On
Columbia’s AIDS Conference and the Nature of Science.
Zenger’s News Magazine San Diego; 1998 Jan.
4. Dubos R., Dubos J. The White Plaugue. New Brunswick:
Rutgers University Press, 1952.
5. John J. J., Kaur A. Tuberculosis and HIV infection. Lancet
1993; 342(2): 676.
6. Johnson C. The PCR to prove HIV infection. Viral load and
why they can’t be used. Continuum (London) 1996; 4: 33–
37.
7. Jones J. L., Hanson D. L. HIV-associated tuberculosis in the
era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. The adult/
asolescent sprectrum of HIV disease group. Int J Tuberc Lung
Dis 2000; 4(11): 1026–1031.
8. Kaplan J. E., Hanson M. S. Epidemiology of human
immunodeficiency virus-associated opportunistic infections
in the United States in the era of highly active anti-retroviral
therapy. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 30(Suppl 1): S5–S14.
9. Lyles R. H., Tang A. M. Virologic, immunologic, and
immune activation markers as predictors of HIV-associated
weight loss prior to AIDS. Multicenter AIDS Cohort study.
J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1999; 22(4): 386–394.
10. Regush N. The Virus Within. New York: Plume Press, 2001.
LUCKY
Once upon a time, a small group of politically powerful
scientists rammed a flawed theory on the origin and cause
of AIDS down America’s and then the world’s throat.
Yet we are still led to believe that we are fortunate
that retroviruses, only discovered in the 1970s, were
uncovered just in time to label them the culprit in a killer
AIDS epidemic. Lucky that two ‘HIVs’ were discovered in
rapid succession and the technology and theory to link
AIDS to the HIV retrovirus were fully in place, for the
first time in history, only a few years prior to the rec-
ognition of the AIDS epidemic.
Lucky? As the 20th anniversary of the first reported
AIDS cases passes, AIDS has infected nearly 60 million
people of which almost 22 million, including nearly half
a million Americans have died, and 8500 AIDS deaths
occur daily. Yet the prospects for a cure or vaccine are as
remote as they were two decades ago. And although it is
currently difficult to find anyone who openly questions
HIV as the cause of AIDS, a fast growing-number express
their doubts privately.
Historically, not that long ago, and at the end of the
19th century, after 150 years of denial, the medical es-
tablishment recognized that there were bacteria, and
suddenly every disease seemed to be caused by a bac-
teria. But with the electron microscope, unknown dis-
ease was more and more attributed to a virus, often to no
avail. Thus it was that scientists were certain that a virus
was behind Lyme’s disease, Mycoplasma pneumonia,
and Legionnaires’ disease before their respective bacteria
were found.
ª 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Is AIDS really caused by a virus? 685
By 1931, Rudenberg, hoping to visualize the polio
virus, filed a patent for his electron microscope and
during WWII investigators never gave up on an electron
search for a cancer virus, despite one dismal failure after
another.
Then an AIDS ‘virus’ was found, primarily because it
was looked for; and not because it caused AIDS-bol-
stered by the half-truths, flawed theory and downright
hocus-pocus.
HIV scientists cited that ‘unassailable epidemiological
evidence’ (2) has established HIV or a virus as the cause
of AIDS, including those epidemiological studies carried
out by the CDC on filtered factor VIII blood transfusions
for hemophiliacs. Blattner cites Peterman in his article
when he said ‘it is also noteworthy that HIV infection,
and not infection with any other infectious agent, is
linked to blood transfusion-associated AIDS (35)’. But
blood transfusions do not distinguish between HIV and
other filterable infectious agents especially, as in the
case of mycobacteria, if these other infectious agents are
not screened for. Yet, one of the original factor VIII
transfusion cases happened in Canton, Ohio, yielding a
diagnosis of oral thrush and disseminated Mycobacte-
rium avium (8).
John Lattimer could not foresee the unusual situation
which, decades later, might be involved with the direct
insemination of particularly virulent mycobacteria rec-
tally onto the vulnerable one layered epithelium of the
prostate during gay sex, nor the hypervirulent strains of
AIDS Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium
avium that would one day, decades later, be shared in
much greater numbers, heterosexually, and in a world-
wide epidemic called AIDS. But who could have?
Nor could Gondzik realize the profound significance
of warning his patients, on the eve of AIDS epidemic in
1979 to wear condoms lest they acquire sexually trans-
mitted tuberculosis (cf. 14).
Mycobacterial infections are the main cause of bacte-
rial infection during AIDS (34); and often precede other
infections by 1–10 months (1). The fact that two decades
after AIDS started killing people, mycobacteria, despite
their prevalence in AIDS, are not considered its cause, is in
no small part due to the lack of scientists and the lay
public to understand the ability of mycobacterial and
tubercular infection, once contracted, to lie seemingly
dormant for extended lengths of time in humans (49), and
at the same time begin to melt the immune system (27).
Nor was it emphasized that both tuberculosis, whose
chronic lymphadenitis is its most common extrapulmo-
nary manifistation (22), and M. avium, the most com-
mon cause of lymphadenitis in children (18), can attack
lymph nodes (41) and the entire body additively and
simultaneously (42).
Medical Hypotheses (2003) 60(5), 671–688
686 Broxmeyer
AIDS is a mycobacterial disease and patients with
advanced TB or Avium are indistinguishable from those
with ‘HIV’. Even in the earliest AIDS cases on record,
dating back to 1959, tuberculosis (47) and the atypical
mycobacteria (40) (17) were clinically and bacteriologi-
cally diagnosed.
Perhaps one of the most convincing arguments for
the intimate causal link between mycobacterial infection
and AIDS comes from the widespread geographical
overlap of the two. Worldwide, by conservative esti-
mates, around one in three people is infected with My-
cobacteria tuberculosis alone, or 1.8 billion people (48)
and the very cities, in which up to 80% have tubercu-
losis, are the epicenters of AIDS. The last world AIDS
conference in Barcelona admitted that 1/3 of all AIDS
deaths were from diagnosed tuberculosis (30).
Almost a million new cases of AIDS were estimated to
be attributable to tuberculosis in 1995, and by the year
2000 there were probably 8 million co-infected people
worldwide (36). Figures such as these make it uncon-
vincing that AIDS ever surpassed tuberculosis as the
leading cause of death in the world, especially in lieu of
cross-reacting sera that opens up the question as to just
how many cases attributed to HIV are in fact from tu-
berculosis or allied mycobacteria.
When the AIDS epidemic officially began in June,
1981, allergist/immunologist Michael Gottlieb of UCLA,
after first implicating cytomegalovirus (CMV), wrote,
Ongoing AIDS Epidemic Could Be Product of Dual Path-
ogen Infection, concluding that AIDS resulted from not
one but two microbial infections (15). Unexpected in
early AIDS autopsies was the surprisingly high propor-
tion of difficult to diagnose Mycobacterium avium-in-
tracellulare (46), in up to 55% (24) of American cases.
But in Haitian and African AIDS patients, undoubtedly
just as exposed to Avium, death by Mycobacterium
tuberculosis predominated.
Most convincing evidence points to Gottlieb’s hypo-
thetical duel pathogens as being atypical mycobacteria
such as Avium in somehow getting into a human blood
pool already harboring latent or active Mycobacterium
tuberculosis. The ‘acquired’ in Acquired Immune Defi-
ciency Syndrome is Mycobacteria avium or a similar
nontuberculous mycobacteria; ‘immune deficiency’ but
the result of a savage double attack on the immune
system by an atypical mycobacterium (such as M. avium
and M. tuberculosis). Avium has, in the short space of 30
years, gone from relative obscurity to the leading infec-
tious disease in U.S. and European AIDS, and there is no
dearth in the literature, ranging from sexual transmis-
sion (5,6), bestiality (5,23), certain Voodoo practices,
African ritualistic drinking of animal blood (37), and the
Medical Hypotheses (2003) 60(5), 671–688
medical or addict’s use of shared needles (38) to explain
just how it could have been introduced and spread
throughout the human blood pool, whether in Africa,
the U.S., Europe or the rest of the world.
By the late 1960s, lymph nodes from 368 swine from
Transvaal and Natal South Africa were examined and
found to mostly contain Mycobacteria avium complex
(MAC) (25). Similar strains were then identified when at-
tention shifted to humans in Africa in the early 1970s (26).
Only a few strains of MAC are found in human AIDS
(24). Notably these are also found in simian AIDS (19).
Weiszfeiler and Karczag (45) succeeded in isolating 50
strains of Mycobacteria, including MAC from (33) mon-
keys, a significant finding as millions of pre-AIDS African
were vaccinated with an early polio vaccine attenuated
in living monkey kidney tissue. Some see a correlation
between where the bulk of polio vaccine was adminis-
tered and the epicenters of AIDS (20). The Simiae-Avium
(SAV) group of mycobacteria, which shares characteris-
tics of both M. avium and M. simiae, by itself is entirely
capable of causing a lethal AIDS infection (29).
Soil borne, MAC is found in cats, swine, and primates,
all significant in early retroviral theories regarding AIDS.
The fertile soil upon which Mycobacterium avium and
similar ‘atypical’ mycobacteria plants AIDS is pre-exist-
ing TB, often latent, always immunosuppressive. Despite
WHO estimates, Fox maintained that nearly half the
world has TB (10) but others feel that number to be
much greater.
Cantwell, who repeatedly found acid-fast forms in
AIDS, felt it reasonable to assume that the initial im-
munosuppression disease in that disease must also be
present in many ‘healthy’ people as studies indicate that
some promiscuous but otherwise ‘healthy’ gays were
actually immunosuppressed to begin with (4). Myco-
bacteria tuberculosis, both in its vast reservoir of seem-
ingly well and its human immune-killing potential,
certainly fulfills this criterion. Papadopulos-Eleopulos 33
reminds us that in African AIDS, ‘HIV infection’ usually
follows TB.
The first case of human disease due to Mycobacterium
avium-intracellulare (MAC) was reported in a middle-
aged Mesabi Range iron miner in 1943. His symptoms
were pulmonary (9) and until the emergence of AIDS,
lung infection alone typified Avium, though differentia-
tion between fowl or Avium tuberculosis and tubercu-
losis itself was at times nearly impossible (32). The first
reports of MAC in AIDS appeared in 1982 and Zakowski
found it in eight or nine patients who died of AIDS at the
UCLA Medical Center (50). Soon the devastatingly im-
munosuppressive potential of co-infection with M. tu-
berculosis and M. avium was shown (42). As already
mentioned, this ability of mycobacteria to attack simul-
ª 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

taneously is a recurrent theme in the literature, occur-
ring over and over again. But in AIDS, it would bring on a
combined immunosuppression the likes of which man
had never had to deal with. The known ability for AIDS
and TB to potentiate one another (13) is a result of such
double-pronged mycobacterial attack between ‘AIDS’,
the atypical mycobacterial infection, and tuberculosis.
In such a scenario HIV is simply one of the L-forms of
an atypical mycobacteria, in particular M. avium and
until it is recognized as such no ‘retroviral’ vaccine or
cure will be possible.
In the U.S., on the surface, AIDS is characterized by
the severe immunosuppression of Mycobacteria avium
(MAC) and opportunistic infections like Kaposi’s Sar-
coma and Pneumocystis Carinii. In Africa it is a wasting
disease characteristically ending with death by Myco-
bacteria tuberculosis. HIV should cause the same disease
where it from the same cause.
In Disseminated Mycobacterium avium Infection
Among HIV Infected Patients in Kenya, Gilks approaches
this most perplexing AIDS enigma in terms of the my-
cobacteria, addressing the apparent relative rarity of
disseminated MAC in AIDS in Africa and the developing
countries (12). That MAC exists in the African as well as
the American environment (43) cannot be denied. Nor
can the fact that African skin tests prove antibodies to
MAC already in African blood (44). Gilks acknowledges
that AIDS patients in developing countries are probably
dying of more virulent tubercular infections before they
become immunosuppressed enough to show Avium.
Inderlied (21) and O’Keefe (31) agree.
Gilks mentions that AIDS patients in Africa, already
infected with latent tuberculosis, are more likely to re-
activate this mycobacteria with catastrophic results be-
fore reaching the low CD4 level associated with clinical
MAC. This, however, does not preclude the fact that
Avium or a similar non-tubercular mycobacteria, as
causative, plants AIDS in the soil of previous tubercular
infection, whether in Africa or elsewhere.
The full extent of drug-resistant TB in African coun-
tries is unknown but at least as prevalent as it is in New
York, Haiti or the Ivory Coast (28). Frieden found 30% of
resistant strains of tuberculosis in New York (11) AIDS
patients, but Shafer assured that with or without HIV,
drug resistant tuberculosis was comparable (39). How
much of multi-drug resistant (MDR) TB is in fact a fusion
with the atypical mycobacteria like MAC or SAV is an
open question. Meanwhile, there hasn’t been a new TB
drug in 30 years (30). For its part Avium (swine, or fowl
tuberculosis) and the ‘atypical’ mycobacteria in man has
never had a truly satisfactory treatment (16). Whether
this situation will change with novel strategies now in
the pipeline (3) remains to be seen.
ª 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Is AIDS really caused by a virus? 687
Multi-drug-resistant strains always had the potential
to render tuberculosis and Avium once again incurable
infections (7). That this happened, and how new and
virulent strains of mycobacteria found entry first into the
human blood pool and then an enhanced portal of sex-
ual transmission in the disease eventually called AIDS
should come as a surprise to no one.
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