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The Journal of Indian Education is a quarterly periodical published every year in
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Journal of
Indian
Education
Volume XXXIX Number 3 November 2013
Contents
Editor’s Note 3
Understanding Religious Diversity: I, the Other and Us 5

Anita Rampal and Deepti Srivastava
Education of Muslim Girls — Barriers, Challenges and Possibilities 27

Anita Nuna
Presence of a Global Language in India — A Case for English 46

Meenakshi Khar
Curriculum Change in English Language Education in the State of 53

Rajasthan — The Dilemmas and Paradoxes
Ramanujan Meganathan
Each Child Can Construct Knowledge 72

S.K. Mishra and Ajit Singh
Situating Essentials of ‘Learning to Live Together’ 78

within Pedagogic Practices — A Social-Constructivist Perspective
Rishabh Kumar Mishra
A Study of Stress Level among Adolescents in Government 90

and Public Schools of Delhi
Ranjana Bhatia, Sandhya Vij and Deepti Madhura
What Every Teacher should Know to Reduce Examination 109
Stress — Some Intervention Strategies
Veer Pal Singh
Causes of Scholastic Dishonesty among the Examinees 127

Ravi Prakash Rai
B.Ed. Students’ Ability of Identifying Focal Points and Command 134

Words in a Question to Develop Appropriate Answer––A Study
Nikita Rathod and A. Ramachary
Crossing the Barbed Gate — Experiences of Accessing the 145

Research Participants for their Informed Consents through the
Gatekeepers in an Indian School
Dipankar Tripathy
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad — A Great Educational Pioneer 166

Najmah Peerzada
Editor's Note
The education system does not function in isolation from the society of which
it is a part. Socio-cultural, economic and political contexts of a country
influence the education system. India is a pluralistic society marked with
cultural and religious diversity. These diversities are also reflected in our
educational institutions in general and school in particular. Anita Rampal
and Deepti Srivastava in their paper ‘Understanding Religious Diversity: I,
the Other and Us’ explored how children view themselves and other children
in a school. The paper also analyses how the NCERT textbooks address the
issue of religious diversity.
We are committed to ensuring that all children, irrespective of gender
and social category, have access to quality education. This commitment
is reiterated in various flagship programmes and initiatives such as the
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, the Right to Free and Compulsory Education
Act-2009 and the Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan. Anita Nuna
in her study tries to find out some of the barriers which prevent Muslim
girls from entering into secondary stage of school education. Further, our
cultural diversity is also reflective of its linguistic diversity with more than
1600 languages across the country. English has also created an important
space in the multilingual scenario of our country. Now there has been a
tremendous increase in public demand for teaching of English language
from the primary classes in our multilingual country. The great demand
for admission in English medium schools throughout the country is a
testimony to the attraction of English among people living in rural and
remote areas. Meenakshi Khar in her paper focuses on some of the reasons
behind the spread of English in our country. R. Meganathan in his paper
illustrates the ongoing exercise of curriculum renewal and development of
material in English language education in Rajasthan.
National Curriculum Framework, 2005 advocates that there is a need
to recognise children as natural learners having abilities to construct their
own knowledge and to develop their capacities in relating to the physical
and social environment around them. To realise this need, S.K. Mishra and
Ajit Singh in their article discuss the changing role of both teachers and
learners in the Constructivist Classroom. A Constructivist Classroom has
a democratic environment supporting the active involvement of all students
in collaborative activities. Rishabh Kumar Mishra’s paper reports that
pedagogic practices based on social constructivism can help our children
in sustaining the essentials of ‘learning to live together’.
4 Journal of Indian Education November 2013
Assessment and examination is an indispensable component of our

educational system. This issue has been deliberated upon in four papers
related to assessment and examination. Ranjana Bhatia, Sandhya Vij
and Deepti Madhura in their paper highlight the stress level of secondary
school students of Delhi especially during examination. Veer Pal Singh’s
paper elaborates some of the strategies which could be used by teachers to
reduce examination stress among students. R.P. Rai in his paper analyses
some of the causes of scholastic dishonesty among graduate students
and concludes that teachers, students, guardians and administrators are
collectively responsible for it. Nikita Rathod and A. Ramachary’s study
ascertains the significance of focal point and command word identification
ability of B.Ed students in enhancing their answering competencies.
Educational researches being conducted in educational institutions
provide new directions to teachers, teacher educators and educational
administrators for curriculum development, its transaction and assessment
strategies as well as policy formulation. Dipankar Tripathy in his paper
shares his experiences regarding getting access, re-access and informed
consents of the participants gained in an Indian school to conduct a
qualitative study.
The issue concludes with Najmah Peerzada’s essay reflecting on
educational philosophy of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad.
–– Academic Editor
Understanding Religious Diversity
I, the Other and Us
Anita Rampal* and Deepti Srivastava**
Abstract
Children’s understanding of religious diversity remains an important area
of concern from the standpoint of research in education. This is because
schools as sites of secondary socialisation deal with children who have an
already formed ‘self’ and internalisations of the ‘other’ which are tested
afresh in the classrooms with mutual identifications and communication
between children belonging to diverse socio–religious groups. Here the
curriculum and its transaction influence children’s judgments, attitudes
and affiliations towards the others. Additionally, an important objective of
the school is to equip children with knowledge and skills that enable them
to operate effectively in a culturally diverse classroom, community, nation
and the world. To understand effectively, how children view themselves
and the others; to see how the revised NCERT textbooks that offer scope
for accommodating multiple perspectives, allow for critical discussions on
issues of religious conflict and also what are the teachers perspectives
regarding the teaching–learning of religious diversity is what this paper
seeks to explore.
Introduction even a part of these mishaps. How

Terrorist attacks and bomb do adolescents understand these
blasts happen. They are aired on events and in the wake of such
television; adults as well as the public display of dissention and
young watch them, hear them from hatred for the terrorist ‘other’, how
their friends and sometimes are do they look at diverse religious
* Professor of Education, Central Institute of Education, University of Delhi, Delhi–110007

** University Teaching Assistant, Central Institute of Education, University of Delhi, Delhi–110007
groups? What are their experiences that bother them, we help them put
at home, school or outside? Within pieces together and prepare them for
the school how are these proposed, an adult life in a meaningful manner.
accepted, rejected, modified and In growing to be an adult, the child
reconstructed in classrooms where makes sense of ‘self’ and the ‘other’
adolescents come together to share from what takes place within the
the same space and learn? These are family and later among friends and
some of the issues this paper tries to peers, at school under circumstances
address and grapple with. in which feelings of love, hate, fear,
While I sought to seek answers anxiety, pride, guilt and affection
to these questions, Mumbai was are experienced. Within the family,
attacked on 26/11. The modus the individual member of the society
operandi employed in the attack simultaneously externalises her
shook our sensibilities as earlier own being into the social world and
terrorists used to infiltrate crowded internalises it as an objective reality.
plebian spaces but now they had This does not mean she understands
infiltrated the secure and more the ‘other’. She may misunderstand
privileged space. They had attacked the ‘other’ as each family, kinship
the middle class protective psyche group and community views the
which took refuge in the refrain– ‘other’ from ‘their own eyes’ (Berger
‘don’t go to crowded places’. Even and Luckmann 1967). Thus, when
though many of us were distant from a parent, who watches news of riots
the tragedy, we felt threatened and on television, casually says “Yeh
insecure. Is there any place which toh Muslim hi hoga” it has a strong
is not free of threat and assault influence on children. This child
today? Isn’t it natural for children might then, conjure a distorted image
to feel scared? Do they not want to of a Muslim and start thinking ‘Why
understand why it happened? Do we are all terrorists Muslims?’ Does the
answer their queries maturely? Or do parent/child think the same way
we rather keep them away from such when Babri Masjid is demolished or
talk as they are children anyway, Malegaon is attacked?
and they would only understand as Children are more sensitive to
they grow older (Kumar 2007). noticing minute details about such
In fact children need adult help issues as compared to adults whose
to make sense of social/political ‘socialised eye’ becomes accustomed
conflict as they do not have all the to and therefore insensitive to such
details and concepts that enable aspects (Kumar 1999). On the other
them to realise why such conflicts hand, children’s ‘sensitive eye’ is
arise and how they are being played curious to uncover ambiguities by
out (Kumar 1996). If we discuss understanding things from multiple
the issues they raise or question perspectives; perspectives that
change so fast that an adult can feel identification and communication

lost and confused about the direction between human beings (Berger
of discussion. The adults however, and Luckmann 1967). Schools
avoid such discussion of social and are concerned with how children
political conflict and deliberately understand past and present as
snub or silence the children as their attitudes and beliefs are of
they feel the children are innocent essence for society’s survival and as
and naïve to be exposed to such a normative discipline, education is
complexities. They want to protect closely linked with what concerns
their children from harsh realities ‘favourable socialisation’ be it
and think they will understand home, school or beyond in a multi–
when they grow up (Kumar 2007) religious, multi–class, multi–caste,
not realising that the children are multilingual society as India. For
growing up imbibing notions of ‘self’ a society so diverse with people
and the ‘other’ from their active holding conflicting viewpoints, yet
engagement or silence. In a study by also a society which is a collective
Amar Kumar Singh on ‘Development aspiration should so it becomes
of Religious Identity and Prejudice in “…young people be encouraged
Indian Children’ done with Hindu, to think about such questions by
Muslim, Sikh and Christian children, hearing them discussed from every
it is shown that children with both point of view?” (Russel 1961, p.
prejudiced parents have highest 225) But do the schools allow such
prejudice scores in both Hindu and discussions? Do views of all religious
Muslim samples thus showing that groups get a representation in schools?
the socialisation of prejudice takes Schools often represent the
place in family through parental ‘dominant class culture’, the ‘middle
models (Sinha 1881). Though the class’ value system which is not
influence of family is strong, there overtly stated but covertly goes
is little intervention possible at the on through what Jackson (Apple
level of family therefore one looks 1990) calls the ‘hidden curriculum’
at other alternative sites. One such i.e., norms and values that are not
alternative socialising agency is the usually talked about in teachers
‘school’ which is considered as a close statements of ends or goals. This
rival of the family as a significant ‘hidden curriculum’ contributes more
agent of social/political socialisation to understanding ‘self’ and the ‘other’
(Apple 1990). than the other forms of teaching value
Schools as sites of secondary orientations. The concept of hidden
socialisation deal with an already curriculum is crucial to understand
formed ‘self’ and an already how the treatment of social/political
internalised world to modify these conflict in school curriculum can
internalisations with mutual lead to acceptance by students of a
perspective that serves to maintain RSS, and found that they perceived
existing prejudices. Apple shows Indian history to be nothing but
just how it operates through the a conflict between Hindus and
social studies text material which Muslims. A casual conversation with
presents a somewhat biased view of students at a Saraswati Bal Mandir
the true nature of the amount and in South Delhi unveiled an image of
possible use of internecine strife in India as the oldest civilisation in the
which groups within and outside world and the source of all knowledge
the countries have engaged (Apple and culture. Meanwhile the young
1990). In India, one such instance children studying at a madrasa in
is the revision of History textbooks Delhi’s Okhla area don’t recognize
after NCF–2000. These revisions, names such as Ashoka, Buddha
intended to inculcate political and Chandragupta. These historical
and cultural values propagating figures are alien to them. It’s almost
ideological legitimacy of the Hindu the same story in many of the more
nation, led to protests as “these than 1,000 madrasas operating in
NCERT textbooks reflected many the national capital (Saxena S. 2008).
of RSS’s (Rashtriya Swayam Sevak While misrepresentation of facts
Sangh) pet themes — e.g., the urge is a serious concern, equally grave is
to prove that ‘Indian Civilisation’ is the glossing over or omission of facts
synonymous with ‘Hinduism’ which and information by teachers due to
in turn is synonymous with ‘Vedic their personal biases and beliefs.
Civilisation’. This Vedic Civilisation Pedagogically, socio–political conflict
was portrayed as the fount of all is relevant for discussion in any
things great in the world while all classroom but ‘Social and Political
the evils that beset India were traced Life’ classrooms offer more scope
to the foreigners — Muslim invaders as its subject matter comprises
and Christian Missionaries” (Sundar diverse concerns of society like
N. 2004, p.1601-1605). religion, caste, class, region and
Similar problems existed in language. Subsumed in these
History textbooks, used by thousands problems are the social issues such
of schools across the country where as tensions, violence, aggression,
facts are mixed with myth and legend global terrorism, student unrest,
in a way that makes it difficult for health, education, unemployment,
students to distinguish between poverty, slums, population and
them. This leads to a fragmented corruption. These complex issues
understanding for the children as is in the textbook require an active
evident from the study conducted by student–teacher engagement as an
‘The Sunday Times’ where it spoke involved engagement of teacher and
to students at a Saraswati Shishu students with the textbook opening
Mandir in West Delhi, run by the up avenues for further inquiry. It
is required as students as well as Can a response, like the one

teachers might not comprehend above, that shows harmony where
all the details of why conflict arose none exists, convince children? This
in the first place and then how it is kind of knowledge for the young who
being shaped. But when a Social and can experience conflict around them
Political Life teacher in a government is misleading and unconvincing. For
school expresses disapproval of the an adolescent it means a lack of faith
textbooks (NCERT 2005) that discuss in the ideological system which may
socio–political conflict from multiple result in widespread confusion and
perspectives by saying, disrespect for those who govern the
¶ftUgksaus NCERT dh fdrkc fy[kh gS systems of social rule (Erikson E. in
muls geus dgk fd vki fofHkUurk dh ckr djosQ Hjelle and Zeigller 1992). It not only
leads to a disbelief in the ideological
fofHkUurk dks c<+kok ns jgs gSaA cPpksa dks ;s lc crkus
system (school/family/government)
dh ”k:jr ugha gS---¸ but also affects the formation of
One feels how and when would
identity (Apple and Buras cited in
children know about varying
Apple 2008).
perspectives then? From telling
them about their stance, there are Need, Rationale and Objectives
other teachers who deliberately
All students, regardless of their
avoid providing answers sometimes
gender, caste, class, region, religion
because of their own deeply
or language should have an equal
entrenched prejudices and desire to
opportunity to learn in schools. It
be ‘idealistic’ and to present harmony
has been noted however, that some
where none exists.
students have better chance to learn
¶eSa rks >wB i<+krk gw¡] vkn'kZokn i<+krk gw¡] ij in schools, as they are presently
eu eSa tkurk gw¡ dh ge vyx gSa¸ structured than do others because
Why does this teacher say of their cultural characteristics. As
something he doesn’t believe in? If a consequence, the institutional
he feels we are not united does he nature of schools, deny some groups
feel a deceptive idealisation is going of students equal educational
to serve any purpose? He just doesn’t opportunity. The education, schools
discuss reality as he thinks, it might impart, is of a specific kind; it
politicize education. At one level, favors those who possess ‘cultural
we can say, all educational activity capital’ (Bourdieu and Passeron
has ideological and political bias. At 1977) and designates those who do
another level, do we ever think what not possess this cultural capital as
education is for? Is it for ‘professional deviant by producing categories of
development’ or for life? Does it pass/fail, dull/bright, successful/
not have to relate to life and events unsuccessful. The inequalities can
affecting us? be seen pronounced in categories of
gender, caste, class and region. For so by integrating popular democratic

instance, it is noted that: and economic claims that favour
• Illiteracy among rural women interests of community at large
is below the national average (Apple 1982, 1990). Even inside the
(46.13%) (Planning Commission classrooms, children who have the
2005, p.5). ‘cultural capital’ are least aware of
• As per Sachar Committee Report existence of this ‘culture of power’. It
(GOI, 2004) nearly 25% of Muslim is those that lack this cultural capital
children have never attended are often aware of this existence
school. The incidence of dropouts (Delpit 1995). Kancha Ilaiah sees this
is also high for Muslims, only ‘culture of power’ at work in schools
marginally lower than SC/STs when he says, “as we were growing
(CIE, 2007, p.28). up, stepping into higher classes, the
• Female literacy rates among textbooks taught us stories which we
Muslims is particularly low in had never heard in our families. The
Haryana (21.5%), Nagaland stories of Rama and Krishna, poems
(33.3%), Bihar (31.5%) and from Puranas, the names of two epics
Jammu and Kashmir (34.9%) called Ramayana and Mahabharata
(Planning Commission 2005, occurred repeatedly. Right from
p.12). early school up to college our Telugu
• Dropout rates at primary level textbooks were packed with these
for SCs (34.2%) and STs (42.3%) Hindu stories. For Brahmin–Baniya
are substantially higher than the students these were their childhood
national average (29%) (Planning stories, very familiar not only in
Commission 2005, p.5). the story form but in the form of
• Basic education in government Gods they worshipped.…I distinctly
schools is usually free in India, remember how alien all these names
but the quality is, often, low appeared to me” (Ilaiah 1996, p. 13).
and government schools have Alienation or representation of
become schools for poor and social groups in a curriculum is a
deprived castes. As long as they significant index of value attached
can afford it, parents from so to these groups in a cultural
called ‘higher castes’ send their configuration that education helps
children to better private schools, to form and transmit. The children
thus, causing a ghettoisation of whose cultural groups are either
schooling (Kropac 2003, p.14) ill–represented or not represented,
Dominant groups, in every are forced to identify with language,
society, have a say in what comprises symbols and norms of dominant
relevant education. The legitimacy groups to save themselves from
of such a curriculum is not forced being labelled ‘different’ or ‘deviant’
overtly; it works from within. It does (Kumar, 1988). Such subjection to
a particular authority and rule are of the society. Ideology, according

normalised through the daily routine to Erickson, is a set of values and
of school organisation and classroom assumptions reflecting religious,
learning. The daily ritual of a school scientific and political thought of a
is subjugating and stifling for a 14 culture (Erickson E. 1958 in Hjelle
year old Saddam who says, and Zeigller 1992, p.200). While the
¶;s ns[k ysa fd LowQy esa izkFkZuk djrs le; oqQN children see and hear conflicts in and
/eZ dh ckrsa vkxs c<+k;h tkrh gSa] ij eSa ugha i<+rkA¸ around their society they have many
Even in casual conversation, pertinent questions for which they
when her classmate remarks at Liya, seek clarity. The classroom is one
such shared space where children
¶rqe vxj Christian ugha gksrh rks fgUnw gksrh!
from diverse religious backgrounds
referring to Christian conversions,
interact with each other within
Liya feels awkward but she does not
and outside classrooms. These
reveal her discomfiture. She tries to
opportunities of interaction allow
show it doesn’t matter to her and
them to question issues of religious
thinks, ¶blls eq>s dksbZ iQoZQ ugha iM+rkA eSa strife and conflict in society. Are these
tks gw¡ oks gw¡A¸ She thinks but she never issues discussed in classroom in the
speaks. Her voice is silenced. It first place? Surrounded by these
does make a difference though as it conflicts, how do children view their
affects her sense of ‘self’, personal own ‘self’? How do they view their
to her though her social self shows own community? How do they view
otherwise. the ‘other’? Do religious differences
In order to understand these really matter to children? How do
experiences of diversity, the present they view India as a multi–religious
study limited itself to explore how nation? What does patriotism
children view themselves and the mean to them? How do communal
others, the role of education in riots, past and present, shape their
shaping and transforming these opinions of other religious groups?
experiences and the influence of How do children, then place the
school curriculum on children’ ‘other’ as a part of India? How do
judgments, affiliations and attitudes. children belonging to mixed religious
It was assumed that the realisation group view these issues? What role
of belonging to a particular group and does school play to sensitize children
distinctiveness from the other begins on religious diversity?
at an early age and develops fully It is noteworthy that many
by 8–9 years of age. Also children studies have identified the school
of 13–14 years form opinions and as an important agent of children’s
are able to articulate conflicts in the enculturation in fostering their
adult world and a young person has understanding of the nation.
the capacity to perceive ideologies Education is systematically related to
children’s level of political knowledge How far do they think complex issues
and expertise. The specific role that should be discussed? What happens
the school can play in fostering when such questions come up in
children’s understanding of the state the class? Does additional support
has been investigated in a sequence from school in form of external
of studies conducted by Berti (Berti, intervention of an organisation, if
1994 in Barrett 2007, p.93). In these any, help in shaping opinions of
studies Berti examined whether ‘self’, ‘other’ and ‘nation’? These are
the particular History textbooks the minute details the study wished
that children use at school and the to understand. Broadly, they were
contents of the curriculum to which studied as:
children at school are exposed can 1. Exploring and understanding
impact on children’s knowledge and how children relate to religion in
understanding of the state. She found their sense of self
that different textbooks produced 2. Probing children’s understanding
significantly different pattern of and experience of religious
responses showing influence of diversity
textbooks on formation of attitude, 3. Probing children’s understanding
belief and opinion of students. of ‘patriotism’
Textbook as being an important 4. Understanding teachers’ pers-
source of discussion in the class, the pectives of Social and Political
present study looks at ‘Social and Life textbooks.
Political Life’ textbooks as they offer
ample scope for discussion of diverse Design of the Study
issues related to discrimination It requires an in–depth study to
and equity. The Social and Political identify how notions of religious
Life (Classes VI–VIII, NCERT 2008), diversity are experienced, shaped,
through use of narratives, case altered and negotiated within
studies and reflective questions allow classrooms, schools and outside.
understanding issues from multiple This can be done best by drawing
perspectives. For this reason, Social on a qualitative research approach.
and Political Life textbooks were taken This approach requires ‘purposeful
as a starting point for discussion sampling’. Such a sampling can
with children and teachers. How does provide ‘rich information’ and insight
classroom discussion take shape of the phenomena under study. For
around this textbook, was another the data to be illuminative and to be
aspect this study wanted to explore. insightful, we planned it such that:
To study this, the research tried to 1. Research work was carried out in
understand teachers’ perspectives three schools— one Government
on the textbook. How do the teachers School, one Minority School and
view the textbook they are teaching? one Public School. The reason for
such a selection was based on discussion and semi–structured

the assumption that: interviews with teachers of Social
a. Government School may or may Science (Classes VI–XII) in the
not represent a religious ideology three schools.
and would comprise of students 3. As a part of the study, we also
from different backgrounds of probed views of children who
religion, region, caste and class. underwent sessions with the
b. Minority School would represent organisation, engaged with the
a religious ideology. The school public school to sensitize them,
would have better representation on diversity and discrimination.
of the students of the religious 4. Going deeper, we also explored the
group that the school represents. experiences and interpretation of
c. Public School may/may not children of mixed religious identity
represent a religious ideology. It on religious diversity. How do
would comprise of students from these children view diversity and
different backgrounds of religion, how do they negotiate their own
region, caste and class. The sense of belonging to two religious
Public School to be studied would groups?
be engaged with an organisation
working to sensitize teachers and Methodology
students on issues of diversity. For the purpose of the study, we
The study also explored whether sought seven students of class IX
school ethos affected engaging with (as they belong to 13–15 year group)
and interpreting issues of religious from each school. We engaged with
diversity among children. the entire class and asked all of them
1. Within the three schools, 7 to write on the topic ‘Who Am I?’ and
students of Class IX were selected then selected seven from among
for focus group discussion which them, on the basis of their writings.
means the study was undertaken The group of seven students was
with 21 students. Selected selected keeping in view that they:
portions of the text were taken up • Hailed from different religious
for discussion with the children backgrounds,
(Class VII–IX, NCERT). • Were assertive in their opinions
2. To get a better perspective on and/or
children’s understanding, we • Held strong views on religion or
explored Teachers’ views and conflict.
beliefs on the textbooks they are To analyze writings of students
teaching, their own pedagogy of Class IX, who wrote on ‘Who Am
and their personal beliefs on I?’ a chart was prepared and similar
diversity and discrimination. This themes were given same colour for
was done through focus–group example, gender was coloured blue,
religion orange and so on. Then the These reflective writings were on:
chart was read for dominant themes • Religion, Love and Discord,
that emerged. • God, Religions and I and
At first, after having chosen a
• Religious Diversity of India.
group of seven students from each
school, a number of focus–group In the Public School, after initial
discussions were carried out on discussion about their scripts,
different days. On the first day, the students discussed about the social/
discussions were centered round the political issues in the textbooks.
children’s scripts. Striking opinions During the course of discussion,
like ‘Why can’t I give my life for my when they mentioned meeting a
country?’, ‘There is no discrimination group of college students from Lahore
in India’; ‘I am with the Congress’ through Pravah’s initiative, students
were taken up for further discussion. were asked to share their experience.
Other students of the group joined Later, Surabhi, who has been a part
the discussion. of Pravah’s workshop in the previous
Subsequent method of discuss- academic session (2007–08), was
ions varied for the three groups asked to share if she felt Pravah’s
of students depending on their intervention has influenced her in
responses in the previous discussion. some way. If she thinks it has/not,
For instance, in the Government why does she think so?
School, we realised that Saddam was
not participating in the discussion With children belonging
though his initial writing was to Hindu–Muslim family
expressive and the others in the backgrounds
group were also hesitant to speak
about religious conflict. So, we Brothers, Mohammed Zanskar
asked this group to write on— these Danish and Mohammed Mushkoh
questions. What does religion mean Ramish: Their father is a Muslim
to you? and which religion do you and mother is a Hindu. Danish and
want to know of and Why? After this Ramish discussed about their own
exercise, the group became more experiences being Hindu–Muslim.
open to discussion. They were read out portions from
In Christian Minority School, the textbook which they related
beginning from their scripts, we to their own life experience. Later,
discussed about textbooks and certain Danish wrote on ‘Why do I think it
issues like — What is discrimination? is useless to fight over religion?’– His
How do we knowingly/unknowingly oft repeated phrase while discussing
practice it everyday? Later, Saumya, religious dissensions. Ramish, a
Arushi and Payal sent their reflective proud 10 year old Indian, wrote on –
writings by mail. ‘I am proud to be an Indian’.
The data was in the form of focus in Social and Political Life textbook,
group discussions and interviews Class VII, NCERT, p.14) ,slk lqu dj
with teachers and children. This cPpksa dks vPNk ugha yxrk ij oks (people in
data was analyzed and themes were
NCERT) dgrs gSa] ¶;s rks reality gS] ;s rks
interpreted and explained.
crkuh iM+sxhA¸ While the content of the
Understanding Teachers’ textbook is given ‘as it is’, the teacher
Perceptions finds it difficult to address ‘why is it
so?’ Is it so because his pedagogy
Teachers’ perceptions on textbooks, is teacher–centric? “Time dgk¡ gS\
children’s understanding, their
Syllabus discuss djuk gksrk gS] vkSj ge yksx
own prejudices and their pedagogy
present a variety and complexity ,slh ckrsa djsaxs rks fofHkUurk gksxh¸] he says.
Why does the teacher limit himself to
of the teaching–learning process
syllabus? Is education only to prepare
in the classrooms. Teaching does
students for exams? Does it not have
not merely involve dissemination
to do with being aware of social and
of information; it requires active
political issues that children as well
engagement of the students and
as teachers see and live with? Even
teachers in the class. Even when the
while teaching, teacher is providing
teacher is cautious of revealing her examples to the students rather than
own beliefs about social realities, students relating the given content to
it gets uncovered when issues are
everyday life as ¶cPps mls le> ugha ik;saxsA¸
discussed as classroom interaction
Teacher plays an important role in
cannot be pre–planned. Teachers’
quoting examples from our day to
active engagement and silence affect
day life. The content of the textbooks
children’s understandings of diversity
rather than being teacher–centric,
and discrimination. Through the
requires active engagement on both
data gathered I have identified
the sides as children are not blank
certain perceptions of teachers which
slates. They bring preconceptions
I feel are, or have been particularly
and misconceptions in the classroom
important. The teachers spoken to,
that have to be addressed to.
feel that the present Social Science
Having pre–conceptions is alright
(NCERT) textbooks that present
but misconceptions and prejudices
content ‘as it is’ in the social world
have to be carefully addressed to by
are difficult to deal with, in the class.
looking at the issue from multiple
One teacher is skeptical about the
perspectives. But teachers are
way the content has been presented
in the textbooks of Social Science. He unwilling to do so as they think that
school is a protective space. They feel
says, ¶cPps dks ;s lc crkus dh ”k:jr ugha gS
that school is a normative and value
tSls ^vUlkjh dks ?kj ugha feyk* ;k vkse izdk'k building enterprise where talking
okYehfd dk--- (referring to case–studies of issues of discrimination might
cause them to grow, where none take such a stance when they are
existed before not realising their own aware of social/political dissensions
students face discrimination inside in society? Do they not strengthen
their classes and even outside the rather than question the status quo
school. When a 14 year old Shweta on issues of caste, community and
says, ¶oks yksx (people in Delhi) ge ij galrs religious diversity by taking a stance
gSa––– jax osQ dkj.k]¸ and her classmate like this? These teachers do engage
responds by saying, “people in Delhi actively with students in the class
do not have feelings” it means they and try to uncover their biases. They
are hurt being discriminated and it understand, ¶;s discrimination ge
matters to them. So why then, are we [kqn dj jgs gSaA vc oks ckr ugha gS fd male
not willing to accept that we discuss dominated society gS ij tks orthodox
the issues with children? Why do we feeling gS mlesa cnyko ugha gSA¸ But they
make discrimination appear remote strongly feel home has a greater role
to students by saying ¶igys ,slk gksrk in nurturing discrimination. But is
Fkk] vc ughaA vc oqQN xk¡o esa gksrk gksxk] oqQN it only parents and home that are
discrimination ij 'kgjksa esa ,slk ugha gSA¸ doing so? What about the teacher,
Even when laughter is evoked in the who while feeling ‘patriotic’ thinks
classroom as children are unaware ^ns'k osQ dke vkuk pkfg,A /eZ osQ dke vkuk
of the rituals of other religious group pkfg,A /eZ osQ fy, oqQN ugha dj jgk* and
the teacher who lacks pedagogical does not problematize the students’
experience, feels uncomfortable in
invocation of “Pakistan ij geyk djuk
handling this situation. As a result,
she does not delve into discussing with pkfg,” whenever there is a terrorist
the students, their misconceptions attack. What sense of patriotism
about the other religious group. does he evoke and why does he not
Teachers are cautious while question himself and the children
discussing discrimination in class. who need an ‘enemy’ to feel patriotic?
This cautiousness is revealed when While teachers believe that children
emulate them, why do they not show
the teachers say, “blosQ ihNs family
them that “all people are important
background Hkh cgqr cM+k factor gSA tSls oqQN
and merit active respect?” (Goulet in
cPpksa osQ parents Hkh oSls gh lksprs gSa] tSls ;gk¡ Freire 2005) Why do they think ¶mUgsa
oks person ftlus house ugha fn;kA oqQN cPps (religious minority and SC/STs) lkFk Hkh
rks lksprs gSa fd ,slk gh gksuk pkfg, ij mudh j[kuk gS vkSj cqjk Hkh ugha yxus nsuk gS” rather
la[;k de gSA vkt dh generation esa] eSaus than engaging in a dialogue with
;s ns[kk gS] interacting with people and students so they can intervene in
children. ysfdu cgqr la[;k okys yksx ,sls gSa reality to change it? Rather, teachers
tks lksprs gSa fd yes individuals should offer a perspective of ^ge lc ,d gSa*
be given respect.” How can teachers, though they personally do not believe
in this ideal. Rather they reveal unrestricted, un–imposed. “In our

deeply entrenched prejudices when textbook, it is written ‘in India we
they say, ¶eSa /eZ dks ”;knk ugha ekurk ij tkurk are all equal’ but we don’t treat them
gw¡ ;s yksx ;gk¡ vk dj xUnxh djsaxs vkSj nl yksxksa equally,” says Ramish who is born
of Hindu–Muslim parents when his
dks ;gk¡ try djsaxsA fiQj gesa tkuk iM+sxk ogka lsA¸
elder brother relates their experience
If this is what they think about the
of calling their Muslim father, “Mr.
other religious group, how do they
Datta” to seek shelter for a night,
address social/political conflicts in
in a dharamshala near the temple
the classroom? They teach what is
while they were passing through
given in the book but do not get into
Uttaranchal.
why is it given so. They complete the
Why does a person need to mask
syllabus and achieve the end but the
his identity to seek shelter for a
process seems to be lost on the way.
night? What if someone cannot in
Also, how do those teachers, who are
a day to day situation? What if a
not convinced with the content of the
14-year-old Saddam Hussain from
textbook, teach? Do they go beyond
a Government School, who carries a
‘superficial’ teaching? How can such
terrible burden of sharing the name
a social science teaching provide
with a well–known political leader of
“social, cultural and analytical skills
Iraq? He faces unwarranted remarks
required to adjust to an increasingly
from his peers and friends as Ritesh,
interdependent world?” (NCERT
2006a, p.1) Can it ever be able to his close friend recollects, ¶tc ;s
deal with political and social realities igys vk;k Fkk rks lc dgrs Fks fd vkradoknh gS]
if students are passive recipients of blls nwj jgksA¸ When he was new to the
knowledge in the class? These are school, Saddam was verbally bullied
some of the issues that need to be and excluded by other children. Not
addressed. only because of his name but also
because of his religion, Saddam says
Children’s Interpretations of that he has to defend his identity of
Diversity being an Indian whenever there is a
cricket match or news about strained
After listening to children, one
relation with Pakistan. Saddam is
realises that they are aware of socio–
questioned about his loyalty to India,
political realities. They understand
diversity and discrimination lived ¶rw fdldh side gS¸] they ask him. ¶vc
and practiced in their homes, school, fgUnqLrku eas gSa rks fgUnqLrku dks support djsaxs]
society and nation. They explicate gekjs /eZ esa dgk gS fd ftl ns'k esa gks mlosQ
their experiences of discrimination, izfr oiQknkj jgks ugha rks xíkj dgyk,xkA¸ he
diversity and unity with such a defends himself. But why does a
fluidity that possibilities of change child, belonging to a minority group,
emerge naturally from them– have to prove his Indianness each
time he is questioned? “It has been Pakistan) Hindus are always weak
argued that identity problems of a or tricksters and all Hindus possess
Muslim child derive directly from these fixed traits or characteristics.”
valuation of his group in the wider These categorisations or stereotypes
society, and the status accorded to govern the separation of the groups
it in the social structure” (Razzack into an in–group and out–group
2007, p.33). (Saigol 1995, p.102). Prejudice is the
Valuations accorded to a minority, regrettable precipitate of this process
is more often than not, rigid. This of category formation as these are
was observed in the focus group applied to person categories. People
discussion of students of the Public slip easily into ethnic prejudice
School when a discussion about because the vagaries of ‘natural and
composition of their neighbourhood common’ processes of categorisation
which comprised majority of Muslims in themselves produce bias (Barret
led to describing why people do not and Barrow 2005, p.200). ¶tSls ge yksx
will to stay in this neighbourhood.
left ls start djrs gSa oks yksx right ls start
The students said:
djrs gSaA ge yksx vkxs ls start djrs gSa oks
Jaskirat: ij ma’am dksbZ will ugha djrk
yksx ihNs ls (talking about writing) vkSj
ogka tkus dksA
mlosQ ckn tSls rok gksrk gSA ge lh/s ros is
Rahul: ogka is oks ugha tkus nsrs Hindus dksA
[kkuk cukrs gSa oks mYVs ros is cukrs gSaA¸ This
Researcher: oSQls\
demarcating and attracting one’s
Rahul: Ma’am ;s gksrk gSA geus ns[kk gSA lkjs kind and alienating the others creates
eqlyeku uk ,d fgUnw dks ekj jgs FksA out–groups (Saigol 1995, 103). If a
Jaskirat: dHkh oqQN dkiQh aggressive group identity accurately reflects an
gksrs gSaA individual’s sense of self, the identity
These children, during the course is construed as authentic, whereas if
of discussion are generalising that it does not reflect, or is inconsistent
Muslims are aggressive. They depict with, the self concept, the identity
the Muslim as assailant but cannot is construed as inauthentic. “oks
see him as a victim because they Christian foreign country esa gksrs gSaA
can only see a part; they can’t see
India esa vk dj Christian gks eryc oks yksx
the whole. Socialisation produces
mutually exclusive constructions us tcjnLrh fd;k gS fd rqe yksx Christian
of the ‘other’ so mixtures are cuksxs India esaA¸ Liya in the focus group
unthinkable. Attributes and traits comments while narrating how her
are thought of as fixed objects rather classmate reminded her that she
than a discourse. For instance, would have been a Hindu, had she
Rubina Saigol sees a similar not been a Christian.
exclusiveness accorded to Hindus ‘Minorities worldwide are
in Pakistan when she says, “(In frequently blamed for bothering
themselves, as if racial consciousness you have to believe in this God, you

was the cause of social division, rather have to follow this religion. If you are
than the product of pre-existing not that way then there’s a problem.
patterns of discrimination. They I have seen my sister struggling so
have themselves to blame, if they hard. She is a Christian and the guy
didn’t mark themselves as different, she loved is a Hindu. She converted
there wouldn’t be a problem in the into Hindu. I don’t know why they
first place. But who marks them in had it that if you have to be a bahu
the first place? Who ‘others’ them?’ of the house. And come on yaar! You
(Bharucha in Conference on Indian obviously tend to do it for one you
Muslims 2007, p.69). The majority in love. She lost her mother when she
a group ‘others’ the minority as was
was young and her stepmother had
reflected in Danish’s (born of Hindu–
a biased behaviour towards her. We
Muslim parents) interview where he
had many problems but she is fine
says, ¶,sls gh esjk friend gSA He’s not very now. She has accepted it. She has
smart; once he asked me during a been going around with that guy for
match do you support India or do the past 8 years. If they have done
you support Pakistan? Danish said
an inter–caste marriage in the social
“If I was a Bengali would you ask
group they are wrong as if they have
me do you support Bangladesh and
committed a sin. My sister has married
all? His friend said, “No, I was just
a Hindu because she loves him but in
wondering. Pakistan has all Muslims
the reception party we heard people
and you are also a Muslim.” Then
saying… You had to see my sister cry
Danish said, “Why would I choose
when she had to convert to Hinduism.
to stay in India? I would rather go to
Pakistan.” And then they blame the parents. budh
The discussion with students otg ls ,slk gqvk gSA buosQ parents us budks
from the Christian Minority School Bhd ls ugha j[kk gSA bldh ijofj'k Bhd ls ugha
revealed that individuals belong to gqbZ gSA
multiple aggregations, each of which While on the one hand, children
has different relevance depending show their understanding of religious
on the social condition. At any given discrimination there is an outpouring
moment, what an individual does of ‘patriotism’ with different
may be contingent on the person connotations on the other. Many
being a member of certain gender, of the children’s writings on ‘Who
class, caste or religion depending on Am I?’ brought forth these multiple
which category is socially dominant. meanings of patriotism that needs to
Saumya brings out the complexity be looked into. While Digvijay from
of religion and gender domination in Christian Minority School says, “I am
a particular context when she says, a Hindustani. I am patriotic as I would
“We are brought according to this way; be no better in America than in India”
he reflects a sense of belongingness patriotism through proactive action.

to his nation. Amanpreet from the It has however been observed in
Public School says, “I believe India is an interview with a teacher of the
our motherland we should give our same school that he allows warlike
life to it. tc gekjh country vk”kkn ugha gqbZ patriotism while a lesson on global
Fkh] Freedom fighters us tku ns nh FkhA oSls terrorism is discussed in the
gh dHkh ”k:jr iM+s rks tku ns lowaQA I think classroom, “9th esa global terrorism ij
we should serve our motherland.” chapter gSA rc ;s discussion gksrk gSA gk¡
Amanpreet reflects a sense of idealism ikfdLrku dh dksbZ ckr gks rks cgqr interested
and believes in learning from the gksrs gSaA lHkh dgrs gSa fd ikfdLrku ij geyk djuk
revolutionary heroes of the freedom pkfg,¸ he says and he did not intervene
movement. Ankita from Government when students said so. Would it not
School believes that she has to take be better to intervene and discuss
care of her country and protect it peaceful ways of learning patriotism?
from terrorism, ‘This country gives A jingoistic spectacle of
me a lot. Why can’t I give my life to it?’ patriotism at Wagah Border everyday
she says. Ankita’s family background is appreciated by the students of
(father is in the Indian Army) and the Christian Minority and Public
her sense of idealism influence her School who are filled with fervor and
notions of patriotism. It is good to ‘patriotism’ generated by the cheering
feel for the collective but why can it
crowds, sloganeering ^Hkkjr ekrk dh t;*
not be in terms of proactive action
and patriotic songs. This ritual of
for common good rather than the
constructs patriotism as surpassing
jingoistic sense of patriotism which
the enemy thereby engendering hate
urges one to ‘die for the country’.
among the numerous crowds present
Mudaliar Commission (1953)
on both the sides. But watching
articulates the notion of patriotism
such synchronised movements and
as “True patriotism involves three
intimidating gestures, Mayur from the
things — a sincere appreciation of
Public School feels, ¶bruk coordination
the social and cultural achievements
of one’s country, a readiness to gksrk gS fd yxrk gS fd oks friends gksaxsA¸ Mayur
recognize its weaknesses frankly and has straightforward notions of enemy
to work for their eradication and an and constructs enemy as hating
earnest resolve to serve it to the best each other but when he sees them
of one’s ability, harmonizing and performing in synchronisation he
subordinating individual interests feels they must be practicing together
to broader national interests.” When and hence, are friends. Saumya from
Ritesh from the Government School the Christian Minority School, on
says, “I want to modify the present the other hand feels ‘patriotic’ at the
in an attractive manner” he reflects Wagah when she says, O man! One
superb! irk gS ogka tk dj irk ugha D;k gks
tkrk gSA vkRek Hkj vkrh gSA You become so to them. Those that do not identify
patriotic. rqe muosQ lkFk fpYyk jgs gksrs gksA with these rituals feel helpless. As an
Marching and all fantastic. mlosQ ckn--- alternative, Saddam very genuinely
Rest of the Group: dgk¡\ D;k\ and sensitively suggests, ¶,slk D;ksa uk
Saumya: India dh t;! Marching esa they fd;k tk, fd lcosQ fy, dksbZ xhr gks\¸
lift their leg till here. In fact, Saddam also appeals for
I got the chance to see this where another reality in his native village
they show how India and Pakistan where his Brahmin neighbour
enjoins in celebration of Eid with him
were divided. viuk }kj bruk cf<+;k gksrk gS
in Bihar.
ukA Gate gS ukA
Saddam: fliZQ ;s gS fd fgUnw eqfLye] fgUnw
Researcher: Is it nice to see India
and Pakistan divided? eqfLye] gekjs ;gk¡ bruk vPNk gS fd cdjhn Hkh
Saumya: No. But this is a reality. djrs gSa rks fgUnw czkã.k lcls mQ¡ph tkrh dk] oks
Divided it is. But I think gekjk uniform gekjs ;gk¡ vkdj [kkrk gSA
gS uk] it is nice. Better than they have. Researcher: dgk¡ ij\
Theirs is this black as if they are Saddam: fcgkj esa] fd'kuxat district. tks
goondas. lcls fiNM+k f”kyk gSA ogkaA
Saurabh: You know they must be As Saddam points, we should
thinking the same for us. share with and talk more lived
Saurabh is discerning not to realities. Newspapers bring these
categorize people and nations when realities up but schools need to
discussing on Pakistan or religious discuss these with the children.
diversity but when he explicates who Especially in a divided urban set-
a terrorist is by saying, ‘All Muslims up, children can be made conscious
are not terrorists, but all terrorists through media, school discourse and
are Muslims,’ he is probably taking oral narratives such as his.
these messages from the media.
Sensitive educational programmes The School Ethos and Religious
can probe these categorisations of the Diversity
further to sensitize children as such There was a qualitative difference
categorisations are problematic. in schools observed in the study.
The reality that is officially In the Government School, where
constructed through state curricula the composition of students in the
and media is often problematic. It class was heterogeneous, students
is skewed to favor the dominant identified themselves with their
groups beginning from the morning region, religion, language and caste
assembly of the schools where each more than the other two schools. These
child is socialised into conforming children voiced their opinion openly
to rituals even if they do not belong whereas students from the Public
School were being cautious in their Researcher: rqedks ,slk yxk fd conscious
speech. The Public School is located gks osQ crk jgs Fks\
in Anand Vihar which is in proximity Surabhi: ge yksx conscious gks jgs Fks
to Seelampur, a Muslim dominated share djrs gq, ij oks yksx openly cksy jgs FksA
area. The Muslim population in this
mUgksaus dgk 1st step colleges vkSj schools
area is mostly poor/lower middle
class. The students of this group ls 'kq: dj jgs gSaA ge yksxksa us ckr dh vkils rks
lived in a mixed locality comprising vki yksxksa osQ eu esa image lq/jh uk ikfdLrku
Christians, Muslims, Sikhs and dhA vc vki yksx Hkh ,sls ckr djsaxs rks mldks Hkh
the Jains. Though in their school, yxsxkA fiQj lc yksxksa osQ eu esa image lq/jsxh
there was an initiative by an NGO to ikfdLrku dhA
sensitize them about stereotypes, yet It was also observed that the
strong feelings of prejudice existed school that engages with non–
among some students because they governmental initiatives to provide
lived in close contact with the poor orientation to teachers and makes
Muslim community. Among the group, effort to sensitize children on issues
Surabhi was cautious not to label or of plurality is helpful as it generates
categorize people and communities. awareness among teachers to realize
She was a part of the NGO’s youth issues are important and to look for
initiative for active citizenship. The opportunity to engage with these
NGO, Pravah conducted a meeting issues. Though resolution is not
of various school students with immediately possible one can look for
students from Lahore which had an such action within the classrooms.
influence on Surabhi’s perspective as Students from the Christian
she said, Minority School belonged to rich/
Surabhi: When we were going in the upper middle class families. These
van we were discussing that we don’t students did not identify themselves
with their religion, language or
have to open. Slowly slowly we have
regional identity. These children, in
to open.
their writings, identified most with
Researcher: Ok.
their gender and then with ‘being an
Surabhi: Main topic Fkk terrorist. mUgksaus Indian’. A class consciousness was
dgk fd tSls vki lksprs gks fd iwjk ikfdLrku gh observed in this group with reference
terrorist country gS ij that’s not true ukA to terms like, ‘I want to be rich’, ‘I hate
tSls ,d class esa 'kSrku cPpk gS ge lkjh class Bajaj scooters’ and ‘I am extravagant’.
dk rks uke ugha ys ldrs ukA Similarly gekjs In the focus group discussions, it
was observed that students talked
country esa terrorism corner gS--- main tks
about discrimination by the teacher,
ckr gS fd vkiosQ eu esa tks feeling gS fd lkjs in the class on the basis of student’s
ikfdLrkuh terrorist gSa oks feeling [kRe djuk performance rather than in terms of
pkgrs gSaA religion, region, caste or language.
One student, Saumya was aware of studies of education and racism,

discrimination as she had seen it in that levels of education can affect
her own family. She narrated how attitudes and behaviour to do
her sister had to go through a lot of with tolerance.
anguish as she had to convert from 2.
Countries where students
Christianity to Hinduism to marry. reported receiving effective
It was also observed that children
education on pluralism,
belonging to mixed religious family
internationalism, patriotism and
are more tolerant to diversity and
consider that discrimination and fight elections reported having high
over religion is futile. Danish writes, levels of tolerance (Green, Preston
“I think that fighting over anything is and Janmaat 2006).
pretty useless the reasons are good.
Fighting affects both sides greatly but
Conclusion
if the reason is so stupid as religion When children were asked, ‘Can
it is not good. I am not saying that discrimination end?’ a 14 year old
religion is stupid but in my school if Nitesh said, ¶gksxk rks dksbZ timing FkksM+h uk ns
there is a fight over a small reason the j[kk gSA¸ He is sure that India can unite
reason is soon forgotten but the fight
due to industrial development, D;ksafd
continues. Who knows the reason for
the Hindu Muslim riots? It’s just he is
tc dksbZ fdlh industry esa vk tkrk gS ogka gj
not Hindu or he is not Muslim so kill ,d izdkj osQ yksx gksrs gSa vkSj gj ,d rjg osQ
him. I think these fights are useless religion ls feyrs gSa vkSj muosQ ckjs esa le>rs gSaA¸
as no one will win but the fights and The rise of industries, phenomena
hatred will continue so we should of migration and invention of
stop these fights.” telecommunications has created
While children are aware of potential for individuals to
discrimination and also sometimes communicate and interact with people
offer suggestions to resolve issues, we of other diverse communities within
need to understand how education and across national boundaries
system can socialize them to respect
like never before. At the same time
plurality. In a study done extensively
however, nations remain riven with
on twenty–five developed countries by
Andy Greene, Greene demonstrates discord, prejudice and hostility
how education system of a country between communities within and
can promote social cohesion. The across their boundaries. In wake of
study shows how education socialises such discord, how to promote and
students through formation of maintain social cohesion in the face of
values and identity. The two main rapid globalisation has become one of
observations of the study are — the key policy challenges of the new
1. There is evidence for a number millennium (UNESCO 1996 in Greene,
of countries, particularly from Preston, and Janmaat 2006, p.1).
We need, then, an education While NCF – 2005 has for the

which will lead teachers and pupils first time, linked professional and
to take a new stance towards issues pedagogical concerns of child and
of diversity and discrimination for teacher, it has been unable to
acceptance of plurality. Such a stance address the ‘voice and agency’ of
requires ‘problematising knowledge teacher, which is a challenge in the
instead of repeating irrelevant delivery of quality education (Batra
principles’. An education of ‘why
2005, p. 4349). Teachers’ orientation
is it so?’ rather than ‘it should be’.
to the curriculum proposed by the
“Vitality, instead of insistence on the
NCF still remains a major challenge.
transmission of what Alfred North
Whitehead has called ‘inert ideas— After all, “Unity is not Uniformity.
that is to say, ideas that are merely No one is asked to give up his faith
received into the mind without being in the religion of his fathers, his love
utilised, or tested, or thrown into for the language which the poets
fresh combination” (Freire 2005, who have inspired his life and the
p.33). life of thousands like him– chose as
In the ‘shared spaces’ of classroom, a medium for their sense of truth
teacher and pupil interaction is vital and beauty, or his pride in the lives
to acceptance of plurality. The fact and achievements of the great men
that the pedagogical interaction and women who lived and worked in
takes place inside the classroom the part of India he himself lives in…
where teachers and students are such loyalties do not detract from
engaged with texts makes it possible the loyalty to the nation… There is
to generate multiple perspectives and
no either–or relationship between
shared understanding (Saigol 1995).
sectional loyalties and national
But when the teachers themselves
take the onus of providing one, fixed loyalty; the two subsist together”
perspective knowledge becomes (Government of India 1962, p.2–3).
remote and pupil remains passive. It is therefore, required by schools to
While Social Science education as accept plurality for building tolerance
such, is based on democratic ideas and appreciating diversity with the
children can be taught democratic teachers having a major role to play
ideals through practice of democracy. in this respect.
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Education of Muslim Girls
Barriers, Challenges and Possibilities
Anita Nuna*
Abstract
This paper attempts to trace barriers that compel Muslim girls to discontinue
their schooling at the secondary stage i.e. classes IX or X in four districts
namely Bahraich, Bareilly, Bijnor and Rampur of Uttar Pradesh, based on
case studies with Muslim girls aged 15–17 who had completed elementary
education, but were withdrawn from schools and focus group discussions
with Muslim community. Evidences from many research studies show
non–availability of secondary level schooling facilities, especially in rural
areas, school ethos, if available and household poverty in sending girls to
schools are very important barriers that compel Muslim girls not to avail the
benefits of educational opportunities at the secondary stage. Although all
of these have strengths to influence parents to deprive their daughters from
availing educational facilities, especially once girls attain puberty. But the
argument here is that parental disinterest in Muslim girls’ education is one
of the significant barriers, especially when girls attain puberty. The paper
explores the potentially serious problems that lead to parental disinterest
with regard to Muslim girls’ education at the secondary stage.
Introduction National Policy on Education, 1986

Since independence, the issue of (revised in 1992) also attempted
education and women’s education to assign a positive interventionist
in particular, has been a special role to the national system of
concern of policy makers. The education to address obstacles
* Assistant Professor, Department of Gender Studies, NCERT, New Delhi–110016

inhibiting women’s access to, and major reduction in gender, social

participation in different types and and regional gaps in enrolment,
levels of education. Two major reform dropout, retention, and improving
initiatives of the Government of India quality with focus on Science and
endorsed greater participation of Mathematics. Also, at the behest of
girls in education at the elementary this scheme, special interventions
level: the District Primary Education planned in the Five Year Plan were
Programme (DPEP) and Sarva to setup 6,000 high quality Model
Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA). To some Schools at block level with sharing
extent both the programmes of cost by the Centre as well as the
succeeded in bringing the philosophy states as benchmark for excellence
and implementation strategies of in secondary schooling, especially
gender equality such as gender in educationally backward blocks
training of all officials concerned, (EBBs) which have a significant SC,
discussion about gender in teacher ST, OBC and minority population to
development course, revision of provide quality education, especially
curricula and textbooks from a to the poor and meritorious children,
gender perspective, community who may not otherwise be able to
mobilisation for girls’ education and access such education by paying
strengthening of support services to prohibitive fees in the private (aided
relieve girls from household chores and unaided) schools; increase the
among others into the country’s intake capacity of schools at the
existing education system. As the secondary stage by upgrading 15,000
country began to implement the SSA existing primary schools to secondary
in the right earnest, with the objective schools; increase the intake capacity
of free and compulsory education of existing 44,000 secondary schools
upto the age of fourteen years, an by creating enhanced facilities
urgent need was also recognized to such as construction of additional
universalize secondary education by classrooms and providing additional
the country’s education planners. In teachers; encourage establishment
this background, the Eleventh Five of good quality schools in deficient
Year Plan planned several initiatives. areas through Public and Public
The foremost among these was Private Partnership (PPP) mode;
launching of a centrally sponsored setting up of Kendriya Vidyalayas
umbrella scheme called, ‘Scheme (KVs) and Navodaya Vidyalayas (NVs)
for Universal Access and Quality at in hitherto unserved areas; ensuring
the Secondary Stage (SUCCESS)’. 100% trained teachers in all schools
The emphasis on girls’ education and maintaining a healthy pupil
has been reflected in this umbrella teacher ratio of 25:1 by 2011–12;
scheme also as its overall objectives and finally by way of revamping the
were universalising access with ICT facilities in the secondary and
higher secondary schools across the Despite these multi–dimensional

country (XIth Five Year Plan 2007- efforts, nearly twenty eight percent
11, www.educationforallinindia. girls dropout of school between
com). With regard to bridging the classes I–V and forty four percent
social g aps in secondary education, between classes I–VIII and fifty two
the Five Year Plan also planned percent between classes I–X at the
upgradation of elementary schools national aggregative level, if somehow
to secondary schools in ethnic get enrolled (GOI, 2011). Available
concentration areas of the relevant studies on education also reveal
some social groups; distribution that not enough progress has been
(supply) of free uniforms, text books made with regard to the education
and footwear; bicycle/wheelchairs to of Muslim minority girls. They are
the needy students belonging to some moving forward in educational
social group; stipends to deserving attainment at a very slow rate in
students; scholarships, remedial comparison with the girls of other
coaching; and adoption of an area– communities. Lack of quantitative
intensive approach with community data makes this argument difficult
participation. To act upon these to establish, but the findings of
proposals, the Government of India various researches and surveys
launched the Rashtriya Madhyamik enable us to determine the low
Shiksha Abhiyaan (RMSA) as a level of educational attainment of
centrally sponsored scheme. It was Muslim girls in the secondary stage
done during the Eleventh Five Year (Islam 2010, Siraj 2010, Jafri 2010,
Plan period itself. As things stand 2010, Siddiqui 2010, Hasan 2003,
now, the objectives of RMSA have Hasan and Menon 2005). Although
been laid out to be achieved in Islam provides equal opportunity
three stages. In the first stage, the to education, many Muslim girls
objective is to achieve 75% Gross are denied access to education.
Enrolment Ratio (GER) for Classes Citing the figures published by the
IX–X by the end of the Eleventh Plan 55th Round of the National Sample
period by providing a secondary Survey Organisation (NSSO), Hasan
school within a reasonable distance and Menon (2005) reported that
(5 kms) of every habitation and Muslim boys and girls enrolment
removal of gender, socio-economic at the primary and upper primary
and disability barriers. In the second levels is comparable to Hindus but
stage, RMSA intends to achieve most of the Muslim boys and girls
improvement in the overall quality dropout after the primary stage
of the secondary education by the and at the secondary level. The
end of the Twelfth Five Year Plan report of the High Level Committee
Period, in the third stage, universal (2007) chaired by Justice R. Sachar
retention by 2020. while analysing socioeconomic and
educational status of the Muslim Muslim settlements lack schooling

community of India found that facilities. Jeffery et. al. (2005) in a
though the enrolments of Muslim case study of Bijnor district in Uttar
children in education have increased Pradesh also noticed similar findings.
significantly in the recent years, Non–availability of schooling
incidence of never enrolled and facilities places those in a difficult
dropouts is still very high among situation who otherwise have desire
Muslims. The educational situation of to educate their children. Qureshi
Muslim children, especially of Muslim (2010) argued that many a times
girls was reported very depressingly school ethos also create barriers in
and alarmingly from lower levels Muslim girls’ education, if somehow
of enrolment to the higher levels schooling facility is available. For
of education. The data published instance, dress code adopted in
by the 66th Round of the National schools influence girls education
Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) negatively as many Muslim families
revealed that at the all India level, in consider it contrary to their cultural
rural and urban areas alike, fewer tradition. Quite a few studies also
Muslim girls attend schools after highlight that a Muslim household’s
the elementary level. The NFHS, for concern for girls’ personal safety
example indicates that Muslim girls and security is a major barrier in
are the lowest number of enrolled in Muslim girls’ education, especially
schools in the secondary stage. once girls attain puberty (Jeffery et.
al. 2005, Srivastava 2001). A large
Main Thrust of the Previous section of opinion also holds that
Studies the community’s social biases are
Over the last few decades, many the main barriers in Muslim girls’
studies focused on identifying education (Ahmed 2008, Hasan
barriers that affect Muslim children’s and Ritu 2005, Goswami and Kabir
education in general. But very 2003). Many Muslim households
few studies have concentrated generally believe that girls require
specifically in identifying barriers education that enables them to
in secondary education of Muslim perform her role in childcare and
girls. The findings of those studies looking after the household chores.
available on Muslim education in Hence, few years of schooling is
India concerning low status of Muslim believed to be sufficient for girls.
girls’ education are varied in nature. Apart from these, studies have
For instance, Mander (2011) found also emphasized that programmes
that for children’s education parents like the Maulana Azad Education
demand government institutions with Foundation’s corpus of funds for
both Hindu and Muslim children but the expansion and establishment
of schools, including residential are lagging behind in educational

schools and colleges for girls too attainment in the secondary stage;
have failed to make a significant dent based on field-based empirical
in educational deprivation of Muslim evidences generated through case
children, especially in states having studies and focus group discussions.
sizeable Muslim population as funds We specifically wanted to elucidate
allocated to these states remained attitudes to, and experiences of,
unutilised. Uttar Pradesh is one Muslim girls aged 15–17 who had
among such states (Hasan and Ritu, completed elementary education, but
2005). were withdrawn from schools and
Had lack of schooling facilities how they relate to low participation
and issue of a girl’s personal safety of Muslim girls in the secondary
and security been the main factors, education.
then poor educational status of girls
would have also been there in the Research Questions
other communities in the State that, The paper focuses on the following
in fact, are now showing considerable two questions: (i) Are lack of
progress in girls’ education. Poverty schooling facilities and school ethos
is also not the basic barrier in this the barriers in secondary education
regard. The fact that majority of of Muslim girls? (ii) Is the Muslim
Muslim households irrespective of household’s disinterest the major
economic status are not sending barrier of low level of secondary
their daughters to schools once education among Muslim girls? If
girls attain puberty in rural areas yes, what contributes to the parental
of Uttar Pradesh weaken the often disinterest?
forwarded argument that Muslim
girls’ education would improve if Sample Area
Muslim concentrated areas equip In–depth case studies and focus
themselves with schooling facilities. group discussions with the
It also points out that barrier community people were conducted
behind lack of schooling facilities, in both rural and urban settlements
school ethos and poverty are much of four districts namely Bahraich,
deeper than scholars are placing on Bareilly, Bijnor and Rampur of Uttar
record. This research is carried out, Pradesh with concentration of large
therefore, to explore the conundrum Muslim population. The rural–urban
of why, despite rapid expansion settlements of all the four districts
of educational facilities and huge where case studies and focus group
improvements in educational status discussions were conducted are
of women in general, Muslim girls given on next page in table 1.
Table 1
Sample Area
Sample Sample Rural Locations Urban Locations

Districts Blocks
Bahraich Risia 6 –Matera Risia town
7–Bohpatchownki
Bijnor Kotwali 6–Kotwali Nagina town
7– Shahlipur Kotra
Bareilly Mirganj 6–Sindholi Mirganj Block
7–Parchoya Headquarters
Rampur Shahbad 6–Pachtaur Dakia
7–Madhukar
Methodology their parents’ attitudes, as well as the

The study was based on qualitative prevailing attitudes in the Muslim
empirical evidences taken from community with regard to secondary
a larger research project entitled education of Muslim girls.
‘Barriers in Secondary Education Focus group discussions were
of Muslim Girls: A Study of Four mainly conducted to elicit Muslim
Districts of Uttar Pradesh’. Fieldwork community’s opinion with regard
was carried out in 8 rural locations to girls’ education. Interviews
and in four urban locations of four were conducted in late 2010. All
districts namely, Bahraich, Bijnor, interviews were conducted in the
Bareilly and Rampur. The study presence of the interviewees’ parents.
area was purposively selected the Initial questions covered basic
details for which follows in the next socio–economic and demographic
paragraph. 20 girls were chosen for information and then the interviewer
in–depth case studies in the age asked some open–ended questions
group 15–17 who have completed with specific follow–up prompts. The
class VIII, but were withdrawn from schedule was designed to broadly
schools. Besides, a group of people cover two topics: reasons of low
having different occupations were educational status of Muslim girls
identified for focus group discussions. in secondary education and the
Data was collected mainly through dynamics of Muslim household’s
interviews with girls and focus group disinterest in secondary education
discussions with community. of Muslim girls, together with details
Case studies were carried out to of socio–economic and demographic
explore interviewees’ own attitude backgrounds. Hence the main
to reasons of low participation of questions were: Do you think
Muslim girls in secondary education, non–availability of secondary level
schooling facilities, especially in (much below the state averages

rural areas, school ethos, if available i.e. 38.27%). Similarly, the sample
are very important barriers that blocks selected in each district have
compel Muslim girls not to avail the high concentration of Muslims and
benefits of educational opportunities have low female literacy rates.
at the secondary stage? In what
way non–availability of secondary Analysis and Results
schooling facility and school ethos A total of 20 interviews were obtained
act as barriers in their participation from the 12 locations (8 rural and 4
in secondary education? What are urban). About 10 were from rural
their experiences about parental areas and 10 from urban towns.
disinterest in their education? The content analysis of case studies
The qualitative method was used indicates that there are two categories
to analyze the data. Analysis is of barriers that restrict Muslim girls’
presented in the narrative format education at the secondary level. The
to seek answers to the research first category is system level and the
questions. second one is household level.
Some of the system level barriers
Profile of the Study Area that restrict secondary education of
The National Policy on Education, Muslim girls are:
1986 revised in 1992 and its • Government schools (secondary
Programme of Action (POA) identified stage) are very few and far away,
41 districts across the country as if available
educationally backward on the • Schools, if available, fail to
basis of female literacy rates of 1981 motivate or encourage Muslim
census. Out of these 41 districts, community to send their
13 districts were in Uttar Pradesh. daughters to schools especially
Bahraich, Bijnor and Rampur were after the primary stage.
three districts among those 13 Some of the household level barriers
districts of Uttar Pradesh identified that restrict secondary education of
as educationally backward on the Muslim girls are:
basis of Census data of 1981 on • Household poverty
female literacy rates. Bareilly as • Socio–cultural and religious
a neighbouring district performed ethos that work against Muslim
comparatively well on educational girls’ and women’s education
indicators was selected for the
study. All the districts have high System Level Barriers
concentration of Muslim population Poor accessibility to secondary
(much higher than the state average schools generally contributes
i.e. 18.5% as per 2001 Census and significantly in non–participation
low Muslim female literacy rates of girls in the secondary education
everywhere, but it varies from class). Her parents are illiterate and
location to location and community her father supports his family by
to community. The study area is no running a small auto workshop in
different in this respect. The empirical Dakia town. She has two sisters and
evidences revealed that Muslim girls’ two brothers. She is the third one
participation in secondary education amongst her brothers and sisters.
is low due to poor accessibility to Both of her elder sisters have already
schooling facilities in rural areas. In got married. Her two brothers are
Uttar Pradesh, the average distance elder to her and help in father’s
to secondary education generally occupation. She studied upto VIII
exceeds 5 to 6 kms. in rural areas standard in a village school. After VIII
as the secondary education is standard, she wanted to continue her
linked to inter–colleges. The need studies and told her mother of her
to travel to long distances to inter– wish to continue studies. Her mother
college is found to be a significant also wanted that her daughter
barrier in Muslim girls’ education continues her studies. So her mother
in the secondary stage. The Muslim agreed to get her enrolled in inter–
community, especially the elders in college for secondary education.
the community do not favour girls’ She said: “There is an upper
education, if girls have to go to attend primary school in my village as well
school at a distant place for reasons as a Madrasa run by State Madrasa
of girls’ personal safety and security. Board. The inter college run by
private management is available at
Case Study 1 a distance of 3 kms. from my village
The story of a Muslim girl illustrates at Dakia. Children have to go to
how non–availability of government Dakia for schooling after class VIII.
schools or the availability of private The college management charges
schools is acting as a barrier in ` 50/– per month as a tuition fees.
secondary education. I got admission in class IX in inter
My parents always said that girls college in Dakia in 2009. But I left
have no need to continue learning my school after six months. I could
once they attain puberty, so I did not not continue my studies because
have a chance to go to school after the the elder members of the village
elementary stage (a Muslim girl aged community oppose girls’ education
15, rural Rampur). after a certain age. So after class
She narrated that she resides VIII, I discontinued my studies. My
in the village Madhukar, Naya mother wanted me to study. But
Panchayat Uncha Gaon, Shahabad the other elder members, especially
block, Rampur district, Uttar males of my family, objected to my
Pradesh. Her parents belong to a Teli attending school and, therefore, I
community (basically from backward had to leave my schooling.”
She further said that though The shortages of women teachers

non–availability of schooling facility in schools discourage many Muslim
near the place of residence of girls is parents to send their daughters to
one of the major barriers in Muslim schools in rural areas, especially
girls’ education; elder members of after a certain age.
the village Muslim community do not The story of a Muslim girl from
like that Muslim girls attend those a village Pachtaur illustrates how
schools after a certain age where girls non–presence of women teachers in
from other communities also attend. schools acts a barrier in secondary
Since Madrasas are not available for education of Muslim girls.
secondary level education in villages
for girls, Muslim girls are deprived Case Study 2
from schooling after certain age. Ruksana, aged 15, resides in the
Schools, if available, fail to motivate/ village Pachtaur, Naya Panchayat
encourage Muslim community to send
Uncha Gaon, Shahbad block, district
their daughters to schools especially
Rampur, Uttar Pradesh. Her parents
after the primary stage. It is widely
belong to a Meo community (basically
recognized that the presence of
from Mewat region). Her father has a
women teachers tends to make
small piece of agricultural land. He
schools more girl–friendly and provide
parents greater confidence to send is illiterate and supports his family
daughters to schools, particularly by growing vegetables in his land
once girls attain puberty. But non– and selling them in the market in
availability of women teachers in Rampur. She has two sisters and
schools, especially in rural areas four brothers. She is the fourth
that have concentration of Muslim amongst her brothers and sisters.
population emerged as one of the Both her elder sisters have already
important barriers that restrict got married. She studied upto
Muslim households to send their V standard in a village school. After
daughters to schools. Many schools V standard, she got admitted in a
in rural areas do not have women nearby school in class VI.
teachers despite recommendations of She says: “There is a government
National Policy on Education, 1986 of primary school as well as Madrasa
appointing at least 50 per cent women run by State Madrasa Board in our
teachers in elementary schools for village. There is a Junior High School
more than 3 decades now. In Uttar in village Ossi located at a distance
Pradesh, 46.8 per cent primary of about half a kilometre from my
school teachers are women, but only village. I studied upto V standard in
21.1 per cent women teachers are in the village school and got admission
secondary schools (GOI, 2011). This in class VI in Junior High School,
is the overall scenario of the state. Ossi. I studied in Junior High
School upto VI standard. I had to She further narrated that if she

leave my schooling in VII standard had an opportunity to receive further
as there was no woman teacher in education in the same school, she
the school. Elders in the community would have continued her studies
oppose girls’ education, especially and would have completed at least her
in circumstances, if girls have to go secondary level education. The fresh
to other village for schooling and process of getting enrolled in another
more so, if women teachers are not school forced her to discontinue her
available in schools. I wanted to studies. The government should
study but my uncle did not allow me bring out some mechanisms in
to go to school. So I left the school.” Muslim concentration areas that
She further said that if she had ensure continuation of admission in
an opportunity to receive education schools if girls have to get enrolled
as per community’s aspirations in afresh. This is very important in
her village, she might have continued Muslim areas as Muslim parents
her studies. hardly pay any attention to education
of children, especially to girls’
Case Study 3 education if they have to play some
Sahnaz, aged 15, resides in a village role in their studies.
Kotwali, Block Nagina, District
Bijnor, Uttar Pradesh. She belongs Household level barriers
to Saiyad community. She has two Poverty emerges as another

sisters and four brothers. She is the contributing barrier in the secondary
youngest amongst her sisters. Both education of Muslim girls. Though
of her elder sisters did not study at the government claims that
all. However, they received religious education is free for girls, girls were
education in Madrasa. She studied of the view that poverty forces their
upto VIII standard in a school. parents to withdraw their daughters
She says: “Till VIII standard, I from school. While elementary
studied in the government elementary school tuition fee is abolished by
school. After class VIII, I left my the government, parents have to
school because the school was upto bear secondary school tuition fee
VIII standard. I wanted to continue for their children. Girls believe that
my studies for which I had to get their parents have to bear not only
enrolled afresh in the inter–college. the burden of direct cost of schooling
There was an admission fees and also in the form of tuition fee but also
the need to fulfil other formalities for for books, stationery, uniforms,
which I needed my parents’ support. contribution to school building
But my parents did not agree upon funds and travelling costs etc. for
getting me enrolled in a new school sending children to schools at the
so I discontinued my studies.” secondary level. Parents withdraw
their daughters from schools if they it costs me ` 20 per day. There is a

have to contribute financially in girls’ school fee also. In addition to school
education. Poverty emerges another fee, it is very difficult for my family
barrier in secondary education of to bear the transportation costs for
Muslim girls in all locations that come my studies. My father is the only
under the purview of the study, but earning member in my family. In all,
it was found having a most negative inflation has made it difficult for my
impact of Muslim girls’ education in parents to feed the family. My father
sample areas of the district Bahraich. told me how can I think to educate
you or your sisters in such a mere
Case Study 4 income? Such circumstances forced
Nasreen Khaton, aged 16, resides me to discontinue my studies.”
in a village Bhowpatchownki, Block She further said that she had a
Risia, Bahraich, Uttar Pradesh. Her great dream that she will study and
parents are illiterate. They belong become a teacher. She will serve in
to Ansari community. Her father, her state and will ensure that every
Mohd. Sartaj Ahmed supports his girl child in her community complete
family by working as mechanic in at least the full cycle of schooling.
a private workshop. She has three But poverty had broken her dreams.
sisters and two brothers. She is the She felt that they are poor people.
second one amongst her sisters and Their parents cannot afford to spend
brothers. Her elder sister has already on girls’ education. If schools are
got married at the age of 17 years. available within a reasonable walking
She narrates that she has completed distance, many girls like her, can
VIII standard in the year 2010 from continue their studies and reach to a
a school nearby their locality. She Manzil i.e. destination.
wanted to continue her studies but Socio–cultural and religious ethos
she did not get enrolled in school of Muslim households: social biases,
after the VIII standard. stereotypical attitudes, and social
She says: “Till VIII standard, I practices prevent Muslim girls from
studied in a village school. I have benefitting educational opportunities
really enjoyed my schooling. But at the secondary level. The analysis
there is no government or private of empirical evidences revealed that
inter-college near our village. Inter- many Muslim households believe
college is located at a distance of 8 that girls are not required education
kms. from my house at Risia or at as they will get married and go to
Matera, which is also about 7 to 8 another house. Moreover, the general
kms. I cannot walk 16 km. to and perception is that education is not
fro every day. If I hire transportation going to change girls’ social status.
(rickshaw/auto–rickshaw) to go to Social biases perpetuate low value
school and come back from school, to girls’ education, especially when
girls grow little older. Low value large family. There is so much work
given to girls’ lives further reinforces at home. My mother asked me to
early marriages of girls. In Bahraich, help in household chores. Though
more than 40 percent girls were my mother does not keep good health
found in sample areas who were but more so she believes that girls
already engaged in matrimonial ties are not required much education.
at the age of 14–15. Girls’ marriage They should learn household chores
is recognized as a highest priority in so that they can handle their married
poor Muslim households than girls’ life with expertise.”
education. The overall socio–cultural She further narrated that girls are
and religious ethos has a great role always considered as a ‘paraya dhan’
in low educational status of Muslim in her family. Her parents always talk
girls. For most Muslim parents, a about marriages of their daughters.
girls’ education is to prepare her for Elders in the community always
marriage, childcare and household object education of girls, especially
management. A few years of education after the attainment of puberty. They
is, therefore, enough for girls that always say that girls should learn
provide the necessary understanding household chores. Education will not
of religious matters and a good improve their social status. Girls are
grounding in moral education. Parents considered badchalan if go to school
often withdraw girls from schools in after the attainment of puberty.
the pretext of their requirement in
household chores. Case Study 6
Sultana, aged 16, resides in the
Case Study 5 village Matera, Risia block, Bahraich
Ruksana, aged 15, resides in district, Uttar Pradesh. She belongs
Madhukar village, Shahabad block, to Muslim (Khan) community. Her
Rampur district, Uttar Pradesh. Her father is illiterate and supports
parents belong to Teli community. his family by working as a wage
Her father is an agriculturist. She labourer. She has three brothers
has five sisters and four brothers. and two sisters. Her elder sister is 17
She is the youngest amongst her year old and she has got married at
sisters. Her three sisters have already the age of 15 years. The younger one
got married. Her brothers also help is 11 year old. One of her brothers is
in family occupation. She studied in 18 year old and two are younger to
government village school upto VIII her. She studied up to VIII standard.
standard. She left her schooling after She wanted to continue her studies.
VIII standard. But her parents did not allow her to
She says: “I studied upto VIII continue her studies.
standard in the village school. I She says: “There is a government
discontinued my studies as my elementary school and also a
mother does not keep well. We have Madrasa in our village. There is an
inter-college at a distance of one and girl’s reputation is spoiled if she goes

half kms. from my place of residence. out of a locality. The government
Till VIII standard, I used to go to the should open counseling centre in
village school. After VIII standard, Muslim area that can motivate
my parents asked me not to attend community for girls’ education.
school any more. I wanted to continue
my studies. But family pressure Case Study 8
did not allow me to do so. I knew Parveen Begum, aged 16, resides
that my parents took this position in Sindolhi ¼fl|kSayh½ village, Mirganj,
under the influence of community Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh. Her parents
members. Majority of the people in have received religious education
the neighbourhood believe that girls from a Madrassa. They belong to
should not be sent to school after the Khan community. Her father (Halwai)
attainment of puberty. Education supports his family by running a
does not improve girls’ social status. small shop. She has four sisters and
As per Islamic customs, girls should two brothers. She is the youngest
know the correct ways of fasting and amongst her sisters. Her three elder
praying along with little bit knowledge sisters have already got married.
about other aspects of life. For which She passed class VIII from a village
few years of schooling is enough”. school. She did not get enrolled in
school after the VIII standard.
Case Study 7 She narrates: “Till VIII standard,
Jineet Firdosh, aged 17, resides in I studied in a village school. I have
village Bhopat chowki ¼Hkwirpksdha), Risia, received education–religious as well
Bahraich, Uttar Pradesh. Her parents as modern from the school. I have
are illiterate and belong to Ansari enjoyed my schooling. But there is no
community. She has five brothers government or private inter-college
and two sisters. She is the youngest nearby our locality. Inter-college is
among her brothers and sisters. located at a distance of 4 kms. from
She says: “I studied in a private my house. I cannot walk 8 kms. to and
school till VII standard. After VII fro every day. If I hire transportation
standard, my mother asked me not (shared—auto or rickshaw) to go to
to go to school. Almost all relatives school and come back from school,
and the neighbourers raise fingers if it costs me a minimum of ` 15/– per
girls go to school after a certain age.” day. My father told me that he cannot
She said that she wanted to afford to pay my school fee plus
continue her studies but there is transportation costs. Hence, I was
so much backwardness in their forced to discontinue my studies. I
community that girls are forced had a great desire to join inter college
to discontinue their studies after but my family circumstances did not
attainment of puberty. Parents believe permit me to do so.”
She further said that though studied in an Urdu medium school

poverty, non–availability of schooling in Nagina. This school is nearby my
facilities are major obstacles in residence. After class VIII, I wanted to
continuation of her education, social study but my elder brothers did not
backwardness in the community is allow me to go to school. So I left the
one of most important obstacles in school. My mother says, education is
girls’ education in her village. Her neither going to change your social
father said if he spends ` 10/– daily status nor you are going to work
in my commuting to school, what outside the home. Moreover, my
will he get by educating me? He feels mother feels that “Abhi tak jis school
that my education is not going to get mein tum padhti thi usmein sabhi
him benefitted in any way. For him ladkiyan muslim parivaron se thi.
important is that I should get married
Parantu abb aagey ki shiksha ke liye
as soon as possible so that he gets
hamein tumhe ucchtar Madhyamik
rid of his social responsibility. She
Vidhyalaya mein dakhila dilwana
further said that our community is
hoga — Jis mein sabhi vargo ki
not only educationally backward, but
ladhkiyan pravesh leti hain. Islamic
also socially backward. People do not
understand the value of education. reeti rivajon ke anusar ladhkiyon ko
The government should organize ek khas kism ke mahoul mein palna
advocacy campaigns to eliminate aiwam shiksha dena awashyak hai.
social evils that inhibit girls’ and Kyuki ucctar Madhyamik shiksha ke
women’s development. liye abb hamare kasbe mein is prakaar
ka school nahi hain jismein kewal
Case Study 9 muslim ladhkiyan hon aur kewal
Mumtaz, aged 16, resides in Nagina muslim mahila adhyapika hon, isliye
town of Bijnor district, Uttar Pradesh. main ab tumhe aage ki shiksha ke
She belongs to Saiyad community. liye dakhila nahi dilwa sakti.” If you
She has seven brothers. She is the go to school and something happens
only girl child in the family. Her and then it will be difficult for us to
father runs a shop. Her two brothers get you married in a family of repute.
are elder to her and five are younger Marrying a daughter in a family of
to her. Both of her elder brothers repute is an important task for us for
did not study at all. They went to which you are required to know the
madarssa for four years. She studied basic aspects of Islamic way of life,
upto VIII standard in an Urdu so that you can live happily in your
medium school at Nagina. There are in–law’s family. You have already
three inter-colleges in Nagina. Girls received education—religious as well
in her Mohalla generally do not go to as modern and hence I discontinued
school after class VII or VIII. my studies under the influence of my
She says: “Till VIII standard I family members and other relatives.”
Focus Group Discussions is to seek the cooperation of the

The civil society, religious leaders, local community in getting children
government and non-government enrolled in school, and in ensuring
organisations, among others, are their continued attendance. With
playing an important role in women’s this background, focus-group
education since a very long period in discussions were conducted with
India. The community plays a role parents, village school teachers,
in various forms in promotion of heads of local religious bodies and
education and of girls’ education in consultation with opinion leaders of
particular. They mobilize resources. the village communities in the areas
Even the schools, especially in rural coming within the preview of the
areas, cannot exist in isolation study.
in a village. The Education Code An interview schedule was
also provides for the formation of developed and administered to village
school development committees, community that include parents,
comprising of persons of the local village school teachers, heads of local
community. One of the important religious bodies and opinion leaders
functions of the Janpad Panchayat, in four districts selected for the study.
Table 1
Occupation of community members included in focus-group discussions in the
four sample districts
SL. Occupation Response Percentage in Sample Districts
No.
Bahraich Bareilly Bijnor Rampur
1 Labourer 4 3 3 3
2 Agriculturist 5 5 5 2
3 Businessmen 2 1 2 1
4 Sarpanch/Panch 3 1 2 3
5 School teachers 1 1 2 2
6 Women 6 7 4 6
7 Heads of local 1 1 1 2
religious
bodies
(madrassas)
9 Others 4 1 1 1
(educational
officials and
anganwadi
workers)
Total Responses 26 20 20 20
Total = 86
While selecting the persons from the in secondary education indicates

local community, it was ensured that a mixed reaction on the part of
the group was representative of the community regarding this. About
village. The district-wise distribution 18 percent members believed that
of the persons included for the there are no such barriers that
interview was—Rampur 20, Bahraich restrict Muslim girls’ participation
20, Bareilly 36, Bijnor 32. In all, 106 in secondary education. They all
community members were included were in favour of educating their
for focus–group discussion. These daughters. They cited a number of
were drawn from four districts in instances of people in the community
this order: Bahraich 26 Bareilly 20, who are educating their daughters.
Bijnor 20, Rampur 20; Occupation- They stated:
wise distribution of the community “We want our daughters to be
members is given in Table 1 (on educated to higher levels and able to
perform all sorts of housework, and
previous page).
we also like them to work outside the
The group interacted were of
house to contribute to the family’s
different socio–economic status.
income. But it is important that
In respect of age, everyone was
sons are more educated than our
older than 40 and younger than 65
daughters. The problem is sons are
years. Their children are therefore not interested in studies. They are not
comparatively older and have a interested because they are forced
great say in children’s educational to contribute in the family’s income
decision. Only 9 percent were literate due to inflation. They start earning
and have received formal education. at a very young age. Secondly, many
42 percent were literate but having Muslim households believe that
only religious education. Four have children will not get any job even if
secondary level (class eighth to tenth) they study.”
education. Two are educated upto However, majority (59%) of
class twelfth. Only 17 owned land. them said that patriarchal values
The data also shows that 6 women continue to be a major barrier in
are literate. Two were educated upto girls’ education, especially after
class eighth. One was educated upto the puberty. Seeing girls as home-
college level and was teaching in a workers, people object to their
school. 12 women in the discussion mobility. Girls and their families are
came from the middle class and the often teased if they are sent outside
others were from a poor background. their villages for schooling. As one of
Analysis of information ascer- the respondent, Rahman from Risia,
tained through focus group Bahraich said:
discussions with the Muslim “My daughter is studying in class
community on girls’ participation IX. When I go to work or sit with my
elders they tease me [saying] his Urdu and values of Islam (about
daughters will become ‘collector’ or religious understanding)”, replied a
he will eat his daughters’ income”. majority of people, particularly in a
Bijnor sample.
Another respondent, Fakir Ahmed, a Najir from Nagina town area of
school teacher said: district Bijnor whispered that “most
“The prevalent social norms and people considered that the overall
beliefs are not in favour of girls’ social environment is not congenial
education. Many households do not for girls. There is always fear of
favour girls’ education once they disgrace and danger to honour, in
attain puberty. They think that a case girls go out of house alone”.
girl should get married as soon as Ruksana Begum from village
she becomes older (by 16 years). Pachtaur, Shahbad, Rampur
If an older girl goes to school, she submitted that “girls do not learn
is seen as a loose-character girl. anything in schools. Parents see no
People in villages feel if we do not reason for daughters to attend school.
follow the norms and beliefs of the Rather, they feel school timings
local community who will marry our are long. Girls fail to contribute in
daughters? In Islam, marriage is household activities if they go to
must. Marriage is a sacred activity school. Girls, once they attain a little
according to Hadith. It should be maturity, they contribute a lot in
practiced honourably. I always try to
household chores, especially in rural
convince the people to abstain from
setting. Household chores not only
marrying off daughters at an early
in terms of wage-saving activities but
age, as it is against law as well as
also in wage-earning activities. For
against human rights. Girls should be
instance, many Muslim households
educated. It is better if you send them
are engaged in embroidery work.
to school and make them educated.
You will reap fruits in future. But Shopkeepers from nearby towns
people do not listen. Moreover, they generally come to rural areas and
react in a very different manner. give work to women and some
They think if they send daughters to women work at home. Women get
school, somebody has to accompany work at home. Girls too help mothers
them while commuting to school and in paid work. Spending long hours
back to home. More importantly, they in school generally does not suit
will not find educated bridegrooms Muslim households, especially poor
as boys generally do not study in households.”
our areas. They have to spend more
money”. Conclusions
“Schools do not fulfill community’s Overall findings of the study are
basic requirement as teaching of positive; with wide spread enthusiasm
for educational attainment among they get good match for them, girls
Muslim girls. As many of the and women know the value of
interviews/case studies showed education in their lives. Mothers
keen interest of girls in education. A are found more strong advocates
large proportion of Muslim girls are of their daughters’ education. But
deprived from secondary education their own helplessness and lack
due to parental disinterest in a girls’ of empowerment restrict them to
education, especially in situations play their role in decision making
where they have to contribute either for their daughters’ education. The
financial or physically. Though lack efforts on the part of government for
of schooling facilities, school ethos community mobilisation and gender
and poverty are used as an excuse, sensitisation have not found any
but it may be in some cases. Contrary significant impact on girls’ education
to what is commonly believed, the in a large proportion of Muslim
problem of poor status of educational population, especially in rural areas.
attainment among Muslim girls Derogatory social biases perpetuate
in the secondary level is not at all the practice of early marriage, and
about schooling facilities, school girls do not know the legislation;
ethos and poverty, but more about even if they do, they are not in a
prejudice, patriarchal values and position to demand their rights to be
religious ethos. Embedded cultural recognized. None of the organisation
and gender biases in all sample areas is found to be working closely with
are found so strong that eventually the Muslim community in any of the
hamper Muslim girls’ education after sample location to raise awareness
a certain age (puberty). The lessons and break down the barriers that
from the case studies underline restrict Muslim girls from achieving
a fact that Muslim households their rights to education. Ensuring
generally are more concerned for a participation of Muslim girls in
system for a daughter’s education secondary education is not just about
that can provide their girls a safe ensuring school access, it is more
learning environment that equip about enabling Muslim girls to gain
girls with knowledge of secular access. Strenuous efforts are required
subjects as well as moral education that could lead to better–targeted
from an Islamic perspective. Though awareness programmes for making
the elders members in the sample girls’ education a priority for every
locations are found more inclined Muslim households and making the
towards shedding their responsibility fathers and brothers more open to
by marrying of girls as early as safeguarding girls’ right to education.
References
Government of India. 2008. Agenda Note
. 2011. Statistics of School Education (Abstract), 2009–10. Bureau of Planning,
Monitoring and Statistics, Ministry of Human Resource Development, New Delhi.
Hasan, Mushirul. 2003. Muslims in Secular India: Problems and Prospects in Education.
Academy of Third World Studies, Jamia Millia Islamia. New Delhi.
Hasan, Zoya, and Menon, Ritu. 2005. Educating Muslim Girls: A Comparison of Five Indian
cities. Women Unlimited, New Delhi.
High Level Committee. 2007. Report on Social, Economic and Educational Status of the
Muslim Community of India. Akalank Publications, New Delhi.
Islam, Nazrul. 2010. ‘Conditions and Availability of Educational Infrastructure in Minority
Concentration Districts of West Bengal’ In Waheed Abdul (Ed.), Minority Education in
India: Issues of Access, Equity and Inclusion, 2010. Serials Publications, New Delhi.
Jafri S.S.A. 2010. ‘Economic and Educational Status of Villagers in Uttar Pradesh: A
Comparative Study of Hindus and Muslims of district Barabanki and Shahjahanpur.’
In Waheed Abdul (Ed.), Minority Education in India: Issues of Access, Equity and
Inclusion, 2010. Serials Publications, New Delhi.
Jeffery, Patricia, Roger, Jeffery, and Craig, Jeffrey. 2005. The Mothers’ Lap and the
Civilising Mission: Madrasa Education and Rural Muslim Girls in Western Uttar Pradesh
in Hasan Zoya and Ritu Menon (Eds.). Essays on Muslim Women in India, Oxford
University Press, Delhi.
Mander, H. 2011. Times of India. July 22, 2011, Delhi.
Siddiqui M.A. 2010. ‘Imperatives of Protective Discrimination for Education of Muslims.’
In Waheed Abdul (Ed.), Minority Education in India: Issues of Access, Equity and
Inclusion, 2010. Serials Publications, New Delhi.
Siraj, Maqbool Ahmad. 2010. ‘Muslim Education in Karnataka: Access, Equity and
Inclusion’ In Waheed Abdul (Ed.), Minority Education in India: Issues of Access, Equity
and Inclusion, 2010. Serials Publications, New Delhi.
Presence of a Global Language in India
A Case for English
Meenakshi Khar*
Abstract
Societies have been losing out their native languages. As a result of
vanishing of languages, many elements of traditional knowledge are
also lost. The major reason of accelerated rate of the extinction of native
languages is the forces of liberalisation and globalisation. Due to this
English has acquired the status of language of opportunities and has
endangered native languages. The paper will focus on the reasons of
spread of English in our country where its growth is contrived and not
organic. It is high time that educationists and linguists should develop
meaningful and relevant curriculum of English so that it coexists with
native languages.
In a world where socialism and to attain global standards of

communism have lost its hold development.
capitalism along with English English is also used for more
has emerged as a strong force. It purposes than ever before. This
is the ‘world standard language: has resulted in the evolution of
an intrinsic part of the global English language which has given
communications revolution’. (The rise to new semantics and syntax.
Economist, 21 December 1996, English has merged with fabric of
p.
39)English has very strongly social life attaining its momentum
influenced the areas of commerce and vitality, reflecting local culture
and trade mostly in developing and influencing languages in its
countries which are aspiring own way.
* Assistant Professor, English, Department of Education in Languages, NCERT, New Delhi 110016
In school education English is More and more parents demand

a second language which implies it English medium instruction schools
is second to one or more than one for their wards. As a result, an
Indian languages. And English is incredibly large number of English
introduced in school Education with medium schools have sprung-up.
much studied pedagogic inputs. These schools have attracted large
Under Three Language Formula number of children from humbler
enough care is taken for teaching strata of society. Parents are paying
learning of English in contrast to heavy fees for these schools in
other Indian Languages. contrast to Govt. – aided schools
The role and relationship offering free education and other
of English vis-a-vis the Indian benefits. This is a pointer to people’s
Languages is important. Whatever belief that English medium schools
the language planning imply, in have a distinct advantage over others.
reality all Indian languages have All the State Governments,
become regional languages. Hindi whether they have adopted three
has become an edge over other Indian language or two language formula
languages because of its status as an have retained English as a compulsory
official language of the Union. English subject at the secondary stage. The
is also another official language National Policy on Education adopted
and its status remains undisputed. by the Government of India in
Since it cannot be identified with any 1968 clearly specifies that: “Special
region it has acquired the status of emphasis needs to be laid on the study
pan-Indian language that is serving of English and other international
the purpose of creating channels of languages. World knowledge is
communication among regions. growing at a tremendous pace,
“English will continue to enjoy especially in science and technology;
a high status so long as it remains India must not only keep up this
the principal medium of education growth, but also make her own
at the University stage, and the significant contribution to it. For this
language of administration at the purpose, study of English deserves to
Central Government and in many be specially strengthened”.
of the states. Even after the regional
languages became media of higher Language and Prospects of
education in the Universities, a Employment
working knowledge of English will The phenomenon of globalisation
be a valuable asset for all students has overtaken caste considerations
and a reasonable proficiency in for larger issues of survival and
the language will be necessary for livelihood. Globalisation has given
those who proceed to the University” opportunities for realising their
(Ministry of Education 1966:192). dreams to some and shaken the
consciousness of others to dare and which they strongly aspire, rests

move ahead leaving behind their on knowing English. This is also
cocooned lives. Media and other delineation of their desire—though
forms of information technologies not rightly executed to be heard and
have played a significant role in seen so as to emerge from an identity
supporting a new social paradigm crises.
which has given new dimension to
economic and social life of country. Language as a Medium of
Undeniably, language is playing Expression
an important role in this process Language is considered a tool for
of transition. The recently created fulfilling social compulsions of
job market demands cultural- communication but it has more
mixing, common language for the gratifying function of self-expression.
execution of jobs and parlance. Language plays an important
The common language which has role in knowledge acquisition and
emerged strongly is English; prime communication. Above all, language
reason for this is probably absence gives a concrete shape to our
of an indigenous job market as an perceived notions of this universe.
alternative to globalisation. This has Therefore familiarity with language
also resulted in extinction of many is the precondition. Child’s first
Indian languages. There are no language is his most familiar known
linkages between language learning language. And the journey of child’s
and prospects of employability so far education should begin in child’s
as Indian languages are concerned. own language.
This scenario has promoted, though There is no denying the fact that
unnecessarily, the status of English individuals have innate desire to
and its hegemonic characteristics. learn and express in many languages.
Closely linked to this issue is There can also be a need and
the absence of nurturing dignity justification for learning a language
of labour among the citizens in as is the case with English. But it’s
our country. Ironically, the most possible naturally and meaningfully,
frustrated segment of society holds if the individuals find themselves in
their lack of knowledge of English as pro-language learning situations;
a factor responsible for it. Parents wherein children have already
are spending money beyond their enhanced the skills of listening,
capacities to provide education in speaking, reading and writing in
English medium. For them ‘medium’ their own language.
(English) is synonym of education. A multi-lingual education
Their faith in English language is programme aims to inculcate in
indomitable. For them the only children the pride for their mother
way to rise vertically in the society, tongue. This definitely leads to be
relevant, enriching and a smooth the first lesson in English i.e. ‘A for
journey of young learners step by Apple’.
step. Under the Right to Free and However, the English language
Compulsory Education Act, schools carries the tag of cosmopolitanism
should come forward to facilitate and it's because of this it is greatly
children’s education in their mother admired in societies, such as ours,
tongue. where genuine diversity of reading
The initiatives have to come and writing is not acknowledged; we
forward from the community, parents uncritically admire English language
and other stakeholders in education. for its monoculturism and confidence
However the existing scenario seems it engenders. In Indian society it may
to be dismal for nurturing mother even be a more powerful marker of
tongues. The class I student is taught difference than caste. This may be
less of her mother tongue and more of considered on a positive note as
state prescribed syllabus. Gradually an indicator of how education can
the section of marginalised and first overcome inherited disadvantages.
generation of school-goers tend to However, the peculiar presence
think that state language is a tool of English in India has created a
to move upward in class and caste situation of wasted human potential.
hierarchy, that the local, indigenous The global system of rewards
languages are inferior. The saddest for knowing English has resulted
part of their journey begins when in massive loss of cultural memory
they have to struggle with another and intellectual dimension. The
language (could be third language in brief hope offered by the Kothari
class I), that is, English. Commission (1964–66), in the form
So far as the position of teaching of ‘three language formula’ has
of English in schools is concerned, never been implemented in its spirit
it is worst than teaching-learning and has therefore withered. There
scenario of Indian languages because certainly is no reason and logic to
teaching of English requires proficient believe that one particular language
teachers in English, reading material offers the best medium for cultural
appropriate for learners; in short a and scientific creativity. We require
conducive environment for learning more thoughtful policy discourse
a foreign language. with state partners at national level.
The ‘foreignness’ of this language The role of non-native English
is further increased when children speaking teachers has grown
have to deal with a subject matter meaningful in the teaching of
that is alien to them. There is every English as a foreign language. This
possibility that children in remote should give them empowerment,
areas have never seen an ‘apple’ voice and identity in the profession.
which is supposed to be the part of This also demands that they engage
in critical praxis, although it is not a users of English. The prominent

linear and simple process. Therefore functions of English in India are:
it is rightly felt that more research (a) The domain specific, registral
is needed. At the same time there use — mostly for bureaucratic,
is a need to develop a model which administrative, legal, technical
empowers teachers to have their and scientific purpose.
voice, moments of reflection for (b) The culture-translation use that
sharing their experience of English shows culture-bound associative
language teaching. meanings and stylistic variations.
(c) The journalistic use for print-
Filtration of English Language in
media communication and the
Rural Bases creative use for literary-writing.
Migration of rural population to semi- It is in this context that we have to
urban or urban areas has helped critically examine another concept—
filtration of English in remote urban the concept of the ‘native speaker’.
bases. Migrated population in urban Monolingual users of English believe
areas have two important reasons to that a native-speaker is the centre of
use English: (i) it is the requirement all decision-making in a language. In
of their jobs (ii) it is psychologically multilingual societies where different
and socially satisfying experience learners acquire two or three
for them. In the absence of growing languages simultaneously and it is
indigenous job markets, Indian very difficult to say which one is the
languages have not made their mother tongue or the first language;
mark as languages of discourse and it is suggested that sociolinguistics
profession. This makes the case for must include multilingualism in
English legitimate. its formulation of communicative
competence because the social
Status of English as a Neutral
context of language use is created
Language by dynamic social forces. There is
English has become a language semi-literate population in urban
of Indians, who have been said to areas who have devised their own
be extremely proud of their own ways and means of learning English;
languages. Interestingly, country it could be by coming in contact
witnesses linguistic fights even today. with tourists, print environment and
But with the increase in population, urbanites. English for the purpose
particularly in the urban and semi of communication is also learnt
urban areas, and with the spread outside the classrooms and without
of education and the increased standardized pedagogic support.
internationalisation of English, there Hence the social aspect of English
is a quantitative expansion and an language acquisition holds great
increase in the number of Indian relevance.
The term ‘Indian English’ has in art, media and creative writing.
gained acceptance as a label to The trends of multilingualism are
describe the use of English in India gaining popularity as well as social
as it has emerged from the social acceptance. Code switching and
context. Indian writing in English has mixing is a common and much to
its own market and, of late, a very be observed phenomenon. It raises a
flourishing one. However one should question about the status of English
also take note of the fact that Indian in coming years. What appears
writing in English is only one aspect realistic today is that English will
of the use of English by Indians, and be used as a vehicular language—
that the creative writers represent like a tool of the trade. There is
only a minority within a minority. the fear that the spread of English
will lead to over half of the world’s
Emerging New Trends languages becoming extinct. This
The driving forces which have made may prove to be true but might be
the case for ‘English’ are also facing with some variation. There might
opposition. be death of many dialects but there
English is said to have negative seems to be every possibility at
influence on our regional languages. strengthening of standardisation of
The socio-cultural fabric also does major Indian languages. The trend
not favour its propagation. The use would be merging of dialects and
of English as a global lingua franca minor languages with broader major
requires intelligibility and the setting languages.
and maintenance of standards in The language system of the world
education of children. There is no is gaining importance because of
way of precisely predicting the future social mobility, new technology and
trends regarding English. There has rise in international communication
never been a language so widely both at the level of trade, business
spread or spoken by so many people and academics. These changes
as English. will affect both written and spoken
There is a possibility of increase in communication skills. It is quite
economic terms, the size of the global possible that English may not be the
market for the English language; but dominant language of the future,
at the same time native languages and multilingual scenario will be
are expected to stage a come back; as enriched. It is sad to witness that
a result, the market share of English a large number of languages are
will probably be lowered. facing extinction, but at the same
An overview of existing scenario time, new ones are emerging in cities
indicates the emergence of native and extended social groups, English
languages though it is witnessed being the dominant among them.
References
Crystal, D. 1997. English as a Global Language. Cambridge University Press, New York.
Graddol, D. 2001. ‘English in the Future.’ A. Burns and C. Coffin (Eds.), Analyzing
English in a Global Context. Routledge. London.
Government of India. 1966. Education and National Development 1964–66, Ministry of
Education, New Delhi.
NCERT. 2005. National Curriculum Framework – 2005, New Delhi.
Pennycook, A. 2001. ‘English in the World/The World in English.’ A. Burns and C. Coffin
(Eds.), Analyzing English in a Global Context. Routledge. London.
Phillipson, R. 1988. ‘Linguicism: structures and ideologies in the linguistic imperialism.’
In J. Cummins and T. Skutnabb-Kangas (Eds.), Minority Education: From Shame to
Struggle. Multilingual Matters, Avon.
Curriculum Change in English Language
Education in the State of Rajasthan
The Dilemmas and Paradoxes*
Ramanujam Meganathan**
Abstract
This paper presents experiences from the ongoing curricular revision in English
Language Education in the Indian State of Rajasthan. While attempting to provide
an insider perspective of the understanding of curriculum change and innovation by
various stake holders of education, it seeks to answer some questions from the point
of view of a curriculum and materials developer. The questions are: (i) How is the idea
of syllabus as an operational construct perceived and understood by the syllabus
designers and material developers?; (ii) How do the curriculum and syllabus developers
and materials designers perceive what should be the methods of teaching-learning of
English language?; (iii) How is the process of curriculum change bridge the knowledge
gap between and among the various participants of curriculum change? The paper
consists of five sections. In the first section the context and backdrop of the initiative
of curriculum change is described bringing in the need and intensions of curriculum
change. The second section raises the issue of ‘what’ and ‘how’ of syllabus design
and the way people involved in curriculum and syllabus development perceived and
responded to the change and how the post method condition (whether it exists or not)
in the present context of English language education in India impacts the development
of materials. The third section raises some questions about materials development for
English language education. The fourth section presents the innovations attempted in
the curriculum revision exercise. In the last section the paper discusses the lessons
learnt from the processes of curriculum revision and materials development.
* Paper presented in the 47th Annual International Conference of IATEFL (International

Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language) held at Liverpool, U.K. from 8th to
12th April, 2013.
** Professor, Department of Education in Languages, National Council of Educational Research
and Training (NCERT), Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi 110 016.
The Story from various fields, including NGOs

working in the field of education.
The government of Rajasthan
The Committee is headed by former
initiated the curricular revision
head of the department of the
involving practising teachers,
Curriculum Group of NCERT and
teacher educators, academics
he was also the Director of SCERT,
from universities, national level
Thiruvanantapuram, Kerala. There
institutions like the NCERT and
was no other committee like the focus
state functionaries for curriculum
groups for content or systemic areas.
implementation. This initiative
It was assumed that the
was more or less similar to the one
syllabus and materials development
carried out the national level. At the
committees would bring in the ideas
national level, the National Council of and arguments of the respective
Educational Research and Training areas during the development of
(NCERT) which has the mandate of syllabus and materials. The first
revising the school curriculum once meeting for the exercise was held in
in five years initiated the curricular May 2011 at the State Institute of
revision in the year 2005. The Educational Research and Training
National Curriculum Framework – 2005 (SIERT), Udaipur to discuss how to
(NCERT, 2005) was brought out after carry out the curriculum revision.
a nationwide debate and discussion The other states (neighbouring as
involving all stake holders and those well as comparable states in terms
concerned about the education language, population or socio-
of children in school. There were economic indicators) which had
many committees formed to carry initiated or completed the curricular
out the exercise and development revision were also consulted to
of textbooks in all the subjects from understand how they undertook the
classes I to XII. The committees curriculum revision to implement
include: National Steering Committee NCF-2005.
which consisted of members from all There was an urgency to revise
fields and twenty-one national focus the English language curriculum,
groups on the various areas of school particularly development of
education. The twenty one areas textbooks at the upper primary level.
were categorised into: (i) Curricular The reason for this was that the
Areas; (ii) National Concerns; state had introduced the textbooks
(iii) Systemic Issues, besides the developed by NCERT for classes VI,
syllabus and textbook development VII and VIII, but found the materials
committees. The curricular revision extremely difficult and ‘above the
exercise in the state of Rajasthan has level by students’. Teachers also
had a difference. There is a steering found it difficult to teach textbooks.
committee consisting of members The baseline study conducted at the
Curriculum Change in English Language Education... 55
initial stage of this revision revealed the Corporate Social Responsibility

that the proficiency level of students (CSR) scheme.
and teachers was very low. There
were serious concerns expressed by The people involved in the English
teachers and parents that the books language education curriculum
needed to be changed. The reason for revision
the concern was that the state has The English language curriculum
been using the textbooks developed revision began with the discussion in
by the State Institute of Educational May 2011 with the general framework
Research and Training (SIERT), on how to go about and why the
Udaipur more than a decade. The state of Rajasthan should have
books were first developed for classes its own textbooks in English. This
III to VIII as the English language was was followed by the development of
introduced from class III. Later in the curricular statements and designing
early 2000s English was introduced the syllabus for elementary stage
from class I. Some of the children who in English language education.
were in class VI during the 2009 or The group involved in this venture
2010 had started English from class consisted of a national level experts
III. The NCERT textbooks assume from NCERT, a freelancing ELT
that the children start learning consultant (working for ICICI
English language from class I. I (the foundation), members of the faculty
author), being a member of faculty in of SIERT, practising teachers and
language education in NCERT, New teacher educators working in the
Delhi, was identified as the national field. Besides, the above two national
level English language expert to be level experts were consulted for the
part of the curriculum and textbook finalisation of the syllabus (one has
development group in the state. worked as professor at the premier
The ICICI foundation (a wing of institution for ELT, the English
ICICI Bank) which had entered into and Foreign Languages University,
a Memorandum of Understanding (EFLU) (formerly known as Central
(MOU) with the state of Rajasthan Institute of English and Foreign
to work in the area of school and Languages located at Hyderabad and
teacher education was a partner the other was a retired member of
in the exercise. The collaboration faculty from NCERT). The senior level
between the state and the ICICI administrative official (an Indian
foundation emerged under the Administrative Service official) who
government of India’s call for private heads the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan
public partnership (PPP) where the scheme in the state has been part of
private sector/corporate companies most of the discussion, particularly
are expected to spend their 10% profit the first meeting and all the steering
for social welfare activities under committee meetings (for which she
was the convener). The draft syllabus very well (and believe(d) that was
(developed based on the ideas of one of the reasons and merit to be
NCF – 2005, Position Paper on in the process of curriculum revision
Teaching of English (NCERT, 2005) exercise) endorsed ‘labelling’ learners
and the model syllabus (NCERT, as the ones who cannot learn English
2005)) was discussed with the group for there is no environment at home
and the views of teachers from (even in school) to learn the English
various pockets of the state, and language. The opinions of the some
the problems and issues on English of the members of the group are given
language education was deliberated below and these were said repeatedly
upon to arrive at a consensus on to stress the need to make the English
the objectives, themes, processes of language course, particularly the
English language education at the materials ‘very simple’ and ‘light’.
elementary level (from classes I to This opinion made an impact both
VIII). The State Steering Committee positively and negatively in the design
discussed the syllabus and approved of syllabus and materials as also in
the same. the development of training materials
for teachers and the mode of training
The Method Questions itself. Here are the opinions of most
Major dilemmas and tensions which of the members.
the members of the syllabus and “Most of the children who will
textbook development groups felt study these textbooks are from very
were not new. What was interesting low economic background and they
and is not clear is how the post have no support from parents in
method condition (Kumaravadivelu, learning the English language.”
1994) is understood by curriculum “Teachers themselves are not
and material developers who are proficient in the English language.
mostly practising teachers and How do expect them to teach such
teacher educators. That is to say a textbook like the one developed by
that the moving beyond methods or NCERT?”
aiming at a process based methods “Since our children do not know
has left the teachers and teacher English even after undergoing five
educators in many a dilemma about years of English in the primary
processes/procedures of learning. school, our new textbooks should
So there were more apprehensions be very simple so that they can do
than comprehensions. Every single everything with the support of the
statement made in the draft syllabus teacher who is not proficient in
was questioned with an intention English language.”
that the children of the state would Moving beyond methods was in a
not be able to do ‘this thing’ or ‘that way the consensus emerged during
thing’. People who know the context the discussions, though not clearly.
This ‘eclectic way of conducting Teachers who claim to follow the

classroom activities’ and developing same method often use different
materials to aim at eclectic method classroom procedures that are not
(Prabhu, 1987) as an ideal or consistent with the adopted method,
convenient methodology, it was teachers who claim to follow
felt, would help the teacher use the different methods often use same
materials (i.e. the textbook) well. The classroom procedures, and over the
question which kept arising was how time teachers develop and follow a
the teachers (most of them) who lack carefully delineated task hierarchy,
English language proficiency and a weighted sequence of activities
are not English language graduates, not necessarily associated with any
and do not have the knowledge of established method. (p. 29-30)
language pedagogy can understand But in the discussions during the
this. Eclecticism in English language syllabus and materials development
methodology was not perceived the lack of knowledge about not
or did not emerge as a rescue only methods of language teaching
mechanism where the teacher lacks and very understanding about
the knowledge of methodology (This language and learning was felt. The
I call ‘deficiency point of view’ for the support for any methods or strategy
teacher is deficient on his/her part suiting to the context (evolved by the
in the knowledge of methods), but as teacher), though cannot be ignored
a level where the teacher has a fair as trivial or not sound, should also
deal of knowledge about the existing be seen from the point of view of the
methods or at least knowledge and current theories or understanding
ideas about the assumption about of language and language learning.
‘what is language? and how does This was clear as some of us (in the
learning take place?’ and chooses group) were not able to come out of
the good ideas and strategies from what is called ‘wanting to teach the
the existing methods or evolving his/ way one was taught’. The counter
her method to maximise language argument to this is given by Andy
learning. Adapting to eclecticism or Hargreaves and Michael Fullan
teacher developed method/strategies (1998) who advocate ‘Refuse to teach
as a convenient method has its own the way you were taught’.
merits and demerits. Describing I need to talk a bit more about
the situation that led to eclecticism how the existing methods in English
as ‘dissatisfaction with method’, language teaching or the assumptions
Kumaravadivelu (1993) argues that about methods of English language
teachers who are trained in and teaching have created disparities in
even swear by particular method different school systems as well as
do not conform to its theoretical within systems. This rift or cleavage
principles and classroom procedures. in the methods of English language
teaching could be seen as how the and negotiation skills and also
diverse contexts are addressed to formal grammar teaching. Since
provide quality English language the syllabus states the methods in
education with available resources. terms of strategies and classroom
This in a way helps in making processes, it would be difficult to
curriculum and material developers say that a particular method is being
understand that materials will not advocated. Textbooks are the only
and cannot advocate one particular means for the teacher to know about
way of teaching or methodology. the strategies the syllabus advocates.
A closer look at the existing This is stated in preface, teachers’
curricula, particularly the materials pages or through the rubrics. The
and the pedagogy they expect the irony of the situation is that the
teacher to follow reveals some teachers who use the materials do
interesting scenarios in the country not or need not necessarily have the
(even within the system itself.). knowledge of the methods they are
We can see crudely three methods supposed to follow. They continue to
are practiced (some systems say it teach ‘they were doing it so’ or try to
explicitly and some do not make a ape whatever has been told to them in
mention about it). At the national training programmes. Most teachers
level the Central Board of Secondary believe that the textbook should be
Education which directly adopts followed religiously. That is to say
NCERT’s syllabus and also develops the textbook advocates/provides a
its own syllabus and materials there methodology which is ideal and good
are three methodological/pedagogical for the learners. So follow the rubrics
understanding based on which the of the textbook and you will realise
materials have been developed. The language learning. One may without
textbooks of NCERT from classes IX much research conclude that the
and X advocate learning centered very understanding by teachers
approach based on the principles of about methods of teaching-learning
constructivist paradigm of learning. of English as a second language in
The CBSE textbooks for classes IX India is problematic. This has given
and X follow typical communicative rise to convenient ways of adopting to
approach while the Board’s textbooks eclecticism which does not yield much
for classes XI and XII are based on fruit. We need to develop an informed
functional-notional syllabus. The eclecticism in the teacher. This
textbooks of many states attempt to requires knowledge about existing
follow a combination of structural methods, current assumptions
and communicative approaches about language and learning and a
to language teaching. Most of the critical reflection on them. This will
state syllabi talk about the need for lead to developing an understanding
developing communication skills of what Stern calls ‘enlightened
eclectic method’. Stern (1992) brings and Canagarajah (2002) bring out
out the problems “The weakness of this point well when they say, ‘post
the eclectic position is that it offers method pedagogy seeks to empower
no criteria according to which we can practicing teachers in their attempt
determine which the best theory is, to develop an appropriate pedagogy
nor does it provide any principles by based on their local knowledge and
which to include or exclude features local understanding. (Kumaravadivelu,
which form part of existing theories 2003:549)’
or practices. The choice is left to ‘...it (post method pedagogy)
the individual’s intuitive judgement liberates teachers and makes
and its, therefore, too broad and too them truly creative in integrating
vague to be satisfactory as a theory experience, imagination, and
in its own right.” (p.11) knowledge to devise learning strategies
The kind of eclecticism or the with/for students. (Canagarajah,
method which the practicing teachers 2002:l49)’.
and teacher educators assume was This dilemma of what should be
since the teacher is deficient both in the processes through which English
terms of proficiency and pedagogy language learning should be realised
let eclecticism serve as a rescue continued till the end of materials
mechanism. As Widdowson (1990) development. Once the materials
puts it rightly, “It is quite common were developed and the discussion
to hear teachers say that they do not on how to guide the teacher to use the
subscribe to any particular approach materials to the maximum provided
or method in their teaching but scope for looking at individual skills
are ‘eclectic’. They thereby avoid and tasks as opportunities for
commitment to any current fad working with language and language
that comes up on the whirligig of use, the question of processes
fashion... If by eclecticism is meant became clear.
the random and expedient use of Another interesting argument
whatever technique comes most that came up many a times was how
readily to hand, then it has no merit much theory (assumptions about
whatever.” (p.50) language and learning) the syllabus
But at the same time we should should have in order to make material
recognise that post method condition developers, trainers of teachers and
has empowered teachers to explore the cutting edge teacher understand
and expand the very idea of method the ‘what’ should be taught (content)
in language teaching and thereby and ‘how’ should it be taught (the
liberating language teaching from methods). There was a consensus
the clutches of west-centric designer that there was no need to state any
methods. Kumaravadivelu (2003) theory in the syllabus directly. It
would not help the teachers or anyone development (enable the novice
who uses the syllabus for materials or not so experienced teachers to
development and teaching purpose. develop expertise). This experience
This has made syllabus development of ‘learning to develop materials by
much more difficult as to bring in developing materials’ based on the
the pedagogical understanding the understanding of new syllabus and the
new approach advocates. The ideas pedagogical shift from conventional
of NCF–2005 and emerging language methods to process based or learning
pedagogies had to be brought into centered approaches to language
the new syllabus. In a way say it teaching-learning equipped material
and not to say it. In other words the developers (with experience and
demand was not to quote from ELT without experience) to develop an
pedagogues and theorists but tell the understanding about (i) text, (ii)
idea in what was described as ‘simple’ tasks, (iii) coherence, (iv) integrating
and ‘common man’s language’ which assessment into materials itself, (v)
any one can understand. So we had guiding the teacher to use/exploit
to summarise most of the ideas and the materials to the maximum and
give them as pointers. moving beyond it. Materials have
been developed through workshop
The Materials Questions mode where the group brought
With the above understanding on in their ideas along with texts of
materials and processes of language different types. Draft materials were
learning-teaching, the materials finalised in six workshops Two senior
academics from universities were
development team plunged into
identified as reviewers. Here are some
developing materials. This group
of the problems which the materials
consists of teachers from government
development team encountered and
run schools at various stages of the
discussed to arrive at a consensus
state and teacher educators from
over a period of time.
District Institutes of Education
and Training (DIET) and Colleges A. The texts
of Teacher Education (CTE). Since
The question of what should be a text
materials development is not a in an English language textbook at the
regular exercise most of the members upper primary stage was addressed
of the group were new to materials very differently by everyone in the
development. Some of them have group. Text from varied genres and
been part of materials development varied lengths were pooled together.
during the last curricular revision However, it was difficult for some
which took place seven years ago. of us to come out the conventional
The major task of the group was thinking of text i.e. a good piece of
to develop expertise in materials literary, descriptive or discursive text
which could be exploited well and has exposed to new language. Krashen’s
a moral in it. But majority believed (1985) idea of ‘input hypothesis’
that a text should interest learners and how creating a print rich
and provide opportunity for learners environment in the classroom makes
to work with. Tomlinson’s (1998:7- children gradually learn from the
21) ideas on ‘What should materials exposure. The concepts like ‘input
do?’ would be very appropriate hypothesis and i+1’ (Krashen, 1985),
(please see appendix 1) While ‘interaction hypothesis (Long, 1985)
this argument went on, another and ‘output hypothesis (Swain 1985)
question on the selection of the text were actually introduced to material
which came up was the question of developers in order to develop a
‘authentic text’. Everyone agreed and perspective on what purpose the
believed that authentic text should texts serve in a textbook. This also
be chosen for materials but the clarified how reading has to be dealt
difference was authentic texts are with at this stage.
not simple in terms of vocabulary,
language structure, etc. How far B. Authentic Tasks and Route
we can simplify the language and Initially the group was reluctant
whether the author of the authentic to recognise the importance of
text would agree for the gradation making it the tasks authentic as it
or modification. Most of members of was difficult to perceive ‘authentic
the group believed that text should tasks’ as tools for engagement with
be simple because the existing language and language use. As we
textbooks (developed by NCERT) is progressed the group was able to
very difficult for children as well as develop an understanding of what
teachers and the texts in the books a task is and how a task should
are all authentic texts. The dilemma provide opportunity for language
was how far we can have authentic use. This was well taken as some of
or simplified/graded texts. As a us in the group with some expertise
compromise we went for texts from were able to develop one complete
varied genres and sources and are unit with all the components of
slightly modified or translations from language teaching-learning included.
Indian languages in simple language. The language components are: Pre-
This ‘the text has to be in very simple reading, while-reading and post-
language’ argument was to stress reading, listening and speaking,
the need for learners to know and grammar, writing, punctuations (not
understand every word of the text. It in all) and study skills. All these were
took some time for many in the group to be connected and most of which
to recognise that the texts serve as are either rooted from the reading
language ‘input text’ through which text or had coherence in terms of
the learner is familiarised with or ideas and actions. This ‘route’, in a
way, helped the developers to design teachers and learners because it

authentic tasks and understand the did not pose any problem or threat
difference between an authentic and to both the teacher and the learner
a shallow or trivial task. The shallow as it does not warrant any special
and trivial task, I mean, tasks effort or arrangement. But we need
which directly ‘teach’ one or some to recognise the problem that the
language item or very conventional dependence of teacher’s voice and
way of developing exercises. The pronunciation for listening activities
teacher and the learner should be may not be very fruitful as the
able to feel that this route (through teachers, as mentioned above, lack
rubrics) takes them gradually, not English language proficiency.
in a structured manner from one
tasks/activity to another. The group Innovations
as material developers were able to The textbook was able to
understand the purpose of ‘route’ accommodate the demands of the
and that made the tasks authentic teachers and other actors involved
because the main/root text provides in the curricula and syllabus design,
the language aspect to be exploited materials development and also the
through tasks for the unit. popular demand that the textbooks
should provide scope for developing
C. Listening and Speaking communication skills in English. It
Most of the existing textbooks do not is not fair to claim that the books
find space for the two skills, listening have achieved everything as they are
and speaking. Even if they have some introduced. It would take at least one
activities or tasks for promoting year to understand the effect of the
these two areas, they are few and not book and teachers are the best source
authentic. The new textbook series to know about the usefulness of the
titled as Sunbeam (SIERT, 2012) book. The base line survey conducted
have listening and speaking activities on students as well as teachers in
as integrated and authentic tasks. English language proficiency and
The texts for listening tasks are given perception about materials revealed
at the end which the teacher will many things. They were related to
read out loud or as required. This the type of texts, tasks, proficiency
is because most (almost all) of the level of both teachers and learners,
schools will not have any facilities assessment strategies and so on.
like tape record player or CD player. Here are some of the innovations
Integration of listening and speaking the materials attempted to do and
activities, it was found in the pilot realised in making it happen.
trialling, was well taken both by • Coherence within one unit and
among the units (the whole folktales and stories of the state.
textbook). Coherence within a • Teachers’ Page. One major
unit was created by providing concern expressed by almost
a ‘route’ as discussed above; everyone during the process
Coherence among the units i.e. of syllabus and textbook
the whole book was made possible development was how to guide
in terms of themes, coverage the teacher to use the textbook
of language items (vocabulary, effectively. Most teachers will
grammatical items, etc.) not in have only the textbook, nothing
structured manner, but following else. Though one training
the principle of ‘familiar to programme has been organised
unfamiliar’. for every teacher following the
• Bringing in the aspects of cascade model, teacher will
language learning which have be left alone when they start
been neglected so far. This has teaching the textbooks. It was
been discussed in the previous suggested that the each textbook
section. The book has found will have some pages allotted to
space for listening and speaking. teacher as guidelines. If the class
• Connecting the life of children six textbook has ten lessons,
outside school with the there will be six to eight pages
classroom. This is one of the have been allocated as ‘Teacher’s
guiding principles of National Page’ for each three units. The
Curriculum Framework–2005. teachers’ pages tell the teacher
The text and activities in the book the purpose of the unit and how
draw real life contexts, situations to go about and also how to do
and events so that children can Comprehensive and Continuous
connect with their day-to-day Assessment. During the pilot
life. The pre-reading activities trialling it was found to be very
and tasks have been designed welcoming by teachers.
in such a way that children use • Emphasis on reading is
their previous knowledge to work supported through not only
with ideas and language and then selection of texts that interest
move forward. The Vygotskyian children and varied forms like
view of social construction of cartoons stories, authentic
knowledge (1985) is aimed translation from Indian language,
through linking the life and but also through tasks which
practices with children and also pave way for reading and re-
the popular festivals, places and reading of texts.
Figure 1 Textbook in English Class VI
Figure 2 Teacher’s Page of Class VI Textbook

Figure 3 Variety of Texts: Cartoon as Reading Input
• Pedagogical Grammar. It was materials. The group was able

difficult to convince everyone to see that they gained expertise
that explicit teaching of grammar in materials development during
would not help much in the course of the exercise. This
supporting the learner acquire is because the group consisted of
the language. It was agreed one practising teachers to university
or two language item(s) found in academics. The coming together
the reading text would be taken to of people with particular interest
familiarise and draw the attention and working together with a
of learner to the grammatical clear goal helps in learning
aspect/function of the language. about and producing materials
The identified grammatical item which would serve a purpose.
is familiarised through further Brian Tomlinson’s (1995) point
tasks in contexts and the ‘why’ to develop effective materials
and ‘how’ are inferred through is of much relevance in today’s
grammar in action followed by context. We need to find ways
‘consciousness raising’ strategy. of bringing together researchers,
• Development of expertise in teachers, writers and publishers
materials development through so as to pool resources and to
the exercise of developing take advantage of different areas
What materials should do? (Tomlinson, B. 1998:7-21)

1. Materials should achieve impact.
2. Materials should help learners to feel at ease.
3. Materials should help learner to develop confidence.
4. What is being taught should be perceived by learners as relevant
and useful?
5. Materials should require and facilitate learner self-investment.
6. Learners must be ready to acquire the points being taught.
7. Materials should expose the learners to language in authentic use.
8. The learners’ attention should be drawn to linguistics features of
the input.
9. Materials should provide the learners with opportunities to use
the target language to achieve communicative purposes.
10. Materials should take into account that the positive effects of
instruction are usually delayed.
11. Materials should take into account that learners differ in learning
styles.
12. Materials should take into account that learners differ in effective
attitudes.
13. Materials should permit a silent period at the beginning of
instruction.
14. Materials should maximize learning potential by encouraging
intellectual, aesthetic and emotional involvement which stimulates
both right and left brain activities.
15. Materials should not rely too much on controlled practice.
16. Materials should provide opportunities for outcome feedback.
of expertise in order to produce Lessons Learnt

materials of greater value to
(i) Knowledge Gap in
learners of languages. (p15)
understanding ‘What is
One major challenge was to
language and learning?’ ‘How
integrate assessment into the language learning takes place?’
classroom processes. The new scheme ‘Learner as constructor of
of continuous and comprehensive knowledge’ in the participants at
evaluation is being implemented in every level was felt in the exercise of
the state as envisaged by NCF- 2005. curriculum and syllabus design,
Teachers’ pages guide the teacher for and materials development. This
ways and means of assessing learning is not to say people should not
as it happens in the classroom. have their own understanding on
the above questions or aspects guideline (through a workshop)

of language and learning and for materials development. This
that will lead to uniformity. The exercise should involve the
whole exercise was attempted to prospective material developers
have an informed understanding and others (curriculum planners,
suiting to local context of what implementers, other subject
best should work in the state material developers to make them
of Rajasthan. This informed understand the role of language
understanding was supported by and trainers).
critical reflections taking objective (ii) Materials development as a
views while the understanding professional activity: Materials
was also questioned by just development has not been
assumptions and beliefs not recognised as a continuous
sound, not evidence based. professional activity for which
This ‘knowledge gap’ within a teacher has to have training
the material developers led and develop expertise as every
to difference from selection of teacher is a material developer
texts to devising assessment for his/her classroom and/or
strategies in the textbook. One for other purposes. One group
another problem was because of of 15–20 teachers and teacher
the knowledge gap in the basic educators developing material
assumptions about language for one occasion and take it
and learning by non-language up again when the system
educators, pedagogues and demands is not going to support
experts in other subject experts much materials development
(who were there as members of as an area of knowledge. This
steering committee or syllabus has also an impact on making
committee) the selection of texts the teachers understand the
were questioned from the point role of materials in language
of view of language difficulty teaching. We felt that the group
(as assumed by them), themes, should have been exposed to the
gender and other perspectives. recent ideas and developments
This helped in being sensitive to in materials development in
issues related to gender, caste English as a second language.
and special needs of the group. There is a need to promote
This goes on to say that material materials development as an
developers need to be very area of knowledge or theory
sensitive to other issues keeping through short term or long term
the constitutional values in courses for pre-service as well as
mind. This knowledge gap could in-service teachers, and others
be bridged by developing a clear interested in the area.
(iii) Selection of Material a launching pad for providing

developers. Now the practice is language learning opportunities,
anyone can develop materials and i.e. it is the beginning, not an
those known as good teachers or end. Material development
teacher educators and present exercises in countries like India
their perspective well in meetings need to understand and strike
and workshops is considered as a balance. In other words we
good in material development. In need to think of how open the
the absence of any mechanism or minds of teachers are to move
professional activity as material beyond the textbook for creating
development at any level (except opportunities for language use.
some courses in master in a few (v) Diffusion of Curriculum.
universities in India), it would Curricular statements and
be difficult to create professional syllabus remains in the realm
material developers. So selection of only experts, the members
of material developers needs of steering committee, material
to be through well thought of developers, and to some extent
mechanism. This is not the with researchers. Teachers
practice. We need to find ways to and even teacher educators
select material developers based do not have much opportunity
on their experience and work in to see the syllabus. The very
material development. intention of the syllabus gets
(iv) Dominance of Textbook in diluted when the teachers do
English Language Teaching. not have access to the material
While textbook remains the itself. Though first key resource
sole source of English language persons training discussed the
teaching-learning in majority ideas of the syllabus and stage
of school/classroom settings, wise objectives of language
teachers depend completely learning and the processes,
on the prescribed textbooks the transmission loss makes
and learners have no other the outreach of the syllabus
choice to follow their teachers. as an operational document is
Material developers have a limited. It is necessary to create
compulsion to understand awareness about the curriculum
this reality and develop the revision among all stake holders
textbook as all comprehensive of school education, including
and less burdening instruments parents and very importantly
for language learning. This teachers. The print and other
makes the very exercise much media could be used for the
demanding and problem purpose by asking opinions
solving like. Textbook is only and suggestions from anyone
interested in and concerned reduces the broader perspective

about education of children in of curriculum.
school and by holding debates (vii) Alignment of various
on various aspects on education. participating institutions and
(vi) Curriculum Shedding. Loss systems. There is a need to bring
of ideas during the process in organisations and people
of curriculum, syllabus and working in the field of language
materials development from the education and curriculum
national level to the state and development work together with
within the state from syllabus an over arching agenda. This
and materials development to needs institutional mechanism
the cutting edge teacher has that would bind together for the
been noticed. This phenomenon purpose the curriculum revision
could be stated as ‘curriculum and change, putting aside the
shedding’ from the top to bottom differences of all sorts and realise
or from centre to periphery. the agenda of curriculum change.
This loss during the process of This needs contribution and
curriculum diffusion makes the sacrifice from each institution
intentions of the curriculum, (like the NCERT, SCERT, SSA
particularly the materials, and RMSA, NGOs involved and
lose the perspectives and school systems) working to
understanding based on which realise the curriculum revision
they have been developed. as a professional activity.
Thus ‘top down’ approach to
curriculum development and Conclusion
implementation even with Curriculum change is an activity
a relatively bigger state like aimed at social change through
Rajasthan involving cutting edge schooling. The responsibility of
teachers and practitioners also institutions and individuals involved
has ‘outreach’ and ‘curriculum is immense that the synergy between
spread’ problems. This creates and among them contributes in
gap from ‘intended curriculum’ achieving the maximum in terms of
through ‘implemented curriculum’ development of curricular guidelines,
to ‘evaluated curriculum’ as syllabus and more importantly
people involved in the first stage materials development. There is an
or those trained on the new urgent necessity to pay attention to
curriculum and materials will not the area of materials development
be there in each stage to follow as a professional activity and the
the curriculum implementation integrating materials development
by the classroom teacher. Mere as part of professional development.
training to teach the materials Materials in English language
education in India play a very vital approach by adopting a mechanism

role because textbooks remain the involving people and institutions
only source of language teaching- from national level to the cutting–
learning. The curriculum revision edge teacher. However, it may have
exercise in the state of Rajasthan its own impact as the processes of
recognises the above issues and has development and implementation
attempted to follow a professional still requires introspection.
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Each Child Can Construct Knowledge
S.K. Mishra* and Ajit Singh**
Abstract
It was assumed earlier that teachers impart information to their students
who process the information with the help of their cognitive structure and
learn. Learning therefore, moves from outside to inside the learners. Learners
cannot construct knowledge on their own. Students were considered as
blank slate upon which the teacher etches information. Over the years brain
research has provided more light on how learners learn. Constructivism on
the other hand, highlights that each learner can construct knowledge on her/
his own. Constructivism has brought about a dramatic change in the role
of teachers and learners. The main task of the teacher in the constructivist
classroom is to pose problem(s) to her/his learners and to support them in
solving the problem thereby helping them to construct knowledge. Similarly,
the role of learner is to create knowledge rather than to ingest mechanically
transmitted communicated by the teacher.Though constructivism is the theory
of learning but certain pedagogical implications have been derived from the
theory. Teachers need to use the instructional approaches such as dialogue,
cooperative learning, peer tutoring, cognitive dissonance and problem-based
learning to support their learners in constructing knowledge on their own and
to develop creative thinking, critical thinking, problem solving and independent
thinking skills essential for a true citizen of 21st century. However, there are
issues in the constructivist pedagogy which need to be addressed to popularise
the pedagogy. Teachers experience difficulty in transforming the content to be
learnt by their students into problem(s) to be solved by them. Secondly the use
of the said instructional approaches is a time consuming process. Teachers
report that they cannot transact the syllabus of a subject within the prescribed
time frame if they follow said instructional approaches.
* Principal, Delhi Teachers Training College, 340-Deenpur, Najafgarh, New Delhi-110 043
** Director, All India Primary Teachers Federation, Shikshak Bhawan, 41 Institutional Area, D-Block,
Janakpuri, New Delhi 110 058
Backdrop placed. Further it highlights that

Learning moves from outside to the knowledge so constructed is
deeper, richer and more sustainable.
inside the learner
Teachers should therefore, use
Teaching process is predominantly constructivist approach in teaching
didactic in Indian classrooms. The learning process in their classroom.
classroom is a place where the It facilitates the process of developing
teacher pours information into her/ among learners the skill of learning to
his passive students as if they are learn. Therefore, there is a paradigm
empty vessels to be filled up. Students shift in designing instruction.
mechanically ingest information Constructivists believe that
transmitted by the teacher in the meaningful learning is possible in an
classroom. Students are considered environment in which students are
as blank slate upon which the required to solve a problem which
teacher etches information related they experience in their context
to different subjects transacted by and are helped by the teachers in
him/her in the class. the process. Further when they are
When information is transmitted provided opportunities to solve the
to the students by the teacher problem collaboratively.
in the classroom, they perceive
the information and process the Changing Role of Both the
same with the help of knowledge Teachers and Learners
in their cognitive structure. The Constructivism modifies the role of
students then integrate it with the both of teachers and learners in the
existing knowledge in their cognitive teaching–learning process.
structure. It is assumed that students
gain knowledge either from the Teachers’ Role in Constructivist
teacher or reading on their own from Classroom
the textbook. It is therefore assumed The teachers instead of pouring
that the learning moves from the information into passive students
outside to inside the learner. help them to construct knowledge.
Concept of Constructivism The constructivist teacher develops
in his/her learners’ problem-solving
Constructivism is a theory of and inquiry based learning skills.
learning. It does not agree with the He/she triggers students’ innate
notion that learning moves from curiosity about the world and how
outside the learner to inside the things work. Constructivist teacher
learner. It specifies that a learner poses questions and problems to
constructs knowledge on his/ students and helps them to solve the
her own by interacting with the problem/find their own answers to
environment in which he/she is the questions.
The constructivist teachers lay a she/he is an active participant in

great deal of emphasis on reflection the learning process. Rather s/he
and collaboration in the process is constructing knowledge on her/
of helping students to construct his own by solving problem(s) posed
knowledge on their own. The teacher by the teacher by interacting with
creates situation(s) in the classroom peers and the teacher. S/He seeks
where students feel comfortable the help of the teacher when s/he is
to ask questions and they reflect fronted with a difficulty in solving the
on their learning processes either problem.
alone or in groups. Students talk
about what they learned and how Pedagogical Implications
they learnt. This is invaluable for Through constructivism is a theory
developing the skill of learning to of learning, a few pedagogical
learn. The teachers also rely heavily implications have been derived from
on collaboration among students in this theory to improve the teaching-
the learning process. Students study learning process in the classroom
together, discuss and exchange thereby developing among learners
their ideas. Students learn not from the requisite knowledge and skills
themselves, but also from their peers. essential for a 21st century citizen.
These are:
Students’ Role in the
Constructivist Classroom Dialogue
In the constructivist classroom, The dialogue provides an opportunity
the role of students is altogether to learners to discuss and exchange
different from that of a traditional ideas with their peers as well as with
classroom. Instead of students being the teacher. The dialogue acts as a
passive recipients of information catalyst for creation of knowledge.
communicated by the teacher, they It facilitates comprehension of
are active participants in the teaching concepts/principles through exchange
learning process. of ideas. The dialogue provides an
opportunity to students to become
Students Role in the active in their learning. This allows
Constructivist Classroom the students to ask questions. The
Students’ role too is different in the class in which there is a dialogue is
constructivist classroom from that a lively class.
in a traditional classroom. In the
latter classroom, S/He is required Cooperative Learning
to perceive and receive information Constructivism lays a great deal of
transmitted by the teacher. stress on extensive use of cooperative
S/He is not a passive listener. learning tasks to help learners to
In the constructivist classroom, construct knowledge. This is because
learning is basically a collaborative There is a wealth of empirical

process. Cooperative tasks have two evidence that peer tutoring/teaching
types of goals – academic and social. is extremely effective for a wide range
Social goals refer to development of content and students of different
among learners’ social skills such levels. Peer teaching increases
as criticizing ideas and not people, learning, both of the students being
controlling anger, disagreeing in helped as well as those giving the
non-hurtful ways, and listening to help as a result of their collaborative
others with rapt attention. learning. Students’ teaching other
The teacher normally forms students is considered as one of the
groups of two to four learners effective methods of teaching.
depending upon the complexity of the Those who teach others, teach
learning task. There are a number of themselves, is very true, not
cooperative learning structures such only because constant repetition
as think-pair-share, say and switch, impresses a fact indelibly on the
graffiti, corner, and jigsaw. Of all mind, but because the process of
these structures, jigsaw strategy is teaching in itself gives a deeper
the most popular and is widely used insight into the subject taught.
in cooperative learning tasks.
Cognitive Dissonance
Peer Tutoring Cognitive dissonance is another
Peer tutoring is a form of cooperative instructional approach which
learning. Peer tutoring means teachers need to use in the
students helping other students constructivist classroom.
to learn on an one to one basis. Cognitive dissonance or cognitive
Generally students are paired for conflict arises when the information
mutual learning. At other times, transmitted by the teacher in the
more able students’ help less able classroom is contradictory to what
students of the same age or older s/he already knows i.e. the knowledge
students help younger students. already in the cognitive structure of
When a student is to teach another the learner. This cognitive conflict
student, s/he needs to learn the stimulates thinking on the part of
material better in the first place. This learners.
contributes to her/his learning on
how to learn. In this process, both Problem-based Learning
the students learn better. The use of The constructivist approach of
peer tutoring results in a number of problem-based learning invaluable
advantages such as enhancement of in helping learners to reach
learners’ self-esteem, self-confidence their highest potential was first
in their abilities and higher academic implemented in medical education in
achievement. the early 1970s. The students were
presented a problem in the form of need to be addressed to popularise

patient entering with symptoms. constructivist approaches to transact
Students’ task was to diagnose the the curriculum.
disease from which the patient was The main activity in a
suffering. They were required to constructivist classroom is solving
provide a rationale for their diagnosis. problems. For this, teachers are
The use of problem-based learning is required to transform the content to
now widely used in schools, colleges, be transacted into a problem to be
business schools, architecture and solved by her/his students. Teachers
so on etc. find it difficult to visualize problems
In a school, the teacher transforms to transact the given content of a
the content to be transacted into a subject. Further, it results in extra
problem and presents the same to work on the part of teachers. As a
her/his students to solve. Students consequence, teachers find it difficult
discuss the problem in groups, to use constructivist pedagogy to
generate hypotheses, try to solve the transact the syllabi of different
problem with the help of knowledge subjects.
and experiences they have. Teacher Constructivist pedagogy has
supports them in solving the problem. been largely used by Science and
Later the groups of students discuss Mathematics teachers. This is
their solutions of the problems in the because it is based on problem solving
whole class. and inquiry approach. Therefore it
Enduring Issues in the has limited use in transacting other
Implementation of Constructivist subjects such as Social Science.
Pedagogy Teachers often report that the use
of constructivist pedagogy such as
There are some important problem solving is a time consuming
issues with regard to the use of process. As a consequence, it is not
constructivist pedagogy while possible to transact the syllabus of a
transacting the curriculum. These subject within the limited time frame.
References
Brooks, J.G. and Brooks, M.G. 1993. In Search of Understanding. The Case of Constructivist
Classrooms. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Alexandria,
VA.
Bruning, R.H., Schraw, G.J. and Ronning, R.R. 1995. Cognitive Psychology and Instruction,
2nd Ed. NJ: Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs.
Confrey. J. 1990. ‘What Constructivism Implies for Teaching.’ In R.B. Davis, C.A.
Maher and N. Noddings (Eds.) Constructivist Views of the Teaching and Learning
of Mathematics. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, Monograph No. 4,
pp.107–122). National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Reston VA.
Cooper, P.A. 1993. Paradigm Shifts in Designed Instruction: From Behaviourism to

Cognitivism to Constructivism. Educational Technology, 33: 12–19.
Duffy, F.M. 2003. I Think, Therefore I am Resistant to Change. Journal of Staff
Development 42(1), 30–36.
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(Ed.), Constructivism: Theory, Perspectives, and Practice. Teachers College Press,
New York.
Guthrie, J.W. and Shuermann, P.J. 2010. Successful School leadership: Planning Politics,
Performance and Power. Allyn and Bacon, Boston.
Jonassen, D.H., Peck, K.L. and Wilson, B.G. 1999. Learning with Technology: A Constructivist
Perspective. Prentice Hall Inc. NJ.
Piaget. J. 1977. The Equilibration of Cognitive Structures. University of Chicago Press,
Chicago.
Pressley M., Harris, KR., and Marks, M.B. 1992. But Good Strategy Instructions are
Constructivists! Educational Psychology Review, 4, 3–31.
Saskatchewan Teachers’ Federation. 1993. Peer Partner Learning; Students Learning From
and With Each Other, Instructional Strategies Series No. 10.
Sprague. J. 1993. Why Teaching Works: The Transformative Power of Pedagogical
Communication Communication. Communication Education, 42:349–366.
Webb, N.M. and Palinscar, A.S. 1996. Group Processes in the Classroom. In D. C. Berliner,
and R. C. Calfee (Eds.), Handbook of Educational Psychology. Macmillan Library
Reference USA. NY.
Situating Essentials of ‘Learning to Live
Together’ within Pedagogic Practices
A Social-Constructivist Perspective*
Rishabh Kumar Mishra**
Abstract
‘Learning to live together’ has emerged as a major theme of educational
practices when Delors Commission (1996) report, considered it as one of the
four pillars of learning. Delors Commission has considered education as an
indispensible asset in its attempt to attain the ideals of peace, freedom and
social justice. Against this backdrop, this paper reports a study conducted under
the theoretical backdrop of social-constructivism. In the first section, it explores
‘essentials’ necessary for ‘learning to live together’. The paper explains that as
one of the significant agency of socialisation (basically secondary socialisation)
education should unfold the internal ‘humanity’. This goal can be achieved
only if the sense of ‘togetherness’ and ‘belongingness’ becomes intra-psychic
from inter-psychic. The second section of the paper deals with empirical data
and analysed pedagogic practices of social science aimed at integrating the
essentials of ‘learning to live together’. It was found that pedagogic practices
based on social constructivism help to raise social issues, clarify social values
and enable learners to develop a sense of ‘living together’. It is argued in the
paper that generating a community of learners engaged in discussing social
issues is fundamental to social cohesiveness. Differences need to be highlighted
in order to appreciate diversity. Crucial social issues need to be discussed in
classroom rather than being brushed under the carpet. It is through conflict
and discomfort that resolutions are arrived at.
* One part of this research paper had been presented in the 16th UNESCO-APEID Conference, held
in Bangkok, Thailand
** Assistant Professor, Mahatma Gandhi Antarrastriya Vishwavidyalaya Wardha, Maharashtra
Situating Essentials of ‘Learning to Live Together’... 79
Delors Commission has decisions and act with courage and

considered education as an conviction. ‘…it is vital to prevent
indispensible asset in its attempt social conflict through an education
to attain the ideals of peace, that foster understanding and
freedom and social justice (Delors respect for cultural diversity as well
Commission 1996, p.13). As one of as communication and cooperation
the significant agency of socialisation, between persons of different origins
education can direct us in a positive (Dasen 1992, cited in Baveja 2009)’.
direction to achieve these goals by Our educational processes ought
inculcating qualities in children such to create a better understanding of
as: knowledge and understanding other people, mutual understanding
of self and others, appreciation among us, and peaceful ways of
of the diversity, awareness and living. Further, education cannot be
sensitivity towards differences and satisfied with bringing individuals
similarities; interdependence of all together by getting them to accept
humans , empathy and cooperative common values shaped in the past.
social behavior in caring and It must also enable the individual
sharing respect for other people; to reflect on the question of ‘what
capability of encountering others for’ and ‘why’ to live together. While
and resolving conflicts through envisioning the above mentioned role
dialogue and competency in working of education, it should be kept in
towards common objectives. In mind that education itself is accused
short, education should cherish of being the cause of many different
the individual’s basic nature of forms of social exclusion, and
‘humanity’. This goal can be achieved creating knowledge barriers among
only if the sense of ‘togetherness’ people. The role of education can
and ‘belongingness’ becomes intra- only be fulfilled when the educational
psychic from inter-psychic. processes move from learning to
Education should contribute know and learning to do, to learning
in creating a learned society; a to live together and learning to be.
society where every aspect of life With same spirit UNESCO–APNIEVE
at both individual and social level, (1998), summarised the essential of
offers opportunities for learning ‘learning to live together’ as follows —
and doing, to every individual “Learning to live together in
irrespective of his social background. peace and harmony is a dynamic,
Given the pluralistic social order holistic and lifelong process
marked by aggressive global forces, through which mutual respect,
communal conflicts and vested understanding, caring and sharing,
political interests, it is essential compassion, social responsibility,
that education produces a critical solidarity, acceptance and tolerance
thinker who can take informed of diversity among individuals and
groups (ethnic, social, cultural, of social practice which has the

religious, national and regional) are potential to shape the cognitive,
internalised and practiced together affective and moral development
to solve problems and to work of individuals (Daniels 2001). It
towards a just and free, peaceful also specifies relations between its
and democratic society.” (UNESCO– elements; the teacher, the classroom
APNIEVE 1998, pp.4) or other context, content, the view of
learning and learning about learning
Space for Hope: Situating (Watkins and Mortimore 1999). For
Essentials of ‘Learning to Live Vygotsky (1987), pedagogy arises
Together’ Within the Pedagogic and takes shape in particular social
Practices circumstances. Pedagogy is not
What are the possible ways of concerned with skills and techniques;
nurturing the above mentioned instead, it is related to communication,
essentials of ‘learning to live together’? interaction and practices which takes
In the present paper, it is proposed place in a socially organised space
that if we situate the essentials of in time. Following the socio-cultural
‘learning to live together’ in pedagogic perspective of learning, Leach and
practices, we can nurture and sustain Moon (1999), used the term ‘pedagogic
them. There is a need to explore the setting’ to denote the practice
possible ways of such innovation that a teacher creates, enacts and
within school’s social science experiences, together with particular
pedagogic practices. We are taking groups of learners (p. 267). A theory
stance that essentials of ‘learning to of pedagogy must encompass all the
live together’ can become essential complex factors that influence the
part of our everyday cognition only process of teaching and learning. In a
if it is seen as essential part of pedagogic setting learner is viewed as
‘pedagogy’. Here, we are looking for an active and reflective being. Along
such integration in the pedagogic with developing teaching-learning
practices of social sciences. processes, pedagogic setting builds
The concept of pedagogy itself self esteem and identity of learners
provides us the scope of such an as well as teachers. Seen from this
integration and inclusion. At times, standpoint, pedagogic practices need
pedagogy is narrowly equated with to take into account a wide range of
‘ways of teaching’ but it is a wider concerns, such as, a learner situated
and much deeper process. As Davies in socio-cultural setting; learning
(1994) puts it— ‘It involves a vision tasks that engender motivation
(theory, set of beliefs) about society, and understanding; and classroom
human nature, knowledge and discourse; and an appreciation of
production, in relation to educational the affective dimensions of learning
ends’. The term pedagogy is a form (p. 269).
An Overview of Prevailing some games in the class. Although,

Pedagogic Practices of Social ‘activity-method’ was practiced
Science in the classrooms, but activities
were mostly done individually, not
Against this theoretical backdrop,
in groups. Both kinds of teachers
the paper attempts to situate
believe that learners were not able
the essentials of ‘learning to live
to comprehend social processes as
together’ within pedagogic practices
they were too young to think about
of social science. Before developing
these issues. Whether teachers
such pedagogic setting, an overview
practice traditional or constructivist
of prevailing pedagogic practices
approaches, their major concern
in social science is essential. For
was to transmit knowledge given in
this purpose, informal interviews
books and somehow enable their
with social science teachers along
learners to score ‘good’ marks.
with classroom observations
were conducted in various Exploring Possibilities: practicing
schools (government as well as Social Constructivist Pedagogy
private). It emerged that the social
for Teaching of Social Science
science teachers in schools were
practicing two kinds of teaching It is evident from the above analysis
approaches. In the first approach, that prevailing pedagogic practices of
pedagogic practices are based on social science are limited to teaching
the transmission approach, where course content for securing success
teacher acts as an authority, in examination or for further career
provides information to learners, achievement. The prime issue is
students are supposed to store how to achieve social goals. We
these pieces of information in their decided to establish a pedagogic
minds and present it whenever setting in the school, adopting a
asked. In the second approach, the socio-cultural approach to learning.
teachers were practicing so called Socio-cultural approach to learning
‘constructivist teaching practices’ explains learning and knowing as a
in their classrooms. They were social process, situated in physical
conducting some robust activities as well as socio-cultural context and
but these activities failed to serve distributed across person and tools
the constructivist goals. It seemed (Vygotsky 1987, Rogoff 1990, Lave
that the activities were conducted and Wenger 1991, Bruner 1996,
only for the ‘sake of conducting Brophy 2002). Learning also involves
activity’ and did not serve the negotiating understanding through
actual purpose in the real sense. dialogue or discourse shared by two
It was seen during the classroom or more members of the community
observation that these activities were who are pursuing shared goals
focusing only on fun, by conducting (Brophy 2002). After reviewing the
related literature written on social sustaining the essentials of ‘learning

constructivism, Applefield, Huber to live together.’
and Moallem (2001) summarised the
basic tenets of social constructivist Procedure and Analysis
perspective as follows— (a) learners Against this theoretical backdrop,
construct their own knowledge, activities were designed for setting up
participating in authentic activities community of learners engaged in the
and internalizing the tools of process of knowledge construction.
practices, (b) learners are reflective It was kept in mind while designing
beings, they can think and reflect these activities that the knowledge
on their lived experiences, (c) social and understanding about society
interaction/dialogue play a crucial that learners bring to the classroom
role in learning (cited in Brophy, must be acknowledged. This aspect
2002). A social constructivist of activity makes it authentic, similar
perspective focuses on learning as to real world problems. Learners’
co-construction of knowledge rather engagement in such activities would
than on the acquisition of rote enable them to reflect critically on
knowledge that exists somewhere social realities and thus enable them
outside the learner. It expands the to revisit their beliefs which influence
horizons of teaching-learning process social cohesion. The following section
and stretches it beyond content and presents the analysis of some of the
curriculum transaction to establish activities that were carried out in
a sense of community belongingness social science classes with the above
and togetherness and thus help in mentioned perspective:
Activity 1
This activity is aimed at discussing the concept of ‘Diversity’ and ‘Discrimination’.
The overview of activity is as follows:
• A handout was distributed to the class. In the space provided in the
handout, students were asked to mention their name, state, religion,
language, food, festivals, dress and some specific cultural practices of their
family. Some blank space was also provided so that they could fill any
other relevant information about themselves. Once they finished working
on their own handout, they were asked to share and discuss the details
filled with their neighbours. This helped them to highlight and appreciate
the similarities and differences in the content which they had mentioned.
• They were then divided into groups of five and asked to talk for three to five
minutes on major forms of diversity.
• The forms of diversity that came up after discussion were written on the
blackboard.
• Further discussion was generated around the issues that emerged.
The following forms of diversity L (Learner): Sir, he is a Bihari.

came out during classroom T (Teacher): Okay. So your friend
discussion — physical appearance is from Bihar?
(colour, height etc), region, religion, L (laughs): Yes sir. He speaks
caste, intelligence, social class, ‘Bihari’ and eats rice.
gender and language. Keeping in T: But he is your friend. Are you
mind these forms of differences, not accepting him as a friend because
it was discussed whether these he is a Bihari ?
forms of differences would enrich L: No Sir, he is my friend.
our feeling of living together or T: If that doesn’t influence your
would create hindrance to it. They relation with him, then where he
had classified these forms in two comes from and what he eats should
major categories. In first category, not make a difference.
they mentioned region, language, In the second category they had
food and dress, which they said put religion, class, caste, intelligence
contribute to enriching their routine and had told that these forms of
experiences. They said that name, differences separate each other. A
attire, food habits and language person from one religion and caste
help to identify other peoples region, does not want to interact with a
religion and caste. It enriches their person of other religion and caste.
experiences by introducing them to A person who belongs to high class
the diverse ways of dressing, eating and caste hates people of lower class.
habits and language. Although they After discussion, students came to
said that this is their culture and it the point that this is not ‘diversity’ but
does not work as constraint in their something else. If this is not diversity
interaction with others, yet, during then we can not live together. To live
discussion, many stereotypes and together, these are some challenges.
Significant findings that emerged
prejudices of learners came up. For
during the discussion that caste and
example:
class were significant dimensions
“Biharies eat rice only.”
of differentiation. This was evident
“He eats beef.” in the fact that most of the learners
These kinds of stereotypes mentioned their caste and class in
and prejudices are challenges for the untitled boxes. All the girls of the
social cohesion. These points were class mentioned their gender in the
taken into account and included same box, along with caste and class,
in the classroom discussion. It is while none of the boys mentioned his
noteworthy, that issues/stereotypes gender.
would not have come to the fore if During the class activity, it was
learners’ personal social experiences observed that a significant category
were not discussed in the class. of discrimination i.e., differently-
Activity 2
Rural Economy
In order to understand whether the everyday classroom transactions and
pedagogy provide any scope to integrate the essentials of learning to live
together with the concepts taught in the classroom. The following set of
hypothetical problems were given to the class and their responses on the same
were sought.
The students were divided in groups of four. They were given a reflective
exercise where they were supposed to plan economic activities for farmers who
had already sown their crops for the season and had finished all tasks related
to farming. The students were told that until harvesting, the villagers were
facing the problem of seasonal unemployment. While planning the activities,
they were guided to keep the following points in mind—
• The task should generate monetary benefits for the farmers.
• All the villagers who are capable and willing to work should be included/
employed in these activities in some way or the other.
• Through these activities some social cause or purpose should also be
served. Along with this, the task should provide scope for people to nurture
and develop — care, brotherhood and cooperation among each of them.
abled was missing. Therefore they The activity made them revisit
were given a case that if a person who their stereotype and reflect on their
is ‘visually challenged’ is admitted to prejudice.
their class, how would he/she feel? In Activity 2, the students were
How would they behave with them? asked to present their individual ideas
As soon as this case was put before about the possible solutions and
them their quick response was ‘what plan to the problems and suggested
would he do in our school?’. This plan for farmers. Within the group,
response showed that such mindset learners got the opportunity to not
is a challenge for inclusion. Taking only present their ideas but also to
this statement as a vantage point, a debate whether the plans suggested
further discussion was encouraged. were feasible and would generate
At the end of the discussion, learners optimum monetary returns. They
themselves started empathising tried to find the possible solutions
with their imaginary classmate. This to alleviate the problems of seasonal
activity not only brought out their unemployment of farmers.
understanding about social diversity Students seemed keen and
and discrimination but also reflected excited to work on the task as this
their stereotypes and prejudice. activity provided them with the scope
to work in small groups. Further, they It is important to note that the

felt that the planning they were doing children kept in mind the gender, the
would be instrumental in providing educational background and social
employment to the unemployed status of people while allocating them
villagers. They seemed to be driven by work. It can be inferred from this
a sense of positive ‘purpose’ and saw tendency that for them these factors
themselves as thinking-contributing decide the occupational trajectory of
members of the society. They were an individual. While conducting the
also expected to present this to the discussions it was further probed
entire class. as to why only women should make
The solutions they shared clearly toys? Or why only the rich people
showed the clarity and insightfulness should finance? Or why only the
they had in understanding the educated villagers should manage
problem. It is evident that the variety of finances and accounts? What are the
suggestions and proposed economic implications of these for long term
activities thought out by the children planning? This gave them a chance
were not restricted to the examples to come out of their comfort zones
stated in their textbooks. This shows and think of a possible world that
that while working in groups they go is free of biases and based on the
beyond the given information and principles of equality, fraternity and
put their ideas in a constructive brotherhood.
way. During the observations, it was It emerged during the discussion
found that every group took time to that learners knew that the Panchayat
arrive at a consensus. It is significant implements the government’s plans,
to note that none of the student such as preparing and repairing
showed a tendency to dominate the roads etc. Along with it, Panchayat
others while working in groups. Each also deals with people’s personal
one gave space to other members matters such as land and property
of the group to express their ideas. disputes, division of property and
When one child shared his idea, so forth. The focus of vignette and
everyone else in the group listened course content was to provide them
to the idea and commented on it with an idea that the Panchayat
and finally all the group members works as a local government. During
arrived at consensus regarding the the process, the learners raised these
most appropriate activity that they significant aspects of Panchayat
are going to present in the class. It themselves, showing that they
was observed that while planning, observe and are aware of what goes
they were also focusing on how around them. They may not be direct
their activity fulfilled the criteria of participants in the process but are
social cohesion (‘love, goodwill and aware of these. Taking into account
cooperation). these points, they were asked to
Activity 3
Outline of Activity
• At the beginning of the class, a case vignette (from the book) was given to
the class and the learners were asked to read it.
• When they had read it, the following questions were posed to them to
generate discussion—
1. What are the major issues discussed in the Panchayat meeting?
2. What could be the other issues that can be discussed in the Panchayat?
3. How does Panchayat arrive at any decision?
These were only guiding questions for the discussion.
give some examples from their own of separation made his uncle’s family
lives where they had heard or seen ‘other’ from his family.
any matter being addressed by the It also emerged during the
Panchayat. One student narrated his discussion that Panchayat takes
own experience to the class, which is decisions in consensus with all the
as follows — members of the Panchayat and after
“Last year I went to my village. listening to the arguments of both
My uncle fought with my father and the sides. To elaborate it further
separated my family. My father went and make the process of decision-
to the sarpanch and requested him making more explicit, they were
to intervene and divide the property asked to highlight/hypothesise
in a fair manner. Then they brought how the process of decision-making
some of their other people along with would take place in a group? The
them and fairly divided the property.” learners came up with the following
When a learner was narrating the responses —
whole experience, he was not just “Every person will express his/
describing a ‘case’ but also a personal her view. While he/she is expressing
life experience. This made the other his/her views, everyone else would
learners in the class aware about the listen to her. They may agree or
functioning and role of the Panchayat. disagree. In case of a disagreement,
Along with this, they were also able they will argue it out within the
to understand the turmoil a family group. Gradually, this process will
goes through when people fight and move further and the group will
separate. The entire class also learnt eventually arrive at a final decision,
as to how his family no more includes possibly which suits all or most. In
his cousins; they have become ‘other’ this process everyone’s voice(s) will
for him and his family. This process be heard. Each idea is important.
This whole decision making process In this activity, it emerged that

looks at the welfare of the community learners are aware of what is going
as a whole. It is kept in mind that the on in the society. They knew the gaps
decision should not harm anyone. between what is ‘actually’ happening
Through this process of and what ‘ought to’ be happening.
reflection, the learners came up with They were also open to revisit and
very relevant ideas. They were also challenge their existing notions and
made aware of social cohesion and construct fresh notions that seemed
solidarity. more appropriate and progressive.
In the case vignette it was shown It was hoped that in the light of
that all the villagers are present in their lived experiences and reality,
the Panchayat meeting but during they would be enabled to think in a
the classroom discussion many positive and critical manner.
students argued as followed— What also emerged through the
‘But everyone does not go in the classroom interaction was that the
Panchayat meeting, only ‘big shots’ teachers can assume a key role in
are called and only they discuss facilitating the goal of ‘learning to live
during the meetings.’ together’. Teachers’ role is not only
When probed as to whom do restricted to presenting the concepts
they consider ‘influential’? One of the but developing an understanding
learners said: and the skills of critically reflecting
L1: Those who have lots of money, on those concepts and connecting
land and belong to upper caste. them with the real issues; providing
T: But according to Constitution space for meaningful engagement
everyone can participate in a and dialogue on social issues. While
Panchayat meeting. discussing those concepts she
L2: No Sir, only influential people should help students understand the
attend Panchayat, I have seen it. realities of societies by discussing the
T: Ok tell me, who puts forth the ‘difference’ and ‘diversity’; there is a
views of the people who do not attend possibility to make them responsive
the Panchayat. ; human beings who accept multiple
(This was followed by a silence in perspectives and the people who are
the class) seen as ‘others’.
T: Don’t you think that if we have
been given a right, then we should go Discussion
and put forward our point. It is very clear from the above analysis
The discussion was carried that in such teaching-learning
forward by probing further. During processes, the whole pedagogic practice
the discussion an effort was made begins with learners’ understanding
that students reflect on these issues of society; moves further with critical
critically. reflection by problem-posing and
providing space for reconstruction (Werthsch, 1998). A new participant

of prior assumptions, beliefs and structure emerges in the classroom
ideas. Learner’s engagement and where power and authority shift from
ownership in classroom pedagogic teacher to the students. It has the
processes, teachers modeling the potential to change the relationship
culture of inquiry in classroom and between teacher and learner, between
importance of communication within learner and learner and learner and
the group can be easily seen as the subject matter studied (Wertsch,
crux of these activities. Rather than 1998). Students had developed
relying on teacher’s unquestionable ways of communicating, reasoning,
authority, students in such pedagogic and providing arguments to defend
settings propose and defend their their ideas as they participate and
own views. They also respond contribute to the norms and practices
thoughtfully to views of others. This of their learning communities. It was
process leads them to be a member found that learners were able to see
of the ‘community of inquiry’ (Goss themselves as question ‘posers’,
2004). The whole class benefits decision-makers and participants
from ‘sum of cognition’ as when the of democratic discussion where
class is divided into groups, a new their views and ideas were heard.
social context is created, in which Evidently, teachers play an important
students get the opportunity to share role in clarifying and developing
individual cognition with their peers values conducive to ‘learning to live
and arrive at conclusions based on together’. It is appropriate to conclude
the sum of those cognitions (Slavin, that generating a community of
1995). Multiple voices are heard learners’ engaged in discussing
within these pedagogic settings which social issues is fundamental to social
properly address the interpersonal cohesiveness. The differences need to
tension of learners. These be highlighted in order to appreciate
interpersonal tensions are due to diversity. Crucial social issues need
conflicting personal experiences and to be discussed in classroom rather
loyalties. They can be revealed and than being brushed under the carpet.
resolved only if multiple voices in the It is through conflict and discomfort
community are identified and heard that resolutions are arrived at.
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A Study of Stress Level among
Adolescents in Government and Public
Schools of Delhi
Ranjana Bhatia*, Sandhya Vij** and Deepti Madhura***
Abstract
Stress has been observed as the major cause of problem for all of us. This
problem has also been observed in adolescents as a result of which,
behavioural problems have been on an increase amongst them. The stress also
affects adolescents in terms of their academic performance as it is a major
cause of anxiety within this age group. The cause of stress can be attributed
to the type of school, conditions at home, peer pressure and the mental state.
In the following study it has been found that the major reasons for increase
in stress level and subsequent increase in anxiety are examinations, leisure
time activities, home environment vis-à-vis school environment, sleep pattern
and even consumption of junk food. Gender also plays a significant role in the
increased/decreased level of anxiety. A significant role can be played by the
teachers to reduce the stress level in adolescents. Compassion, understanding,
love, care and a strong bond between the teacher and the taught can play an
important role in reducing the stress level among the adolescents.
Introduction is generally agreed that it is the person

Mental health is one of the most with a healthy mind who is most
important aspects of an individual’s productive. True happiness comes from
personality on which one’s productivity within from our own mental attitude
depends. An unhealthy, poorly rather than from external conditions.
balanced mind will not lead to Mental health can be a cause of
achievement, happiness or efficiency. It concern for all age groups, special
* Professor and Principal, Amity Institute of Education, M. Block, Saket, New Delhi-110 017
** Assistant Professor, Amity Institute of Education, M. Block, Saket, New Delhi-110 017
*** Lecturer, Amity Institute of Education, M. Block, Saket, New Delhi-110 017
A Study of Stress Level among Adolescents in... 91
focus is being laid on the mental trend of an increase in the mental

health of the adolescents, as the health problems of the adolescents
adolescents or the youth as we may due to various causes which include
call them, form nearly one fifth of problems related to the sudden spurt
the world’s population (as per the in growth, lack of emotional support,
report card prepared by UNICEF on guidance and peer influence etc.
Adolescents in 2012). The UNICEF There is a serious concern about
in its work on adolescents or youth the mental health of adolescents in
has categorically called this age as our country as well. Adolescents,
the age of opportunity. According to the future of our nation form around
them, young people are resourceful 30% of our total population. Serious
and courageous. As adolescents behavioural or mental health
flourish, so do their communities. All difficulties have been found in a
of us have a collective responsibility survey conducted by National Health
in ensuring that adolescence does in Interview Survey (NHIS) 2004. They
fact becomes an age of opportunity. have observed that on an average 1
(Adolescence and Youth, UNICEF). in 10 adolescents falling in the age
The United Nations define group of 12-17 years have serious
adolescents as individuals between problems related to behaviour and
10–19 years of age. mental health. They have further
According to an online study on observed that this trend of the mental
the Adolescent’s mental health: An health difficulties has been more in
urgent challenge for investigation male adolescents as compared to the
and investment – UNICEF, 2011, it is female adolescents.
estimated that around 20 per cent of The state having made a note of
the world’s adolescents have a mental this problem launched an exclusive
health or behavioural problem. programme for adolescents titled
Among the leading causes ‘YUVA’ to look into the reasons/
of mental health problems in causes for various mental health
adolescents, depression and suicide problems and ways to overcome them
are the two most commonly found by providing support and guidelines
problems. Nearly 70,000 adolescents to the youth of the nation. The
commit suicide every year around Department of Education and State
the globe. This figure of 70,000 takes Council of Education and Training,
an alarming proportion as almost Govt. of NCT of Delhi has launched
40 times more of this stated figure this programme YUVA.
of adolescents makes an attempt to Showing concern about the
commit suicide. Most of the mental adolescents and their problems,
health problems have been reported Ms Rina Ray, I.A.S. Secretary,
between the age group of 14–24 Department of Education, has aptly
years. There has been a disturbing quoted the feelings of adolescents as:
Is Anyone Listening? Does part. Fear of failure and pressure to

Anyone Care? succeed is immense as adolescents
don’t want to let their parents,
Adolescence is being regarded as the
teachers and themselves down. They
period of stress and strain, storm
are pressurized from teachers who
and strike. This is the time when an
are themselves under lot of pressure
individual undergoes tremendous
changes both physically, emotionally to achieve impressive results.
and psychologically. A profound and Increasing competition among peers
abrupt change is clearly perceptible forces these adolescents to strive
into the development of the child who for higher grades to enter various
is neither too young nor too old. This university courses. This mental
sudden growth and development in stress among adolescents due to
the child is the unique characteristic examination calls for immediate
of adolescence, an age which requires attention, preventive and remedial
lots of care, affection, guidance, measures from the teachers, parents
proper monitoring and motivation. It and the society as a whole.
is because of these changes that the Need and Justification of The
child undergoes stress and strain.
Study in The Contemporary Social
A high priority has recently been
placed on addressing the mental Context
health needs of adolescents because Stress is a complex phenomenon.
of It is a very subjective experience. A
• Difficulties causing distress and challenge for one might give stress
affecting adolescents’ emotional to another. It depends largely
development. on the background experiences,
• Disruptive behaviour leading to temperament and environmental
exclusion from schools. conditions. Stress is a part of life and
• Violence in schools and juvenile is generated by constantly changing
crime. situations that a person must face.
• Suicides and incidents of self- The term ‘stress’ refers to an internal
harm. state, which results from frustrating
• Depression due to examination or unsatisfying conditions. A certain
stress. level of stress is unavoidable.
• Increase in the number of Because of its complex nature, stress
substance abuse cases. has been studied for many years by
• Adolescents subjected to abuse researchers in psychology, sociology
or neglect. and medicine. It is important because
In the last few years there have been we want to understand how it affects
a number of teenage suicides where the body, yet each person reacts and
examination pressure has played a handles stresses differently. The
worse we handle stress, the more it difference in the stress levels

affects the body. among adolescent girls and boys.
In order to find out the stress 3. There will be no significant
level among students of govt. and difference in the stress levels of
public schools of Delhi, a study was adolescents before and during
conducted. The main aim of the examination.
study was to assist the adolescents of
the subjective group to increase their Sample
awareness about the importance For the present study, the sample
of mental health and hygiene with was drawn from government and
emphasis on ways of managing the public secondary schools of Delhi.
stress. A sample of 400 students between
The study is intended to provide the age group of 11 to 16 years was
a broad understanding of the mental drawn from government and public
hygiene and stress response. The schools on the basis of gender.
focus is to implicate the importance
and to maintain the balance of one’s Procedure and Data Collection
mental health and on providing a A total of eight schools (four each
practical application of relaxation from government and public
techniques. Perhaps the demands of schools) were chosen to administer
their environments make them more the standardised tools. From these
resilient to the effects of stress. The identified schools, a total of 400
findings of this study are unique and students were selected based on
show that stress reaction is quite random stratified sampling on the
different in adolescents. basis of gender. After the selection
Objectives of the Study of the sample, the tools were
administered. The data collected was
1. Measure and compare the analysed to derive the outcomes.
mental health of adolescents of
government and public schools. Tools
2. Determine the stress levels
1. Manual for Mental Health Battery
amongst the adolescent students.
by Prof. Arun Kumar Singh and Dr.
3. Measure the examination stress
among adolescent students. Alpana Sen Gupta, 2010
This scale consists of six parts
Hypothesis containing one hundred and
1. There will be no significant thirty items, covering areas as
difference between the mental follows — emotional stability, overall
health of government and public adjustment, autonomy, security-
school students. insecurity, self concept and
2. There will be no significant intelligence.
2. Manual for Academic Anxiety were used to analyse the data

Scale for Children (AASC) of age 13 obtained:
to 16 years by Dr. A.K. Singh and 1. Central Tendency and Dispersion
Dr. A. Sen Gupta, Department of Measures like Mean and Standard
Psychology, Patna University, 1984. Deviation
2. T-Test
This test has been developed for the use
of school students of class viii, ix and Analysis of the Data
x between the age group 13 to 16 years.
Hypothesis 1: There will be no
This test consists of 20 items.
significant difference between the
3. Indian Adaptation of Saran son’s mental health of government and
General Anxiety Scale for School- public school students.
Going Children (GASC) by Dr. A. The data was collected from eight
Kumar. schools (four each from government
and public schools) and a test was
This anxiety scale consists of 45 administered on the sample. The test
items, related to varied life situations. adopted to administer the mental
These items contain an element health of the students was –
of anticipation of dangerous and Manual for Mental Health Battery
painful consequences. by Prof. Arun Kumar Singh and
Dr. Alpana Sen Gupta, 2010
Statistical Techniques
Table 1 shows the interpretation
The following statistical techniques of the data collected from the schools:
Table 1
Dimensions Variable 1 Variable 2
Mean 6.11 11.19
Variance 3.94 30.20
Observations 398 400
Pooled Variance 17.10
Hypothesized Mean Difference 0
Df 796
t Stat -17.35
P(T<=t) one-tail 9.78E-58
t Critical one-tail 1.65
P(T<=t) two-tail 1.96E-57
t Critical two-tail 1.962949*
* Significant at the 0.5 level
It can be interpreted from the above Singh and Dr. A. Sen Gupta,
table that the t-value is significant Department of Psychology, Patna
at the 0.5 level of significance and University, 1984
thus, it can be analyzed that there 2. Indian Adaptation of Saran son’s
is significant difference between General Anxiety Scale for School
the mental health of the students Going Children (GASC) by Dr. A.
studying in the government school Kumar.
and the students studying in the The following Table 2 shows the
private schools. The mental health of interpretation of the data collected
the students studying in government from the schools:
school is more affected or is poorer as It can be interpreted from the
compared to the students studying table 2 that the t-value is significant
in the private schools. at the 0.5 level of significance and
Hypothesis 2: There will be no thus, it can be analysed that there
significant difference in the stress is significant difference between the
levels among adolescent girls and boys. stress levels among adolescent girls
The data was collected from eight and boys. The stress level of boys is
schools (four each from government higher than the stress levels of the
and public schools) and a test was girls, irrespective of the schools they
administered on the sample. The are studying in.
tests adopted to administer the Hypothesis 3: There will be no
stress level among adolescent girls significant difference in the stress
and boys were – levels of adolescents before and
1. Manual for Academic Anxiety during examination.
Scale for Children (AASC) of An informal interview of the
age 13 to 16 years by Dr. A.K. students was taken to collect more
Table 2
Dimensions Variable 1 Variable 2
Mean 15.09 17.56
Variance 83.47 87.72
Observations 400 400
Pooled Variance 85.59
Hypothesized Mean Difference 0
Df 798
t Stat -3.77
P(T<=t) one-tail 8.57511E-05
t Critical one-tail 1.64
P(T<=t) two-tail 0.00017
t Critical two-tail 1.96*
*Significant at the 0.5 level
information regarding their feelings, during examinations. The questions

anxiety and stress levels before and asked in the interview are as follows:
Questions for the Informal Interview Before The Examination
1 What is your name?
2 How old are you?
3 What is your stream of study?
4 Do you enjoy being at school?
5 Do you allocate time for leisure activities?
6 What do your parents want you to become?
7 Do you feel stressed during your exams?
8 You suffer from stress at home or at school?
9 How often do you have peaceful sleep?
10 What do you think is more stressful—preparation for exams, writing exams
or waiting for results?
11 Are your friends supportive and helpful during stressful times?
12 Are you getting into substances like alcohol, drugs or smoking for mitigating
stress?
13 How often do you eat junk food?
14 Do you think the amount of syllabus to be studied for exams is appropriate?
15 Which of the following techniques do you follow to overcome stress—listening
to songs, going out with friends, spending time with family and eating your
favourite cuisine?
16 Are you confident of coming out of stressful situations during exams?
17 Do you share your problems with your parents?
During the Examination
1 Do you enjoy being at school?

2 Do you allocate time for leisure activities?
3 What do your parents want you to become?
4 Do you feel stressed during your exams?
5 You suffer from stress at home or at school?
6 How often do you have peaceful sleep?
7 What do you think is more stressful – preparation of exams, writing exams
or waiting for results?
8 Are your friends supportive and helpful during stressful times?
9 Are you getting into substances like alcohol, drugs or smoking for mitigating
stress?
10 How often do you eat junk food?
11 Do you think the amount of syllabus to be studied for exams is appropriate?

Which of the following techniques do you follow to overcome stress—listening
12 to songs, going out with friends, spending time with family and eating your
favourite cuisine?
13 Are you confident of coming out of stressful situations during exams?
14 Do you share your problems with your parents?
The questions were further interpreted and analysed and the interpretation is
as follows:
Before and During the Examinations
Q1. Do you enjoy being at school?
Graph 1: Graphical Representations of the Data
Q2. Do you allocate time for leisure activities?
Graph 2: Graphical Representation of Data

Q.3 What do your parents want you to become?
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Before During
Q4. Do you feel stressed before the exams?
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Before During

Q5. At which place do you suffer more from stress — at home or at school?
Q6. How often do you get peaceful sleep?

Q7. What do you think is more stressful — preparation of exams, writing

exams or waiting for results?
Q8. Are your friends supportive and helpful during stressful times?

Q9. Are you getting into substances like alcohol, drugs or smoking for
mitigating stress?
Q10. How often do you eat junk food?

Q11. Do you think the amount of syllabus to be studied for exams is appropriate?

Q12. Which of the following techniques do you follow to overcome stress–
listening to songs, going out with friends, spending time with family and
eating your favourite cuisine?

Q13. Are you confident of coming out of stressful situations before exams?
Q14. Do you share your problems with your parents?

Discussion of Interview Results students, before and during the

examination. The percentage
On the basis of analysis of the of the students that took stress
above interview with the students before the examination was 60%
of government and public schools, and during the examination it
it can be concluded that there is a was increased to 86%. Hence
significant difference in the stress there was an increase by 26% in
levels of the adolescents before the number of students that took
and during the examinations. This stress during the examination.
was concluded from the following • The percentage of the students
inferences: who feel stressed at home before
• The percentage of the students the examination was 40% and
that enjoyed being at school during the examination, 60% of
before the examination was 66% the students feel stressed at home
and during the examination, because of the pressure from their
only 30% of the students enjoyed parents. Similarly, students who
being at school because there feel stressed at school before the
was an increase in the stress level examination was 45% and during
amongst the students. the examination, it was 55%.
• The percentage of the students • The percentage of the students
that allocated time for leisure who get peaceful sleep before
activities before the examination the examination was 57% and
was 74% and during the during the examination only 13%
examination, only 39% of the of the students get peaceful sleep
students allocated time for because there was an increase in
leisure activities because there the stress level and hence they
was an increase in the stress level could not get peaceful sleep.
amongst the students. • The percentage of the students
• The percentage of the students who get stressed before writing
that wanted to join an academic the examination was 56% and
profession before the examination during the examination, 66% of
was 53% because of the pressure the students get stressed while
from their parents but during writing their examination.
the examination, only 29% of • The percentage of the students
the students were pressurized to who get support from their friends
join an academic profession, as before the examination was 64%
the parents also understood the and during the examination, 51%
amount of stress the students of the students get support from
took during the examination. their friends.
• There was an increase in the • There was an increase in
amount of stress taken by the the number of students who
get involved in the intake of students overcame stress by

substances like alcohol, drugs listening to songs but during
and smoking before and after the examination the percentage
the examination. Before the is increased to 62%. Similarly,
examination it was 4% and during before the examination, 52% of
the examination it was 14%. This the students overcame stress
increase was due to the increase by going out with friends but
in the stress level amongst the during the examination, this
students. number is reduced to 15% due to
• There was an increase in the lack of support from the friends.
intake of junk food during the Lastly, 10% of students overcame
examination. The percentage stress before the examination by
of students who take junk food spending time with parents and
before the examination was 66% during the examination, they
and during the examinations depend upon the parents more for
it was increased to 85%. This their support, so as to overcome
increase was due to an increase stress.
in the stress level. The students • The percentage of the students
stated that whenever they get who were confident to overcome
stressed during the exams, the stress before the examination
food helps in relieving the stress. was 74% but this percentage
• The students felt before the was decreased to 64% when the
examination, the amount of that students had to try to overcome
syllabus to be studied for exams stress during the examination.
is appropriate but there is a • Before the examination, only 23%
relative decrease in this point of of students shared the problems
view during the examination. The with their parents but during the
percentage of students decreases examination, due to an increase
from 73% to 51%. The students in the stress level, this number
feel stressed with the amount of got increased and 73% of the
syllabus that they have to cover students shared their problems
for the examination. with the parents.
• The students choose different
techniques to overcome Conclusion
stress—before and during the (a) The mental health of the
examination. There is a difference adolescents studying in private
in the percentage of their choice schools has been found to be
for the techniques employed significantly better than the
to overcome stress, before and adolescents studying in the
during the examination. Before government schools.
the examination, 38% of the (b) The score with respect to the
stress level in boys has been (h) The number of adolescents who
observed to be significantly get peaceful sleep before the
higher than the stress level in the examination was found to be
girls, irrespective of the schools significantly higher, vis-a-vis
they are studying in. the number of adolescents who
(c) It was observed from the findings get peaceful sleep during the
of the study that a larger number examination
of adolescents enjoyed being at (i) The findings of the study have
school before the examinations indicated that the stress level
as compared to the time when the of adolescents increases while
examinations are in progress. writing the examination whereas
(d) The findings of the study indicate before the examination it is
that adolescents devote more significantly low.
time for leisure activities before (j) It has been brought out by the
the examinations but the leisure study that the adolescents when
activities take a back seat in stress, by and large, do get
from their schedule during the help from their friends before as
examinations. well as during the examinations.
(e) A significantly higher number of (k) The findings of the study revealed
adolescents expressed a desire to that the intake of substance
join an academic profession before abuse by the adolescents
the examination. This number increases significantly during
was comparatively less during the the examinations to overcome
examination as indicated by the stress. Before the examination,
findings of the study. the intake of substance abuse is
(f) It has been brought out by the comparatively less.
findings of the study that the (l) It was observed through the
stress taken by the adolescents findings of the study that the
during the examination was consumption of junk food is
found to be significantly higher significantly higher in adolescents
as compared to the stress during the examinations as
taken by adolescents before the compared to other times,
examination. indicating the increase in stress
(g) An increase in the stress level level which they presumably
of adolescents staying at home combat by food that helps them
during the examination has been to overcome the anxiety during
observed by the findings of the the examinations.
study. The stress level of the (m) As far as the perception of
adolescents was however, found adolescents with regard to
to be less at home before the the appropriate nature of the
examination. syllabus during the examination
is concerned, there was not higher than the number of

much difference as observed by adolescents who shared their
the findings. By and large, the problems with the parents before
adolescents under study found the examination.
the syllabus appropriate before It is apparent from these findings
and during the examinations. that stress plays havoc on the body
(n) Out of the options given for and mind of all individuals including
relieving stress before and adolescents. All efforts must be made
during the examinations, the by teachers, parents and schools to
study reveals that majority of adopt measures to minimize stress
the adolescents find listening to level of adolescents. Encouraging
music as a great stress buster. them to speak, share their problems
(o) The number of adolescents who and conflicts will help in reducing
were confident to overcome stress their stress levels. Persuading them to
before the examination was found channelise their energies in outdoor
to be significantly higher than the activities like sports and games can
number of adolescents who were be great stress busters. Yoga has also
not confident to cope with stress been found to be a great stress reliever
during the examination. and a stress buster. It contributes
(p) The number of adolescents who effectively in calming the mind which
shared their problems with their in turn helps in reducing the stress
parents during the examination and subsequently improving the
was found to be significantly learning capabilities.
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What Every Teacher should Know to
Reduce Examination Stress
Some Intervention Strategies
Veer Pal Singh*
Abstract
This paper is intended to explore the intervention strategies which can be carried
out at school for reducing the examination stress among school students. The
gravity of this issue of examination stress reduction has been addressed in the
National Curriculum Framework – 2005 which has suggested various reforms
in the examination system like enhancement of time for answering the question
paper, examination of shorter duration, making class X public examination
optional, reporting of students’ performance in terms of grades, flexibility in opting
the subjects of choice for study and examinations, on-demand examination,
introduction of Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) etc. Consequently,
Boards of School Education have initiated various reforms to address this issue.
But the role of school and teachers’ can not be ignored as the child spends about
six to eight hours every day in school. It is the highest duration next to the time
spent at home by the child. Therefore, the interventional strategies like creating
congenial physical environment at school, cognitive and academic assistance,
social-emotional support and stress busting mechanisms at school are suggested.
Each strategy is discussed in the light of teachers’ and students’ roles in a number
of situations which may arise in a child’s school life.
Introduction examination becomes a powerful

It is an accepted fact that the success instrument of certifying the quality
of an individual can be predicted on or potential of an individual, which
the basis of his/her performance. is why, at school stage the worth of
The performance is valued a student is considered on the basis
through examinations. Therefore, of getting admission in desirable
* Associate Professor, Educational Survey Division, National Council of Educational Research and
Training, New Delhi 110 016.
courses having employment potential. Further, suicides are taking place

But due to limited employment during or after the examination or
opportunities and less number during or after the declaration of
of lucrative jobs, competition has Board/school results which have
enhanced up to undesirable extent attracted the attention of the society
resulting into stressful situation as a whole. Not only this, it has gone
globally. India is no exception rather to the extent that the government
has its insurmountable problems. is forced to address this issue and
In Indian context, the examination plans to take necessary measures to
system has been considered as a wipe it out recently. MHRD convened
bane since independence due to its a meeting of educational experts
numerous shortcomings. Recently, from NCERT, CBSE, IITs, IIMs and
a new dimension has been added to NGOs. They unanimously agreed
it, which is related to stress. Stress that the present functioning of
has compounded the problems School Education Boards and their
stirring whole socio-political system role in conducting examinations is
of the country. In fact it has become untenable and need to be replaced
such a menace for the students that with a system considered friendly for
some of them appearing in the Board students. They further emphasised
examination have been resorting that something needs to be done to
to extreme steps like suicides. This lessen the huge load of examination
is happening through a vicious stress on students but without
cycle of anxiety-stress-depression. lowering the quality of education.
Further, it has been observed that Hence, role of examination Boards,
students appearing in public and educational institutions, principals,
competitive examinations feel more teachers, parents and social workers
stressed as compared to internal becomes important not only in
school examinations. Besides, the explaining the stress but also in
expectations of school, teachers, finding out certain intervention
parents, family members and the strategies to reduce it. In this paper,
self, are having a multiplying effect various interventional strategies are
on it. Addressing this issue, National discussed which can be undertaken
Curriculum Framwork–2005 has at school by the teacher or the school
categorically mentioned that there principal.
is a need to reduce stress, make
examination non-threatening and Stress: its Meaning
enhance the success rate in the In general, stress is perceived as
examination especially in public ‘the body’s response to anything we
examinations. Hence, it has been perceive as dangerous, demanding
considered as one of the major focal or demoralising’. According to Selye
points of examination reform. (1977) stress may be considered ‘as
What Every Teacher should Know to... 111
a generalised response of body to two factors such as the perception

demands placed on it, whether they of events and internal changes in
are pleasant or unpleasant’. However, body and psyche. This definition
there are different viewpoints with lays emphasis on both external and
respect to stress. Some defines it in internal variables.
terms of external demands or stimuli
i.e. the thing present in environment Examination Stress: its Genesis
causing stress while others take In the school system, the examination
stress as a person’s reaction or emerges as one of the major stressors
response to such external things for students, particularly for those
or stimuli. On the other hand, a students appearing for the Board
third definition brings both aspects exams. Examination, by and large, is
of stimuli and response together. perceived by students as dangerous
Thus, three types of definitions are and demanding. It appears as a
prevalent in the academic field. challenging stimulus to create
The stimulus definition clarifies stress. Generally, the examination
that the stress is inherent in stimuli. stress occurs at three stages viz.
Those who accept this definition, school-examination/pre-board
stimuli are the stressors. It is just examination, public examination
like defining stress in Physics. Stress conducted by the education Boards
is defined in Physics as subjecting and entrance examinations for
an object by exerting pressure from admission to professional courses
external forces. Psychologically, it is conducted by IITs, Engineering
also thought that if a lot of pressure and Medical Colleges etc. These
is put on an individual, it will strain examinations cause anxiety which
him/her immensely and cause leads to stress. Further, it is coupled
stress. with the pressure from the parents,
The second definition is response peers and the society which creates
definition, which emphasises stress and exam-fever.
psychological and physiological Moreover, nowadays high profile
responses to the environmental performance of the student is an
situations. Selye was of the opinion indicator of status for the family and
that a body’s reaction to stressors is instrument of enhancing reputation
a complex one and that it involves of the school as well. This is revealed
a cluster of responses (Landy through the fact that the public
1987). The third definition of stress schools have intense competition;
is considered as an interactional therefore, they subject even the
definition. This explains that stress is academically weak students for test
neither stimuli-specific nor response after test so that they will do well in
to stimuli-specific. It is rather an pre-board and Board exams and do
outcome of an interaction of the not spoil the name of the school. Not
only this, even some of the schools Undue emphasis is laid, only on
decide about the admissions for achievement in scholastic areas
class XI on the basis of the result rather than co-scholastic aspects of
of pre-board examinations. In these their growth and development which
circumstances, parents also try to are almost neglected. As a result
put more pressure on students to they do not learn the values like
achieve the highest percentage in tolerance, discipline, cooperation,
pre-board examinations for taking emotional stability, diligence etc.,
admission in the same school. which are helpful in performing well
Moreover, parents also make them in the examination as well as coping
feel that lot of money has been spent with stress.
on their studies by way of school Another important dimension of
expenses combined with expenditure the whole problem is the crucial age
on coaching. Therefore the student of the students. These students are
is under constant pressure to the undergoing the age of adolescence.
extent that she develops a sense The characteristic of this age is
of guilt in her and tries to cope up reflected in their energetic, semi-
with the situation. Consequently, a mature and ambitious behaviour.
feeling is developed that if he/she However, as far as their self-esteem is
fails in exams it is the end of life for concerned, they get easily hurt even
him/her. In addition to this, pupils with a slight or trivial matter because
coming from affluent families have they feel that they have matured.
never heard ‘no’ for anything they Therefore thinking of failure in their
demanded, therefore, they are not pursuit makes them more anxious
prepared at all to accept any kind of as compared to the small children
failure in any field of life. It shows studying at primary stage or adults
that how demanding the examination studying in universities. As far as
becomes for them. these adolescents are concerned, they
Further, there are other situations perceive examination as a challenge
as well. For example, sometimes which adds to their miseries.
parents do not try to estimate the
child’s capabilities before setting their Examination Stress: its Nature
goals. The education system also Due to the interchangeable use of
does not prepare the students well the terms ‘stress’ and ‘anxiety’ in
to face the situations in which they researches on stress, a confusion
are placed. The relating situation — is there. In order to remove the
either how to write in examinations confusion, Spielberger’s (1979),
and score good marks or how to Lazarus’s (1966) analysis made it
cope up with stress of work load, clear that stress is a complex psycho-
time management etc.— are also not biological process. The word ‘stressor’
taken care of properly in schools. explains situations or stimuli
that are objectively characterised they are evaluated. Test anxiety,

by some degree of physical or thus can be seen as a reaction-
psychological danger while ‘threat’ bound stress phenomenon on
refers to the individual’s perception one hand, and a situation-bound
or appraisal of that situation or stress reaction on the other. This
stimulus as potentially dangerous reaction is evoked when a student’s
or harmful. An individual who sees intellectual, motivational and social
a stressful situation as threatening, capabilities are taxed or exceeded
will experience an anxiety-reaction. by demands stemming from the
In case of subjective feelings of individual himself, or from the school
tension, apprehension, nervousness environment (Rost and Schermer,
and worry, and heightened activity 1989). As such, examination stress
of the autonomic nervous system, and test anxiety are two related but
an individual will show emotional non-identical variables.
reaction which is known as ‘state Further, exam stress refers to
anxiety’. The overall process is the emotional reactions that some
indicative of the stress. students have towards exams (Mc
The theoretical distinction Donald, 2001). The fear of exam is
between stress, threat and anxiety not an irrational fear — after all, how
is now increasingly recognised in you perform in exams will shape
research on anxiety. Keeping in the course of your academic career.
view this convention, ‘examination However, excessive fear of exams may
stress’ may be defined ‘in terms of interfere with the student’s ability
objective stimulus properties of the to be successful in the examination
test situations’ and the concept of (Musch and Broder 1999). In view of
test anxiety in terms of ‘individual Lay and Schouwenburg (l993), exam
differences in anxiety proneness in stress has three components, viz.,
examination situations’ (Spielberger, physical, cognitional and emotional.
(Spielberger et.al. 1978) Gonzalez, The cognitive component is the
Taylor, Algase, and Anton, 1978). After mental activity that revolves around
a review and evaluation of the major the testing situation and its potential
theories of test anxiety, Spielberger implications on the individual and
et al. (1978) concluded that most test constituent elements, such as,
anxiety theorists seem to agree that thinking about consequences of
test-anxious people are more likely: failure, worrying a great deal about
(a) to perceive examination situation examinations, and lack of confidence
as more dangerous or threatening in one’s ability. The emotionality
than do people who are low in test component is the physiological
anxiety, and (b) to experience worry component of test anxiety leading
cognitions and intense elevations in to tension, apprehension, and
state anxiety in situations in which nervousness towards examinations
while the physical component Researches: an Overview

involves typical bodily reactions Researches reveal that most of
to anxiety such as a knot in the the work is done on test anxiety or
stomach, palpitation, nausea, and
examination anxiety or academic
perspiration. Demographic variables,
stress rather than examination
such as, age, gender, ethnicity, and
stress. Beck (1976) states that
study habits also affect test anxiety
appraisal of an event effects the
levels. Perceived course load could
performance of a person. If a student
be one of the factors leading to
is highly anxious about result or his
test anxiety. Moreover, students’
annual exam, he/she may appraise
perceptions of the teaching and
his future performance negatively
the learning environment, such as,
and the negative appraisal induces
assessment methods, relevance of
the course, and their course load anxiety which in turn creates other
also influence students’ approaches problems. Physiologically, body’s
to learning (Weerakon 2005). immune system functions less well
Finally, it may be concluded under stress (Stone et al. 1987) and
that examination stress denotes the level of Secretary Immunoglobulin A
conditions that arouse anxiety or (IgA) drops during final examinations
fear. Anxiety can be defined as an and returns to normal when exams
emotion characterised by feelings are over (Jemmot and Maglorie:
of anticipated danger, tension and 1988). Monroe and Simons (1991)
distress and by tendencies to avoid made an observation that people
or escape. As per Morris, Davis experience stress in wider ways.
and Hutchings (1981) anxiety is Some individuals experience
no more a unitary concept. It has modest increases in physiological
two components Worry (W) and arousal while others may exhibit
Emotionality (E). Worry is described significant physical symptoms. In
primarily as a cognitive concern extreme cases, people become so
about one’s performance, about aroused, anxious and disorganised,
consequences of failure, or about that their behaviour becomes
poor evaluation in comparison to maladaptive or maladjusted. Maes,
others. Emotionality refers to self- Van der Plankin, Van Gastel. et al.
perceived arousal or autonomic (1998) in their physiological studies
reactions (e.g. muscular tension, found that stress (from any source)
sweaty palms) evoked by stress. Here, can influence on the endocrine,
examination stress is considered as hernopoietic and immune systems
the mental state of worry, concern while Fayaz Qureshi et.al (2002)
and uncertainity due to encountering observed that stress can alter the
of testing situations (oral or written) blood cells parameters in healthy
which act as a constant source of individuals. They tried to determine
uneasiness for the individual. whether exams in medical schools
are stressful enough to produce such negatively or becomes excessive, it

changes. A randomised selection of can affect both health and academic
female students from Women Medical performance. Extensive course–load
School, Abbottabad, Pakistan was and comprehensive information in
carried out. It was concluded that academic curricula, necessitates
examinations in medical schools use of proper time management
are stressful enough to produce and effective study–strategies. Time
changes in blood cells (neutrophils management can be defined as a
and platelets increased while cluster of behavioural skills that
eosinophils, monocytes, basophils are important in the organisation
and lymphocytes decreased). of study and course load (Lay and
Test frequency wise, Koul and Schouwenburg l993). Hence, one
Bhadwal (1989) found that if the of the aspects of time management
learner is subjected to frequent testing is to develop effective study habits
situations, as in the case of unit that essentially help in managing
testing, it may help in decreasing the the study–load. Time management
level of test anxiety in him. Sharma skills typically include—planning in
and Sud (1990) drew samples from advance, prioritising the work, and
four Asian cultures and found that adhering to the pre-set schedules.
the female students experience Students’ perceptions of their
higher levels of test anxiety than do learning environment are important
males, irrespective of their cultural determinants of the quality of their
background. The generalisation learning outcomes. The course load
made from these findings was that— may also affect the manner in which
a major causal factor involved in students learn and can be useful in
the gender-related differences in the design and evaluation of curricula
test anxiety among students was— (Walker and Siebert 1990).
a ‘greater role expectation conflict’ Singh (2005) in his article
among females than among males. ‘Managing Examination Stress to
Campbell and Sevenson (1992) attain success’ dealt with the concept
observed that there are different of stress, stressors, and remedies
factors which contribute to the to reduce stress; and stressed
development of high level of stress the need to carry out empirical
among school, college and university studies to address this issue in a
students. These stressors include— more intensive way. While Ahmad
self-concept, unrealistic expectation, and Bano (2008) in their study
inappropriate time management on ‘Academic Stress among Post-
skills, financial pressures, social Graduate Students Before and After
pressures and academic pressures at Announcement of Result’ concluded
predictable times in each academic that examination result causes
year. When stress is perceived stress among students. In another
study, Singh et al. (2008) identified of preparation for examinations; (6)

nine factors of examination stress on Physiological factors like sweating,
the basis of factorial analysis. These dryness of throat, shortness of
were: (1) Psychological factors which breath and experiencing of headache
include — nervousness, tension, while taking examination; (7)
feelings of minds’ unfunctioning, Behavarioural factors like feeling
poor concentration, fear psychosis of discomfort just before getting
for marks/division, pass/fail and the question paper, trembling of
wrong responses, poor expression of hands and/or legs, frequent urge to
ideas, worry about consequences of urinate and upsetting of stomach; (8)
failing, pre-occupation of mind with Physical conditions in and around
examination, experience of shortage of examination hall like inadequate
time, occurrence of silly mistakes etc.; ventilation and lighting in the
(2) Unrealistic expectations related examination hall, noise in an around
to self and comparison for marks the examination hall and least
and exam preparation with friends/ physical space between the invigilator
classmates, parental expectations for and examinees; and (9) Diverse
marks/performance and comparison concentration on the tasks like
with others, pressure for getting answering the questions, performing
admission in a good school or course, the experiments/activities etc. in an
occurrence of expected questions examination-setting.
in the question paper, ridiculed Literature reviewed so far shows
by the friends/classmates for poor that most of the researches are related
performance etc.; (3) Socio-economic to test anxiety and examination
conditions of the family, including stress, explaining the occurrence
financial constraints for getting the and causes of stress. However, there
required guidance, poor economic is scarcity of researches suggesting
conditions of the family, inadequate ‘coping or interventional strategies’ to
family income for getting desired come out from the stressed situations,
facilities etc.; (4) Inappropriate time particularly the examination stress
management skills; (5) Unsupportive in Indian context. Hence, a need was
school and home conditions felt to suggest effective interventional
including improper distribution of strategies at school level to cope with
time for different chapters or units the examination stress.
by the teachers, lack of guidance
for examination – preparation by Interventional Strategies to cope
the teacher, irregularity in studies with Examination Stress
due to organisation of co-curricular Existing system of school education,
activities in the school close to the including the declaration of
examination, and disturbance in and examination results, particularly
around the home leading to disruption the public examinations, exerts
pressure on students to excel in a calming effect. Blue colour gives

the examination. It might be due to calm and positive effect. White is
parental and school expectations; associated with cool and cleanliness
apart from the environment at because it is the colour of snow. The
home and school. In reducing the red colour gives a sophisticated look
pressure of examinations, the school to a monochromatic colour scheme
can play a crucial role because the while off-white is the most suited
child spends more than six hours colour for a classroom. Hence, the
per day in the school. Therefore, colouration of the classroom has an
it becomes necessary to look into impact on individual’s personality
the environment of school complex and behaviour.
where some help or intervention can
be provided to students to reduce (b) Making the classrooms
their pressure of examinations. adequately lighted up with
Hence, keeping in view, the major proper ventilation.
contribution of school environment, Classrooms should be adequately
some interventional strategies are lighted up because a dark room
suggested as under: creates some visual difficulties
in students. The head of the
I. Creating Congenial Physical
institution should make sure that
Environment at School the school and classrooms have
Environment of a school plays an proper ventilation because clean and
important role in stress reduction fresh air is much needed for proper
of the child. Hence, the school working of the brain. The provision
administrator should take care of of natural lighting and ventilation
the school environment by putting keeps the children and staff healthy
efforts to improve the physical, and vibrant.
social, academic and organisational
facilities in the school. Some of (c) Managing proper sanitary
the suggestions for making school condition in the school.
environment congenial are as under: It is the duty of school management
to take care about the sanitary
(a) Making the colour of condition in the school. They should
classrooms in the school ensure that the sweepers are doing
plesant. their duties wisely; because if the
Every colour has a psychological and school sanitary conditions are not
an emotional impact on the individual. hygienic, then not only the students
The colour reflects the personality, but also the staff would be prone to
emotions and moods of an individual. infection easily. Cleanliness of the
Light green is considered the most school indirectly affects both health
restful colour for the eyes and has and academic performance of the
students.
(d) Pasting encouraging posters slide, drought, flood, volcano eruption

on the wall of school and etc. In school, it is important to make
classroom. the students environmentally aware.
For that eco-clubs may be established
Some encouraging slogans may be
in the school where participation of
crafted in the classroom to create
every student should be ensured.
positive effect among the students.
Motivational posters encourage (f) Organising get-together
students to fight against the tough activities in school by
times and to go ahead in life. It involving students.
not only boosts the morale of the
students and teachers, but also Schools should organise some
helps in changing their attitude in get-together activities on different
a positive way. Hence, the efforts occasions like teacher’s day,
should be made to break the children’s day, school foundation
monotonous outlook of the walls, day etc. In such activities, even
pillars, corridors and stairways. senior students and alumni may be
Students’ – made posters have more invited to share their experiences
impact in enhancing the beauty of and views. These activities not only
the surrounding walls of the school. enhance the interaction among the
Sticking or hanging motivational students but also help in clarifying
posters on the walls of classroom or their doubts related to academic
school may be inspiring and filled and non-academic problems, career
with positive vibes, that in turn will choices, etc.
make children motivated to do their
(g) Provision of encouraging
best for getting better results.
books, magazines, articles
(e) Motivating students to etc. in school library or
establish eco-clubs for reading room.
the betterment of the School library or reading room
environment. exists to provide a range of learning
To have a soothing effect, schools opportunities to students with a focus
should encourage the students on intellectual content, information
to take part in activities like Van and literacy, where they could get
Mahotsav, preparation of flowering more information regarding their
beds etc. by providing facilities in academics problems, examination,
the school premises. In recent years, career guidance etc. Now, digital
global warming effects can be seen, libraries are being established,
in terms of, melting of glaciers which through which one can search the
unexpectedly is affecting the whole information about books, journals,
world’s weather conditions and magazines, articles etc. online.
creating many problems like land Moreover, online public access
catalogs have replaced the traditional learning strategies, time management

cards catalogs and provide an and solving their problems. A good
index and listing. If school provides teacher not only completes syllabus
more facilities like e-learning, then as per academic schedule but also
students will take more interest in adjusts time for revision of each and
studies. every aspect of subject individually.
Further, she moulds the students
(h) Organising the lecture to develop their skills or improvise
series to develop self- them; and teaches good habits/
confidence and morality attitudes which help them to become
among students. good citisens of the nation. There
are many students who feel shy and
A number of lectures may be
may have some personal problems.
organised by the school from time
It becomes quite important for
to time. These lectures may be
teacher to attend these students
delivered by teachers, principal
personally and encourage them to
and invited scholars to share their overcome their problems. Moreover,
learning experiences and the way monotonous subject(s) can be made
they tackled difficulties in their life. interesting by the motivated teacher.
This would encourage the students to She/he can overcome all these issues
face the problems boldly and to find by keeping himself updated with new
out amicable solutions in different concepts, teaching methodologies,
situations of life. It will broaden and technological advancements.
the horizon of students to meet out
various demands in life and would be (b) Developing the study-
helpful in developing self-confidence habit among students from
among the students. the very beginning of the
II. Cognitive and Academic Support course.
Cognitive and academic supports Teacher can provide timely
play a crucial role in reduction of suggestions to students about
stress of the children. It can be learning strategies and timetable for
studies. It will help them to learn
provided in terms of the following:
how to focus on studies with respect
(a) Management of stress by to time. Further, weak areas may be
the teacher in the class and pinpointed by the subject teacher
school. to the students so that they know
where they need to put more efforts
Future of all students is indirectly to get success. It is better on the part
dependent on teaching skills of the teacher to encourage students
and cooperative behavior of the to prepare for exams daily because it
teacher. Teacher can provide timely will save time in exam days and be
suggestions to students about helpful in reducing the pressure of
study during examinations. of questions asked in the question

paper.
(c) Remembering all deadlines
and test dates. (e) Making use of visual
Even in senior classes, the school can representation and
provide annual activities calendar preferred learning style by
and daily dairy to each and every the teacher.
student of school. It will help them to Students’ preferred learning style —
remember all important events and read, re-read, and revision makes
dates of tests which will be organised learning perfect. Techniques like
by the school. The teacher should rhyming, singing the study material,
motivate the students to write a daily linking it with previous information,
diary which will reflect the work done writing it down and then checking for
by them and improvement made by accuracy and completeness etc. helps
them over the period of time. in learning the contents. The teacher
may use visual representations like
(d) Freedom to ask teacher
web diagram, venn diagram etc. or
about all queries regarding make notes for students. This makes
examination or syllabus. the learning of difficult tasks easier
Students should feel freeness to and interesting.
ask the teacher as many questions
as they wish like—what types of (f) Making complimentary
questions will come in an exam? remarks on students’
How many questions will be in the achievement rather than
question paper? What would be the blaming their failure on any
options in the question paper? etc. task.
They need not hesitate in clarifying Teachers are the well-wishers of
any query related to examination the students. Good teachers always
or syllabus, even their personal make complementary remarks on
problem, if any. On the other hand, students’ achievements rather than
teachers may guide students on how blaming their failure on a task.
to divide the time in proportion to If students have poor academic
the questions asked in the question performance, teachers should not
paper, what should be the criteria blame those students for their
for time allotment to each question?
failure. It is the duty of a teacher to
How nature of a question affects
make them clear that it is the part
the time distribution? etc. This sort
of life and things can be learnt, more
of exercise will nurture the skill
from failure. Compliments/remarks
of time management in students
on students’ achievements develop
while answering the different types
self-confidence in them.
III. Social and Emotional Support The school should encourage students
Socio-emotional support plays a to participate in various activities
crucial role in stress-reduction of the like drawing, drama, essay-writing
children. It can be provided in terms competitions, debate, recitation,
of the followings: singing, dancing, quiz competition etc.
by organising these activities in the
(a) Encouraging students’ school. These activities not only help
participation in sports and in enhancing participation of students
co-curricular activities for but also facilitate in enhancing their
refreshing their minds and confidence level. In fact, these activities
help the students in releasing their
regaining of energy.
pressure and enhancing creativity by
Sports and co-curricular activities in diverting attention from studies for
daily routine keep students away from the time-being.
stress and divert their attention from
the studies for sometime, which leads (c) Forming students’
to maintaining balance by refreshing study groups for better
their minds. In fact, sports and co- understanding of the
curricular activities need physical subject matter.
involvement, which is a much needed
Forming certain groups in class is
aspect nowadays, because of the
a useful way to revise their notes
changed lifestyle. Most of the time,
and subject matter in a free and fair
students work in a sitting posture
atmosphere. When students work
and don’t have active involvement of
body during class activities or during in a group, each one of them has
self study. They involve themselves opportunities to share his/her views,
mentally rather than physically. which helps them to learn from
Hence, to regain the energy and each other. If any student is having
freshness, it is much needed to problem in their studies, he or she
participate in some physical activities gets help from other members of that
like walking, running, playing etc. group to learn more through their
Further, involvement in sports and peers.
co-curricular activities provides (d) Sharing of tales of moral
an opportunity to the students to
improve their interpersonal skills
lesson to students.
required for success in life. Sharing of tales in the class may
prove a useful strategy to reduce
(b) Encouraging students’ stress among students on one hand
participation in cultural and imparting moral lesson on the
programme, debate, other. During listening of tales,
recitation, singing, dancing, students get a chance to relate
quiz competition etc. themselves in certain situations
where they can get clarity and make way that students feel comfortable
their own mind to deal with the during interaction. Further, students
situation. The realisation of different should not be exploited by the teacher
situations and roles of various actors for personal interests.
in the tale help them to learn morals.
It is an effective strategy for children,
IV. Stress Bursting Mechanisms at
specially the younger ones. School

To reduce the stress among students,
(e) Making students a number of stress bursting
understand that one exam mechanisms may be adopted by the
can’t measure failure or school. Some of the stress bursting
success. mechanisms are suggested as under:
The teacher should explain students (a) Teaching students how to
that education is more than just associate with people whom
marks and grades. Exams are a they enjoy and who support
part of life and Board exam is not
them.
different from their school’s exam.
It could not be the sole deciding For achieving this, arrange the
factor of life. There are many other students roll numberwise in the
options or alternatives, if one ends classroom and divide the class in
up getting less marks in Board exam. groups having 6 to 8 students in each
They should not lose their hope that group. Then, distribute the drawing
future always stores success for sheets to all students in each group
them, if they continue working hard. and ask them to write the name
Further, Xth standard board exam according to roll number provided
is no more a deciding factor of their to each groupmates. Now, instruct
careers nowadays. them to write down the strength
and weakness, with respect to their
(f) Feeling of every student name and roll number of groupmates
must be honored and in the given sheets. Then ask every
nobody in class should hurt student to write on what changes
others in any sense. he/she wants in him/her. Further,
Teachers are the mentor of the future each student will write his/her name
of their students. Good teacher and roll number at the back side of
always take care about the feeling the paper, along with his/her own
of each student and never be partial strength and weakness as they think.
to any one in any sense. Hence Now, the teacher will initiate an open
teacher should be courteous as well discussion, based on the comments
as intelligent in handling others’ shared and consolidate comments as
feelings. He/she should behave in a strength and weakness.
(b) Practicing muscle- It is done for cleansing the nasal

relaxation techniques in path known as neti. The purpose
school assembly or recess. of this shuddhi Kriya is to facilitate
breathing, right from the nostrils to
To deal with the stress, muscles-
the throat. It cures ailments related
relaxation techniques like Progressive
to nose, eyes and throat.
Muscle Relaxation (PMR) developed
by Jacobson (1939) may be practised. (ii) Suksham Vyayam
It teaches students to relax their
Suksham Vayayam may be
muscles deliberately, by applying
practised daily in the morning for
tension to certain muscle groups
refreshing the body. It includes three
and stopping the tension for a while,
components namely — (1) breathing
and then relaxing the muscles with
(2) concentration point and (3) actual
the feeling that the tension is flowing
exercise. Breathing may be very light
away. The place of practising should
or very fast and very deep. Mostly
be quiet and calm. It is advised that
it should be done through the nose
the exercise should be done bare-
but sometimes may be through
footed and by wearing loose clothing.
the mouth. Sukshma Vyayama
Moreover, the exercise should be
improves breathing, reduces stress,
carried out before meal rather than
controls blood pressure, improves
after meal. Some of the techniques
posture, minimises allergies, lowers
of relaxation are: facial relaxation,
cholesterol, controls indigestion,
arms, shoulders and neck relaxation,
decreases weight, reduces insomnia,
back and lower limbs relaxation.
increases immunity, slows ageing
(c) Practicing yoga and asanas and improves concentration.
regularly in morning (iii) Asanas
assembly or in evening
In broader terms, an ‘asana’ is a
time.
posture of body which is adopted by
Yoga and asanas help the individuals the person during yogic exercises. As
in reducing stress. If it is done per the Indian philosophy of yoga,
regularly, then one can have feelings it is a immobile bodily posture that
of freshness and vigour. Some yogic a person assumes in an attempt
kriyas, vyayamas, asanas and to isolate the mind, by freeing it
pranayams are given under: from attention to be given to bodily
functions. Different types of asanas,
(i) Yogic Kriya
such as Tadasana, Padamasana,
There are number of yogic kriyas Vjarasana, Bhujangasana, Surya,
which can be carried out for sudhi, Namaskar or Sun-Salutation etc. are
hence these are also known as suddi believed to provide not only physical,
kriyas. For example — jalneti kriya. but mental benefits as well.
(iv) Pranayam steadily, until the lungs are

Pranayam is made up of two words completely empty.
• Repeat the cycles for five to seven
taken from Sanskrit. ‘Prana’ is
times.
the life force, or vital energy called
Meditation and yoga strengthen
‘breath’ and ‘ayama’ is to extend,
body and mind, provide mental peace
draw out, restraint, or control.
and physical power and help the
Doing different types of pranayam,
individual to fight against diseases
such as, bhastrika, anulom vilom,
and stay healthy. Therefore, these
kapalbhati, bhramari etc. are helpful
should be compulsory in schools.
in increasing appetite, releasing of
toxins produced from the excess of (e) Teaching students how
air, bile and phlegm, purification to prioritise activities by
of the nadis, maintaining of body allocating time.
temperature, eradication of asthma,
For developing the skill of prioritising
oxygen– deficiency disorders and
activities, divide the class in groups of
muscular dystrophy, elevating mood
6 to 8 students and distribute drawing
and relieving anxiety and depression,
sheet, pencil, compass and colour
regulating circulation of blood etc.
pencil to all students. Now, instruct
(d) Meditating for reducing the each student to write his/her name
stress level. and class in the upper right side of
the drawing sheet. Then ask them to
Meditation in daily life may really draw big circle (of say, 8cm radius)
help in reducing stress level of an and divide this circle into 24 hours.
individual. One can practice it in a Further, each student will write how
comfortable chair or in carpet on the much time he/she spends in various
floor for 5-10 minutes. It can be done activities in 24 hours and represent
in the examination hall just before each activity in pie chart by different
or after getting the question paper. colours. Then, the teacher would ask
Two-three minutes meditation can do the students to reflect their pie chart
miracles during the examination. The and discuss in his/her group. After
steps of meditation in examination having a discussion about time spent
hall are given as under. in various activities, changes in time-
• Sit in a comfortable position. allocation in the pie chart may be
• Close eyes and relax your mind. made. Lastly, each one has to reflect
• Breathe deeply and slowly again that she/he is satisfied with
through nostrils to fill the lungs the changes made by her/him or not.
up to the brim. Then, the teacher will consolidate
• Hold the breath for a second or the information presented by all the
two. groups by drawing a reference pie-
• Exhale slowly, deeply and chart on board. Thus, through this
exercise, students will learn the skill the students’ needs might make the
of time management by prioritising future of students. Hence, the teachers
their activities. should be aware about the age-
In a nutshell, it may be concluded specific requirements of the students
that examination stress is an and intricacies involved in dealing
unavoidable phenomena in students’ with the students’ problems so as to
lives but it can be reduced up to a provide need-specific interventions. In
considerable extent if proper steps are this way, the teacher’s job is to identify
taken at the appropriate time by the the best suited intervention strategies
school principals, teachers, parents, as per the student’s requirement,
students themselves and well-wishers keeping in view the gravity of the
of the society. However, the role of situation without making any harm to
school principals and teachers is very the child. The interventional strategies
crucial at the adolescent stage. At this discussed so far are suggestive;
stage, students need specific guidance however, head of the institution or the
in a number of situations at a principal and teachers can devise their
particular point of time. A positive and own strategies to deal with the specific
constructive approach of dealing with problems of the children.
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Causes of Scholastic Dishonesty among
the Examinees
Ravi Prakash Rai*
Abstract
The present study was an attempt to explore the causes of scholastic dishonesty
among the examinees. Random sampling procedure was used to select 100
teachers and 300 students of graduate class. A self-constructed checklist was
administered to collect the data. Simple percentage and ranks were calculated.
The obtained results indicate that teachers and students differ with regard to
the causes of scholastic dishonesty among the examinees.
Introduction Today leakage of question papers,

Our examination system is in mass copying and approaching the
shambles and almost every level has examiners for extorting high marks
reached its nadir. In fact, there has have become the norm. A visit to
been a virtual collapse of this system. various examination centres presents
Due to its cumulative effects, it is a horrifying sight. The examinees are
rightly regarded as a bundle of evils not only armed with slips of papers,
and its fall out encompasses the entire with answers scribed on them but
fabric of our educational system. It is they are also helped by scores of
due to the pernicious effects of the friends, lurking in the vicinity of
examination that the whole fabric of centres. These helpers hurl paper-
education is crumbling fast. In this missiles, with answers scribed
context, someone has rightly said on them, through the windows of
that the system of examination was the examination room. It is also
originated by Chinese, who are said heard that answer sheets of some
to have invented gunpowder; and in influential candidates are smuggled
our country, it is the examination out of the hall and are written in
that have played more havoc than the hostel room by their friends who
the gunpowder. have textbooks and guides handy.
* Aamghat New Colony, Ghazipur 233001 (U.P.)
Any attempt by the invigilators to getting better awards in the

check these “going-ons” are met with examinations.
violence. In a nutshell, scholastic
dishonesty reigns supreme in the
Limitations of the Study
conduct of examination, right from 1. The study was conducted on three
the elementary level to the university hundred graduates of Azamgarh
level. district in Uttar Pradesh only.
Many studies (Lalithamma 2. The teachers included in the
1975), (Mathew 1976), (Prakash sample were of degree stage only.
1975) and (Sharma 1975) have been 3. The size of the sample was small
conducted with regard to correlates for broad generalisation.
of achievement. A few studies have
Procedure
been undertaken by researchers to
investigate the causes of scholastic Sample
dishonesty, which the students The sample for this study consisted
generally resort to fetch high scores. of three hundred graduates, of
Meagre (1965) and Sharma (1965) which, 150 were boys and 150 were
conducted their studies to this girls. Two hundred students were
effect but in the present atmosphere from urban area and the remaining
when this epidemic is spreading at a were from rural area.
sputnik speed and thereby vitiating
the atmosphere of education, there Tool
is a crying need to diagnose and For the collection of data, a checklist
identify its causes. To fulfil this was developed by the investigator.
purpose, the present study was It was constructed after following
undertaken. the normal procedure of checklist
construction. The final form of the
Objectives
checklist contained ten items.
1. To find out the causes of In order to avoid non-response,
scholastic dishonesty among the the tool was distributed among the
students; respondents personally and they
2. To find out sex differences, if were asked to tick mark only one of
any, concerning the causes of the reasons, they think, to be the
scholastic dishonesty; most important. The responses were
3. To study the views of teachers collected on the same day.
with regard to the causes of
scholastic dishonesty. Result and Discussion
In the present study the term For the analysis and interpretation
‘scholastic dishonesty’ includes of data, frequency distribution,
copying, recommendations and percentages and ranks were
approaching the examiners for calculated.
Table 1
Causes of Scholastic Dishonesty in view of the Students as whole
S.No. Causes Frequency Percentages Rank
1 Foundation of students are poor 30 10
2 Services and admission to higher
73 24 I
classes are linked with degrees
3 Students do not work hard 20 7
4 Students take failure as a matter of
35 12 III
shame
5 Students imitate each other 50 17 II
6 Guardians induce their wards 12 4
7 Atmosphere of our society is
28 9
corrupt
8 Moral degeneration of teachers 19 6
9 Security persons and
3 1
police are helpful
10 College being the self-centre of the
30 10
examination
Table 1 indicates that seventy imitate each other. This reason gets
three students (24%) are of the view second rank. It is really true that
that resorting to scholastic dishonesty due to malpractices prevalent in our
is due to the reason that services and examination, the whole atmosphere
admission to higher classes are linked has been vitiated. Even the studious
with degrees. This reason has been and conscientious students are
accorded first rank. This is natural tempted to take leave of their
because in our society, too much studies. They think that like their
premium is placed on marks and fellow students, they will come up
degrees. Admission to higher classes with flying colours by resorting to
dishonest means in the examination.
and services are directly linked
The third rank goes to the reason:
with marks and degrees obtained
‘Students take failure as a matter
in various examinations. This is the
of shame.’ This reason has been
reason that no hold is now barred endorsed by thirty five (12%) students.
for scoring maximum possible marks This is inevitable for students who
on the part of students as a whole have been driven to the conclusion
and it has become an ordeal for the that in our society everything is
examinees and examiners alike. forgotten and forgiven except failure.
Fifty students (17%) think that The ordeal of examination is really
malpractices in examination occur trying enough. Everybody notices
due to the reason that students that as the time approaches for
announcement of the results, tempers first rank by the boys, the girls do the
are frayed, expectations are roused same to the reason ‘students take
and disillusionment grips many, failure as a matter of shame.’ Girls
when failure stares them in the face. have opted for this reason because in
The announcement of the result is in this part of the country, girls study
the nature of a curtain raiser.
mainly not for getting service but for
Table 2 shows that fifty boys
self-satisfaction and enhancing their
(33%) view that scholastic dishonesty
marriage prospects.
breeds because, appointment and
admission to any higher class Thirty boys (20%) think that there
depends upon the marks and degrees. is a tendency among the students to
While this reason has been given the follow and imitate each other.
Table 2
Comparison between Responses of Boys and Girls
S. Boys Girls
No. Causes
Frequency % Rank Frequency % Rank
1 Foundation of students are 10 7 20 13 III
poor
2 Services and admission to 50 33 I 23 15 II
higher classes are linked
with degrees
3 Students do not work hard 10 7 10 7
4 Students take failure as a 9 6 26 17 I
matter of shame
5 Students imitate each 30 20 II 20 13
other
6 Guardians induce their 12 8 III 00 00
wards
7 Atmosphere of our society 8 5 20 13
is corrupt
8 Moral degeneration of 8 5 11 7
teachers
9 Security persons like PAC 3 2 0 0
and police are helpful
10 College being the self- 10 7 20 13
centre of the examination
While the boys consider the The reason “employment and

reason “students imitate each other” admission to higher classes are
in the second place and “guardians linked with degrees” get the second
induce their wards” in the third rank. This is the reason that many
place; the girls give second place to people feel that employment should
the reason “services and admission be delinked with degrees.
to the higher classes are linked with The third rank goes to the reason
degrees”. The girls accord the third “guardians induce their wards”.
rank to the three reasons standing at A visit to any examination centre
serial number 1, 5 and 10. reveals that many guardians go and
It is clear from Table 3 that the exercise their influence upon the
teachers (34%) consider the reason invigilators to do favour for their
“foundations of the students are wards. Hence, the guardians cannot
poor” in the first place. This may be exonerated from the charge that
be because students from the very they also play a dubious role in this
primary stage want to pass the abominable racket.
examination by hook or by crook.
Consequently, they are found, in Conclusions and Recommendations
general, to be mediocre and they find Results suggest that scholastic
it very difficult to adjust to the higher dishonesty is a complex problem and
classes. several causes are responsible for it.
Table 3
Causes of Scholastic Dishonesty in view of Teachers
S.No. Causes Frequency Rank
1 Foundation of students are poor 34 I

2 Services and admission to higher classes are 27 II
linked with degrees
3 Students do not work hard 6
4 Students take failure as a matter of shame 6
5 Students imitate each other 3
6 Guardians induce their wards 10 III
7 Atmosphere of our society is corrupt 1
8 Moral degeneration of teachers 2
9 Security persons like PAC and police are 1
helpful
10 College being the self-centre of the 10
examination
The students and the teachers differ skills needed for their competent
among themselves with regard to performance.
causes that give rise to the malaise. • Admission to higher classes
Majority of the students think that should not be done on the basis
linking degrees with employment of academic scores only.
and admission to higher classes is • Academic session should be
the most potent cause for compelling maintained and the prescribed
the students to resort to scholastic course should be completed.
dishonesty. Majority of the girls opine • Habit of hard work should be
that our society has set so much developed among the students so
in store by the so-called academic that, they become sincere to their
qualifications that failure cannot studies.
be countenanced. In our society, • Teachers should be conscientious
everything can be forgotten except and true to their profession, so
failure. Teachers hold different views that they may not become a party
in this regard. Majority of them think to this evil.
that the background of the students • Strong public opinion should be
is very poor. As a result, the students built against this evil.
fail to adjust to the higher classes and • Parents should discourage and
ultimately resort to unfair means for desist their wards from adopting
getting success in the examination of under-hand means in the
which hinges their future life. examination.
Keeping these views in mind, one • The practice of colleges being the
can safely reach the conclusion that self-centre should be abolished.
there are multiple causes responsible The above mentioned nostrums
for this malady. Teachers, students, can go a long way to stem the rot.
guardians and administrators are If this problem goes unheeded and
collectively responsible for it. For unsolved, the country will be plugged
overcoming this evil, the following into chaos by millions of half-baked
suggestions may be given: unemployable young men, who
• Degree should be delinked with are being spewed out in increasing
employment and job should be numbers by our degree manufacturing
properly classified on the basis of factories to spell ruin all round.
References
Bongeam, Megge. 1970. ‘Scholastic Dishonesty among Undergraduates in Different
Systems of Social Control.’ The Journal of Sociology of Education. 38, 9, Sept.
Buch, M. B. (ed.). 1979. Second Survey of Research in Education. Society for Educational
Research and Development, Baroda.
Lalithamma, K. N. 1975. Some Factors affecting Achievement of Secondary School Pupils in

Mathematics. Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, Kerala University.
Mathew, T. 1976. Some Personality Factors, related to Under-achievement in Science.
Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, Kerala University.
Prakash, Chandra. 1975. A Study of the Problems of High School Students in the Varanasi
Region of U.P. and their Relative Effects on Achievement. Unpublished Doctoral Thesis,
Gorakhpur University.
Sharma, P.C. 1975. Causes of Scholastic Dishonesty in School Examination.’ Teachers
Education. 6 (4) July.
Varma, Lokesh K. 1981. Some Innovations for Improvement of Examination. Indian
Educational Review. 15 (3) July.
B.Ed. Students’ Ability of Identifying
Focal Points and Command Words
in a Question to Develop Appropriate
Answer — A Study
Nikita Rathod* and A. Ramachary**
Abstract
Questions set for B.Ed students’ evaluation process contain few focal points
as well as some command words to be addressed in offering appropriate
answers to the questions asked in the examinations. Noting poor performance
of prospective teachers in their own ability of identifying focal points and
command words in the question papers, an effort was made to test the same.
In the present study, with a quality concern in the evaluation dimension, the
diagnostic observations were done from the performance of 69 B.Ed. students
in their internal tests. An attempt was made to develop material for due
orientation to improve their ability to understand the true meaning and role
of focal points and ability to address the command words in the questions
asked in the examinations. Besides, this study reveals the improvement in
the final exam performance, after the remedial orientation, confirming the
positive influence of the treatment for both the vernacular and English medium
students at B.Ed level.
Introduction and effectiveness. The Education

Education of teachers in the country Commission (1964 – 66) accepted
has been considered crucial, this influence of teachers in powerful
not only for ensuring greater words, “No system can rise above the
professionalism in teachers but also status of its teacher…” as it has direct
for facilitating school improvement impact on the generations to come.
*Lecturer, Oxford B.Ed College, Mumbai, 400 067

**Principal, Oxford B.Ed College, Mumbai, 400 067
B.Ed. Students’ Ability of Identifying Focal Points and... 135
It is universally accepted that teachers Right information given in an

should possess some knowledge, answer can become inappropriate
skills and values, meeting the needs when it is not question-focused.
of the profession from time to time Questions are not just dreamed
(UNESCO Report 2006). up and written down. They are
According to Srivastava (1997), assessed, scrutinised, re-worded,
“teachers to be taught and trained” is re-worked and re-written to get
a relatively growing concept. Thus, for it right. This raises a few natural
the quality professional preparation, research questions, such as, does
we need to focus on various aspects
the question asked in the exam
of the teacher-training programme
contain any Focal Point (FP)? Are
like pedagogical knowledge, mastery
there any Command Words (CW) in
of the content, practical skills related
to classroom-teaching, theoretical the question which deserve greater
foundations related to the skills, attention of the student to answer
conducting assessment and so on. the question asked appropriately?
It is generally expected that B.Ed. Whether, it is essential to identify
students should have various Focal Points in any given question to
abilities like raising appropriate present an appropriate answer? In
questions at every stage, developing its absence, the answer will go astray
a question paper (which is the part and likely to become defocused and
of their B.Ed. programme — where even irrelevant answer.
they prepare year plan, unit plan
and unit test along with blueprint Focal Points and Command Words
and all weightage tables required) Developing an ability of Focal Point
and the ability of developing identification in a given question is
appropriate answers for each given strongly required for offering relevant
question. But to our dismay, we answer to the question asked. When
ask them something and get answer B.Ed. students acquire this ability,
of something else, especially in
not only their own performance
application-based questions. This
in examination will improve, but
defocused reflection in answering a
also their skill of designing better
question is found to be significant
and more common with the students question paper for evaluating their
having vernacular background. It is own students will enhance. This also
a most common observation of many ensures more improved and accurate
evaluators that students are writing evaluation process of the student in
much of irrelevant material in their their examination. This ability will
answers. Mostly they are writing help him or her in framing better
what they know or remember, than questions and preparing appropriate
what they were asked to reply, for a answer keys which eventually lead to
given question. accuracy of assessment.
Along with Focal Points, there are Q3. Discuss the important aspects
other controllers or directors in any of the definition of educational
question asked in the examination, evaluation.
which a student needs to carefully Q4. Distinguish between Inductive
look at. These can be known as and Deductive methods of
Command Words. Command teaching with examples.
Words are the navigating guides Question 1 is asking to explain;
in a question which direct as to which requires to give details and
what assessment objective is being clarify all dimensions/aspects/parts /
targeted by the question asked elements of the topic.
(Bized 2004). They are used very
Question 2 is asking to illustrate;
carefully and each question has a
which comprises to clarify/explain
certain order of words that try to give
with the help of examples or to provide
the maximum help to the student
with explanatory or decorative
about what the examiner is looking
features for the point given.
for. It is important to read the whole
question and to understand what the Question 3 is asking to discuss;
question is asking. This is because which involves noting down points
the Command Word, on its own, in an effort to reach an agreement;
cannot serve the purpose. Therefore it involves close examination of a
the Focal Points together with the subject/topic/point with interchange
Command Words complete the form of opinions.
of the question and it succeeds in Question 4 is asking to
eliciting the appropriate answer for distinguish; that requires showing
the given question. Consider the the difference between two methods/
following example: points/parts with the help of a few
Q1. Explain the interdependence of examples.
measurement and evaluation. In the above mentioned examples
Q2. Illustrate the procedure of team- the Focal Points and Command
teaching. Words are:
Focal point and command words
Q.No. Focal Points (FP) Command Words (CW)

Q.1 Interdependence, measurement, and Explain
evaluation
Q.2 Team teaching, Procedure Illustrate
Q.3 Educational evaluation, important aspects Discuss
definition
Q.4 Inductive and Deductive methods, Distinguish
Examples.
Therefore, summarily speaking, 1. Do the prospective teachers

Focal Points and Command Words are identify Focal Points and
the key guiding elements to develop Command words in the question
effective, relevant and appropriate asked?
answer for any given question. 2. How is the performance of the
Keeping in view, the scope of B.Ed students in terms of their
the present study, the following ability to identify the Focal Points
operational definitions are formulated and Command Words?
to define the key words: 3. Is there any difference in the
ability of identifying Focal Points
1. Focal Point Identification and Command Words in the
question asked by the vernacular
These are the words used in any medium students and the
question for eliciting the relevant students from English medium?
and appropriate content-based 4. Is it possible to develop some
answers for the question asked remedial measures to improve
in the examination. Focal Point the ability of prospective teachers
identification is the ability of making to understand the meaning
a judgment about what are the and power of Focal Points and
points a student identifies as the Command Words in the questions
most significant, in a given question. asked in the examination?
Scores obtained on the test paper 5. How are the Focal Points,
administered on the B.Ed students Command Words, and scores
to identify the Focal Points indicate obtained in the examination
the ability of students in identifying correlated?
the focal points. Keeping in view the research
questions raised above, an attempt
2. Command Words is made to “study the B.Ed. students’
These are the directing words used in ability of identifying Focal Points and
Command Words in a question to
any question for guiding the relevant
develop appropriate answer.” With
and appropriate content-based
a view to answer research questions
answers for the question asked in
raised above the following objectives
the examination. Scores obtained are formulated:
on the test paper administered 1. To find out the ability of under-
on the B.Ed students to identify standing examination questions
the Command Words indicate the of B.Ed. students.
ability of students in identifying the 2. To study their ability of developing
command words. appropriate answers.
This leads to the emergence of 3. To investigate the effect of
the following research questions remedial treatment given to B.Ed.
which needs to be addressed: students.
4. To ascertain the importance remains very limited and made known

of Focal Point and Command to the students in advance. Thus it is
Word identification ability for clear that the internal test consisting
developing appropriate answers. of essay tests and class tests cannot
5. To study the difference, if any, be laterally compared with scores
between the vernacular and of prelim and the final semester 1
English medium students in their examinations. However, the scores
understanding of the meaning on essay tests and class tests,
and the use of Focal Points and together termed as internal tests, at
Command Words. best, served the basis for diagnostic
6. To find the correlation between observations, prior to the launch of
Focal Points, Command Words
intervention and further study. The
and the scores obtained in the
post-test scores involve the scores
examination.
of the prelim exams for all the four
Research Design courses and semester-end university
exams of four courses of semester
As per the requirement of the problem
and objectives of the study, one of the 1 based on the B.Ed. syllabus.
quasi-experimental designs, namely Keeping in view the objectives of the
Time Series Design is used. With a study and the nature of the problem
Time Series Design, observations under study, research design can be
were taken to establish a baseline; figuratively depicted in figure 1.
after which a treatment was offered Methodology
to the sample under consideration.
Following this additional observations The method adopted for the present
were made. From this, an estimate study includes the following steps:
of the impact of the treatment was 1. Diagnostic observation of B.Ed.
computed (Gribbons and Herman students’ performance on the
1997, Morgan, et al 2000, Gliner basis of internal tests , which
and Harmon, 2000). Research includes essay tests and class
methodology used the internal test tests of four courses.
data as the basis for diagnosis of 2. Orientation on focal point
the problem. Here internal test data identification for B.Ed. students.
consists of the scores of 4 essay tests
3. Power point presentation on
of half an hour duration carrying 10
Command Words for B.Ed.
marks each (total 40) and the scores
students.
of 4 class tests of one hour carrying
25 marks each (total 100). The topic 4. Developing test paper for the
for the essay test was informed in identification of FP and CW.
advance to the students, each time. 5. Scoring the above test paper on
Similarly, the portion for class test FP and CW.
Figure 1: Research Design
6. Data collection on prelims and Population and Sample

semester 1 B.Ed. examination Essentially population comprises
scores. of B.Ed students. As the researcher
7. Statistical treatment of scores on has an idea and experience of the
FP, CW, prelims and semester 1 B.Ed. students’ evaluation process,
examination. they are chosen as the sample for the
present study. This study includes 69
8. Listing findings and drawing
students of the Oxford B.Ed. College,
inferences based on the study Kandivli (W) Mumbai, who were
of mean scores and correlations selected purposively. The selected
between FP, CW, prelims and sample includes 23 vernacular
semester 1 examination. students of B.Ed, coming from Hindi
Keeping in view the above (19) and Marathi (4) backgrounds
methodology, sample identification and 46 English-medium background
and tool development and its B.Ed students.
administration, together with data Intervention
collection procedure, are explained Based on the diagnostic observations
on the next page: from internal test information some
remedial treatment was provided to about the treatment were given to

the B.Ed students. Following are the them. Sufficient time was provided to
two aspects included in the remedial the students to respond on it properly.
treatment: Researcher had quantified the data
• An orientation on focal point by giving score to their marking of the
identification. What, how and why Focal Points and Command Words.
about focal point identification. Scores were separately obtained on
• A power point presentation on the percentage basis for both Focal
command words showing their Points and Command Words.
usage and guidelines for the
command words commonly used Data Source and data collection
in B.Ed. Examinations. Data was obtained from the test
The treatment was followed by testing paper developed to find out the
using a self-made tool, as explained ability of B.Ed students to identify
below. This helped to check the the Focal Points and Command
impact of the intervention. Words. Percentage scores were
Tool computed for both the FPs and
CWs. Besides, performance of B.Ed
For the purpose of the present study
students on their Internal Tests (IT)
a specific test paper, namely; FPCWI
in all the four courses was observed
i.e. Focal Point and Command
with a view to provide a base for the
Word Identification was developed.
diagnostic observation. Similarly,
The objective of developing the tool
scores on Prelims Test of all the
FPCWI was: to test the ability of
B.Ed. students in identifying the four courses, as well as, the scores
Focal Points and Command Words, on the same four papers of the final
from the given set of course content- Semester examination of the Mumbai
based questions. FPCWI contains University were collected for the
25 questions from previous years’ present study.
University question papers. This
Results
includes all the four courses of
their B.Ed syllabus. Sample under Data was processed choosing
study was asked to identify both the percentage scores of all the
Focal Points and Command Words parameters, like scores on Focal
from the given test paper. Response Points, Command Words, scores
sheets were scored, basing on the on Prelims, and finally, scores on
number of right answers out of the Mumbai University final Semester 1
maximum possible correct answers examination. These scores were
i.e. 35 Focal Points and 25 Command used to compute the mean values for
Words respectively in the Test paper comparison. Mean value was found
provided. Necessary instructions for both the vernacular and English
medium students, and their total Moment Coefficient of Correlation.

value. Also the scores from all these Data was tabulated and is presented
parameters were statistically treated below, together with their graphical
for finding the Pearson’s Product representation.
Table 1
Mean scores on different tests in percentage
Sample FP CW FP+CW Prelim Sem1
Vernacular 65.34 26.78 46.06 38 47.11
English 76.65 59.83 68.24 49.95 57.1
Total 72.88 48.81 60.84 45.96 53.77
Mean Scores in Percentage
Figure 2: Mean scores in % of Vernacular, English and Total Sample on Different Tests
Student-wise scores on FP+CW in percentage
Figure 3: Student-wise score in % on the sum of Focal Points and Command Words
Table 2
Correlations Matrix
Parameters FP CW FP+CW Prelim Sem1
FP 1 0.2105** 0.208* 0.1093**
CW 0.2105** 1 0.2632* 0.2472*
FP+CW 1 0.3059* 0.2411*
Prelim 0.208* 0.2632* 0.3059* 1 0.7049*
Sem1 0.1093** 0.2472* 0.2411* 0.7049* 1
* Significant at 0.05 level, ** Not significant
Correlation values
Coefficient of Correlation
Parameters of correlation
Figure 4: Correlation Values on Different Parameters

Findings remained low, while correlation

1. Mean scores on the identification between Prelims and Sem 1
of Focal Points (FP) in the question showed strong positive correlation
paper by B.Ed students remains scores.
good enough with 72.88% score, 5. Scores on FP+CW of B.Ed
with little difference between the students from vernacular
vernacular and English medium background ranged from 12% to
groups. However, mean score on 90%, but, the same for English
the identification of Command medium background ranged from
Words (CW) was less than 50%, 35% to 90%; with one outliner at
with vernacular group scoring 20%. This shows good amount of
33% less than the English heterogeneity in the class.
medium group. Sum of FP and
CW scores could reach up to 61% Conclusions
for the total sample, maintaining 1. Understanding of Focal Points
vernacular group at less than and Command Words by the
50% level. vernacular students remained
2. Mean scores on prelims for low, as compared to the students
the total sample showed the from English medium.
vernacular group at 11% below 2. Vernacular students could show
the English medium group. An improvement after making an
identical trend was observed effort in understanding the Focal
for the scores on semester Points and Command Words.
exam results. Significantly, This improvement is about 10%
there appeared a clear growth from Prelims to final Semester 1
in the attainment levels of both examination scores. However,
vernacular and English medium the same is 10% less than the
students, in respect of their scores improvement shown by the
on prelims to final Semester exam English medium students in their
scores. This growth showed 7% final semester examinations.
increase on the total sample. 3. Scores on the sum of FP and CW
3. Inter-Correlation values between showed good amount of variation
the scores on Focal Points (FP), confirming the heterogeneity in
Command Words (CW), and their the group of students considered
combination, Prelims (Prelim) as sample for the study.
scores and the final Semester 4. Positive correlation is observed
(Sem 1) remained positive and between different parameters, like
significant at 0.05 levels, with FP, CW, and their sum, Prelims
an exception to the correlation and final Semester 1 examination
between FP–Sem 1 and FP–CW. scores.
4. Correlation between Semester 1 5. High correlation between the
and FP, CW and their sum Prelims and Semester 1 scores was
evident, confirming the positive enhance their ability of conducting

contribution of orientation on FP effective assessment of their own
and CW to the students under students, subsequently. This aspect
study. also helps the prospective teachers
The results of the present study lead in guiding, evaluating their own
to the conclusion that development students for quality performance in
of focal point and command word examinations.
identification ability plays a significant Teacher education like any
role in enhancing students’ ability other educational intervention, can
of developing appropriate answers. only work on those professional
Further, the students have shown a commitments or dispositions that
significant growth in their academic are susceptible to modification.
performance, especially in answering We can reshape attitudes towards
exam questions. This has its bearing testing and evaluation process and
in enhancing the answering ability to develop their skills in framing better
the given question; promoting better questions, understanding them and
quality in performance by these answering them appropriately. This
students, is evident from the study. process can help in promoting better
The development of the ability will quality in evaluation process.
References
Gribbons, B., and Herman, J. 1997. True and Quasi-experimental Designs. ERIC Clearing
House on Assessment and Evaluation, Washington, DC.
Gronlud N.E. and L.L. Robert. 1990. Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching. Macmillan
Publishing Company. New York.
Margolis, Howard, Patrick McCabe March. 2006. Improving Self-Efficacy and Motivation:
What to Do, What to Say Intervention in School and Clinic. 41(4), pp. 218–227.
Morgan G. A., Gliner, J. A., and Harmon, R. J. 2000. Quasi-experimental Designs. Journal
of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 39(6), 794–796.
Pandey, Saroj. 2011. Professionalization of Teacher Education in India: A critique of
Teacher Education Curriculum Reforms and its Effectiveness. Department of Teacher
Education and Extension, NCERT, New Delhi.
Srivastava, R.C. 1997. Teacher Education in India: Issues and Perspectives. Regency
Publication, New Delhi.
Trump, John M. 1978. ‘Answering Difficult Questions: The Clearing House.’ The Journal
of Educational Issues, Strategies and Ideas. 52(4), pp. 160–162.
UNESCO Report. 2006. Teacher and Educational Quality: Monitoring Global Needs for
2015. Montreal : UNESCO Institute of Statistics.
Websites
http://www.bized.co.uk/reference/studyskills/command.html
http://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/affective/efficacy.html
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00098655.1978.10113569
Crossing the Barbed Gate
Experiences of Accessing the Research
Participants for their Informed Consents
through the Gatekeepers in an Indian School
Dipankar Tripathy*
Abstract
Gaining access to the research sites, participants and their informed consents
is not always an easy process. It involves negotiations and compromises with
the gatekeepers. Hence, researchers spend considerable amount of time since
inability in negotiation and access, results into unsuccessful research. Yet,
researchers, particularly engaged in qualitative research, often neglect this
process and face dilemmas due to the ethical obligations. When university
ethics committees demand voluntary participation of the participants,
power relations between the gatekeepers and the participants underpin the
co-production of the research data. Therefore, researchers must continually
reflect upon the decision-making processes, around the routes of access, that
might influence the research data collected. In this paper, how the access,
re-access and informed consents of the participants were gained in a school for
a qualitative study in India has been reflected, and this includes addressing
the ethical underpinnings involved therein. As such, these experiences were
gained as a beginning researcher and it is hoped that sharing these will benefit
other beginners conducting their qualitative studies, particularly in India.
Introduction and getting it to open” (Feldman et al.

Gaining access to the research sites, in Feldman et al. 2003, p. ix). Rather
participants and their informed it is “sometimes an easy process and
consents is not always easy. It is “not sometimes fraught with difficulty”
simply a matter of banging on a door (Susan et al. 2006, p. 74). Moreover,
*Research Fellow, Faculty of Education, University of Hong Kong.

it is not just one time dealing, but also implies the assumption of no
a continuous relationship-building physical or psychological coercion.
process, as it involves multiple Therefore, ethical considerations do
entries to the research sites and not end by getting ethical forms duly
accessing the participants, by means filled up from the participants in the
of negotiations and compromises purview of their power relations with
with the gatekeepers (Burgess the gatekeepers. The “researcher
1993, Feldman et al. in Feldman must continually reflect on the ways
et al. 2003). Hence, researchers in which decisions around routes of
spend considerable time in rapport- access can affect the data collected”
building, because inability in it, (Miller and Bell, in Miller et al. 2002,
results into unsuccessful research p. 56). In the following paper, I argue
(Johl and Renganathan 2010). that an opportunistic approach was
However, researchers particularly most appropriate in order to gain
engaged in qualitative research access, re-access and informed
often neglect this process as well consents of the participants in a
as encounter dilemmas due to school in India, for a qualitative
ethical obligations (Jorgensen 1989, study on teachers’ understanding
Daymon and Holloway 2002). When and teaching of environment and
participants’ voluntary participation environmental values in the context
is obligatory, as per the ethical of globalisation.
guidelines of the university ethics
committees, power relations between Background of the Study
the gatekeepers and participants A study was conducted to investigate:
underpin the co-production of the (1) the secondary school teachers’
research data (Miller and Bell, in understanding of environment
Miller et al. 2002). and environmental values in the
University ethics committees in context of globalisation, (2) the
their guidelines mandate voluntary environmental values these teachers
participation and informed consents and secondary environmental
of research participants for their aim education curriculum intend to
to maintain high ethical standards teach, (3) how the environmental
in research, by ensuring validity and values are being taught, and (4) how
accuracy of the research data (Iphofen the teachers resolve values, conflict
2009). Hence, researchers provide in controversial environmental
prior information of their studies to issues. In fact, the research
the participants, such as, known or questions of this study surfaced
anticipated risks involved, and get from the prevailing scholarly
their informed consent in writing contentions and contradictory
(Seidman 2006). But, the ethical research findings in various areas
obligation of voluntary participation of environmental education, such
Crossing the Barbed Gate — Experiences of Accessing the... 147
as, the possibility of deriving and locations, easy to access, schools

imparting universal values by critical were selected as per the opportunity
thinking and teaching globalisation forwarded by their respective
through secondary school curricula, head offices. Further, teaching of
environmental educators’ value- the NCERT (National Council of
neutrality, importance of science Educational Research and Training)
and technological education in curriculum by all three schools was
environmental education, etc. one of the school selection criteria.
However, discussing a number of Two schools — the modern and
substantial reasons for which the ‘traditional yet modern’ were located
study was conducted in India, and in New Delhi, and the third, the
also how the schools in India were traditional, was in Haridwar. The
categorised into three categories data collection methods involved —
following India’s culture and values guided interviewing of the research
orientations in globalisation, is not participant, non-participant class-
the primary focus of this paper. room observations and document
The study was conducted in three analysis. The choice of participants
schools that represented traditional, and their numbers were not only
modern and ‘traditional yet modern’ based on the teachers’ availability,
schools of India. For instance, schools interests and their potentiality to
like Delhi Public School facilitating contribute valuable information to
modern education, and gurukul the study, but also their profiles, i.e.
schools — the ancient, traditional the subjects they were teaching in
education (see Pathak 2006, Dogra the schools. Moreover, apart from
and Gulati 2006). The methodological the secondary teachers, curriculum
approach was qualitative, since the planners were also interviewed.
nature of inquiry was contextual However, simply identifying the
and the research questions primarily sampling criteria does not, at all,
sought to explore the research assure actuality of access to the
areas due to the prevailing scholarly participants in qualitative research
contradictions and research findings. (Susan et al. 2006). Therefore, given
In addition, a case study approach the limited scope of this paper, how
was adopted for its particular the access, re-access and the
suitability in exploring new research consents of the research participants
areas by holistically understanding were gained through the gatekeepers
the uniqueness and complexity of in one of the schools, i.e., ‘traditional
a social phenomenon (Yin, 2003). yet modern’ in New Delhi, during the
Moreover, the selection of location pilot and final study has been
and schools for the study was reflected. And, it includes addressing
purposeful and as per convenience. the ethical issues and dilemmas
As New Delhi and Haridwar were faced during the study.
Initial Access to the School In other words, they are the “formal
and the Research Participants or informal watchdogs, who protect
Through a Hierarchy of Consents the setting, people or situations
sought as a target for research”
Obtaining ethical approval is the
(Berg 2007, p.185). Besides the
most primary concern for accessing
university’s support, NCERT’s
research site or participants, because
recommendation was sought to do
ethical considerations are a major
this study in India, because it was
component in research design. Any
assumed to avert shortcomings due
academic research is first reviewed
to any red tape and bureaucratic
by an Institutional Review Board
pettifogging, while accessing the
(IRB) for ethical violations and/
schools. In addition, NCERT is the
or procedural errors, and then the
apex body of the Government of India
permission is given or the required
in school curriculum policy, design
revision of the proposal is called for
and implementation (Chhokar and
(Weseley and McEntarffer 2010).
Chandrasekharan 2006). As such,
The Research Ethics Committee for
NCERT immediately extended its
Non-Clinical Faculties (HRECNF) of
support and it was obtained in black
the University of Hong Kong granted
and white, though most researchers
ethical approval for this study,
inform the local authorities about
as it was requested for gaining
their studies just by sending letters
access to the schools. However,
as a matter of courtesy (Aubrey et al.
“(o)btaining access to the research
2000). Yet, a hierarchy of consents
field can vary to a considerable
from the top management position is
extent, depending on the kind of
also needed to gain access in a school
cases being investigated” (Johl and
(Leonard 2007).
Renganathan 2010, p.42). Moreover,
The websites of the schools labeled
local authorities or governing bodies
as ‘traditional yet modern’ revealed
of the schools acting as gatekeepers
their management hier-archy. An
may pose as ethics committees to
organisation runs the schools all
re-check the ethical aspects of any
over India. In fact, the school and
study and hinder, or on occasions,
its various other branches in Delhi
stop research activities (Aubrey et al.
were managed by a regional director
2000). But, recommendation letters
and the head office, both located in
help in gaining access to research
Delhi. When a regional director was
sites through the gatekeepers
looking after the schools in Delhi
(Brounés 2011).
region, the chairperson in the head
Gatekeepers are the individuals
office was responsible for the whole
having power to grant or withhold
organisation, i.e., the management
access in an organisation for
of all the schools in India. Therefore,
research purposes (Burgess 1993).
on the basis of different media
reports, such as, books, journals, in the head office or meet her directly
newspapers etc. — first, a few reputed as she was the concerned authority
schools were selected on the basis of in this matter. Thus, a hierarchy
their fames related to educational of consents was needed in gaining
achievements among all the schools access to the school. Of course, the
in Delhi; and then, besides the academic director gave her verbal
regional director and the chairperson, consent after consulting with the
the principals of these schools were principal over the phone. But, I had
communicated, by sending the study to meet her personally, due to no
proposal through emails. This is reply of the email correspondence.
because the principals are the main As such, researchers may gain
gatekeepers in the school (Leithwood access to the research sites either
and McElheron-Hopkins 2004). formally or informally. Formal
Yet, contacting the schools over the access consists of sending a request
phone had to be initiated, as none of of communication, along with
the emails received any reply, even university recommendation-letter to
after a span of three weeks. the gatekeepers. On the other hand,
Successful completion of a case informal access becomes only possible
study research project requires for the researcher’s prior familiarity
researchers to carefully consider with the gatekeepers or the research
the logistical issues (Luton, 2010). sites (Johl and Renganathan 2010).
Conducting the above study in more According to Susan et al. (2006), the
than one school was impossible second strategy is advantageous to
due to the time and financial establish rapport and credibility with
constraints. Therefore, after gaining the gatekeepers. However, formal
the opportunity of access for access also helps create researchers’
the study from one of the school impression essential for his/her
principals, no further efforts were rapport and credibility and a critical
made to contact the rest. Infact, analysis of informal access shows
he gave his consent and signed the that it should not be taken for granted
request letter, when I explained the (Johl and Renganathan 2010).
study and submitted the proposal Further, the research sites and the
along with documents like ethical gatekeepers in the above case were
approval, recommendation letters, unknown to me, and hence, I was
etc. However, he also inquired, if any bound to follow the first strategy.
concerned authority in the regional Yet, gatekeepers’ pre-conception,
or head office had been informed. due to any previous experience
When no reply to several email of researchers, and research also
correspondences was pointed, he influences their responses to the
advised to email the academic director requests for access (Foster 2006).
The name of the university of not getting any reply from anyone.
perhaps helped in gaining access to However, it is not just cooperation,
the school. During introduction, the that a researcher always can expect
principal revealed that he already in gaining access to the research
participated in a research activity of sites and participants. There may
the University of Hong Kong in his be resistance and hostility. In some
previous tenure, which helped him in cases, entry is simply denied as a
the capacity building of the school. matter of “infiltrating the setting”
In this study, teachers teaching (Susan et al. 2006, p. 76). In fact, an
language or social science subjects adverse situation was experienced
or heading environment clubs were while re-accessing the same school,
more prospective as participants which extended full cooperation
than other teachers, because NCERT just four months back. The process
curriculum in secondary level of gaining access through the
imparts environmental education gatekeeper at the top management
in an integrated manner (Chhokar had to be repeated, not just
and Chandrasekharan 2006) and because the previous principal was
teaches globalisation as content transferred, but the new principal
matter in the social science subject: wanted the written approval from the
economics (Bose and Sardana 2008). head office. Yet, the research could
In addition, initial data gathering not be conducted ultimately, even
took place through informal after, fulfilling the requirement. The
discussions with the prospective principal stopped the study due to
participants, and this was followed severe resistance and hostility from
by the interviews of the selected some of the secondary teachers.
potential participants for their ability
to add valuable data to the study. Re-access Restricted Due to Lack
However, only two interviews, each of Written Permission
followed by a classroom observation It was very disappointing when the
were conducted out of fourteen office of the school was contacted
social science and language teachers over the phone for the final study.
due to the resource constraints and It not only conveyed the transfer
purpose of the pilot. of the previous principal, but also
informed the loss of all the previously
Accessing the School and submitted documents. Therefore,
Research Participants Through the while meeting the new principal, I
Gatekeepers During the Final Study had to re-submit those and explained
Contacting the administration through her briefly about the study, ethical
email was not repeated again while re- measures, etc., and hoped that the
accessing the school during the final permission would again be given
study due to the previous experience as before. On contrary, after going
through the documents and hearing felt as if the study has no importance
me as well, she told to wait for and I was spoiling her time.
another three months, as I did not The thought of my research
turn up since the pilot. I reasoned her endeavor coming to a sudden stop
that the time was required to clarify frightened me. At that juncture
certain aspects in the methodology of I realized my mistake for not
the study, such as, to determine the procuring the permission from the
interview questions in the final study academic director during the pilot
and the analysis of the research itself. Moreover, I felt confused and
data. But, she pointed that I have helpless, since the study could not
to wait for another three months be further delayed for another three
because of the teachers’ engagement months. Getting written permission
in forthcoming school inspection and from the head office in just two-
term examinations. three days or a week’s time was very
As such, school inspection important. But, whether permission
is a matter of a day and term would be given immediately or be
examinations are held all over the delayed was totally contingent.
years. In addition, teachers usually Hence, being unable to understand
get more leisure time during the what to do, I just emotionally revealed
days of term examinations for not the problem to the errand boy of the
having regular teaching. Moreover, principal and he sympathetically
the consent forms clearly mentioned listened. However, when I asked
no student involvement in the study. particularly about the previous
Further, the study was running principal, he revealed that he had
short of time as per the university been promoted as a school inspector
schedule. Therefore, informing the in the regional office. I felt the
logistical constraints, I requested absence of the previous principal, but
her not to delay the study for such approaching him was not a solution,
a long time. But, in reply, she since the new principal required
strictly pointed me, either to show written permission particularly from
the written permission to start the the head office. In addition, whether
study from the next week or wait for the previous principal would help in
three months. Although I tried to tell this matter or turn cold shoulder,
her the benefits of the study for the was again contingent.
teachers and curriculum by pointing Truly speaking, I could not
how the research questions surfaced spare my scarce resources during
from the research gaps; she told me the pilot study in running behind
not to argue and very rigidly pointed the top management officials to get
either to choose any of the two their written approval. Further, the
options or leave her office. In fact, previous principal approved the
she told this in such a manner that I study and never demanded such a
thing from anyone at the top. It is potential knowledge gains from their
particularly worthwhile to mention studies and fully explain the nature
here, that at that point of time the of their research, methodologies, or
academic director in the head office stress over the ethical commitments
told that a written permission was like maintaining confidentiality. In
not necessary, since the study had other occasions, they may selectively
already been informed over the provide these accounts and use
email. But, denoting the official deception (Foster 2006). However, for
requirements, when I requested, (Buchanan et al. 1988), “it is helpful
she mentioned that a permission to offer a tangible product in return
letter would be issued after her for cooperation”.
coming back from the official tour, Janesick (2004) successfully
and meanwhile, I could continue my negotiated access by helping the
work in the school. Yet, she wasn’t school principals in organising their
available in her office after a week and references, by using a computer
also never intimidated me about her program and this was squarely
probable transfer. Her secretary only possible, because they were in their
enlightened me about this and that doctoral programs. But, negotiating
was after few days of her departure access with the gatekeepers for
from the office. research in organisations is a ‘game
The new principal’s intentions of chance, not of skill’ (Buchanan et
were very clear. In fact, al. 1988, p. 56). In the above case, it
“organisational gatekeepers tend to was impossible to do something like,
deny and delay researchers” (Smith what Janesick did due to anonymity
2007, p. 226). This is because they with the principal. Hence she was
want to protect their organisations, asserted the benefits of the study
people or situations, by keeping for the teachers and curriculum.
the sensitive things hidden so that Moreover, deception could not be
the pictures appear in favorable used, as it was not pre-planned.
lights (Walsh 2004). Although, Denial of access, due to lack of written
this concern is not unreasonable, permission was totally unexpected
gaining access for research in from the same school that extended
organisations is also difficult, due full cooperation already. Further,
to the deluge of such requests from use of deception was also not very
researchers (Buchanan et al. 1988). necessary as the research questions
Hence, researchers adopt a number did not intend to investigate any
of techniques to bargain with the sensitive issue that would prompt
gatekeepers and bring something the gatekeepers to take a defensive
to offer (Janesick 2004). Sometimes stand. In fact, none of the negotiation
they try to create interests among techniques came into work as the
the gatekeepers by emphasising principal was completely reluctant to
listen to anything, after keeping her makers. And, it was no exception

two options on the table. when the security personnel in the
head office stopped me, at the gate,
Gaining Access to the Top to inquire the purpose of visit or if
Management for Written Permission I had any appointment. Therefore,
I had to run to the head office to get instead of answering them, I briefly
a permission letter, the same day pointed about the issue and named
the principal closed the negotiation the previous academic director
talks. Else, the study perhaps was and the principal of the school,
vulnerable to bear the consequence who was promoted as a school
of unsuccessful research. The verbal inspector, in such a way that they
consent of the previous principal or get the impression of no unknown
the academic director had no meaning person was going inside and the
and the new principal was too rigid on issue required immediate attention.
her decisions. Obviously, it conveyed Indeed, the trick again worked and I
a very restricted entry in the research could enter the head office. But, from
site imposed by a gatekeeper in the the reception, I learnt that no new
middle management position of the academic director joined the office
organisation. However, entry inside and also the secretary of the previous
the head office through the security one was transferred. Hence, I had to
personnel at the gate and accessing find someone in the top management
the top management, without any position, who would not react in the
appointment was also not very first place for not having the particular
easy. Moreover, there was no time decision-making power, to approve a
either to call the receptionist for an study in a school, but would listen
appointment or wait for a month to the problem, give suggestion, and
with a false hope of getting reply perhaps also support, if necessary.
from someone in the head office. In Instead of the chairman’s office, I
fact, while delineating on key ideas planned to knock on the door of the
in educational research, Scott and director of examination and stated
Morrison (2006) pointed about ‘cold- the problem of accessing the school
calling’ as a technique to overcome to his secretary. Perhaps the name of
initial rejection as used in sales. the university on my card helped to
Hence, this technique was the only draw her immediate attention. She
way to gain entry in the head office. sent an errand boy to find out about
Often I used ‘cold calling’ in my the previously submitted documents
previous corporate sales career as I was claiming the initial access to
and played tricks to gain entry in the school, due to the verbal consent
organisations, when faced rejection of the previous academic director and
to any sales-related information showed the NCERT recommendation
or appointments with the decision letter and email correspondences as
evidence. But, when no document up appointments with them was

was found, she suggested me to meet rather easy and no new introduction
the deputy director and conveyed him was needed, since all the prospective
the problem over the phone. She also participants remembered me.
pointed that a new academic director However, neither could I conduct more
joined the office, but that was only than two interviews nor any informal
for a month after the departure of discussion with a new participant
the previous director. Yet, I was in three consecutive weeks, despite
completely spellbound, when briefly that they initially conveyed interests
explained the study and the problem for their participation by scheduling
of accessing to the deputy. He stated interview timings. Indeed, plying
that any effort in environmental between home and the school for
education in a school in India cannot interview or informal discussions
be withheld under the Supreme with the teachers was a complete
Court’s mandatory. Hence, he not waste of time, money and energy.
only prepared the permission letter Formal permission for access
within an hour, but also directed the granted by the gatekeepers does
new principal to allow the study with not guarantee cooperation of all
immediate effect. participants (Padgett 1998). In the
above school, though most of the
Gaining Re-access to the School prospective participants inquired
and Research Participants, But about the written approvals, they
With Considerable Resistance were continuously postponing
At first, the principal was a bit their interviews and requesting to
surprised to see the director’s contact someone else. Some even
permission, the very next day, fixed appointments by particularly
when I kept a copy on her desk. verifying the approvals. When I
Then, she allowed the study from asked the reason of postponements,
the next week by signing the almost all the participants replied
proposal and mentioning the date unavailability of time, due to their
of commencement. Handing over hectic teaching work in the school.
the documents, she also introduced Two teachers even asked for
me to the vice-principal and told questionnaires, so that they could
her to help, if anything needed for fill in their leisure. Squarely, it
the study. Therefore, first I chalked indicated their workload and lack in
out a plan, along with her, and then reading the consent forms. But, they
engaged in some informal talks to also revealed that research means
build rapport. But, from the first day, questionnaire-filling, since they have
I started contacting the teachers for always experienced it in that way only.
informal discussions and interviews Hence, it also indicated a perception
due to the shortage of time. Fixing due to the dominance of quantitative
methods in educational research in carefully consider the participants’

India that Baily 2009) witnessed. Yet, cost of participation, such as, money,
continuous postponing of interviews time and conveniences (Wiles 2012).
by most participants for the same Hence, considering participants’
reason, invoked skepticism whether problem, I agreed to postpone the
these were genuine. interviews for another time. But,
The route of access, either to when appeared before one of them in
the research sites or participants, the teachers’ room in third week, as
never opens unless the consent per the schedule, she again wanted
and support of the gatekeepers are to postpone it for another week.
achieved (Riemer 2012). Hence, Therefore, I urged her to clarify her
gatekeepers’ authoritative power participation by politely reminding
was apprehended to influence most her rights. However, annoyingly she
participants’ repeated assertion for replied her inability to spare her
participation. Otherwise why were little free time from the overloaded
they inquiring or verifying about the classroom teachings and examination
written approvals? Further, perhaps paper-checking, even though she was
the participants were also unwilling interested. Moreover, she advised me
to spare time for the research, and to get a time-slot from the principal
hence, postponing their interviews. or the vice principal for the needed
Again, it could have been also for participation. When approached
their apathy towards the research the vice-principal for help, she also
topic. As such, gatekeepers even may pointed to the principal and stated
find any study on mundane matters that everyone needs her permission
as uninteresting and therefore to do anything, as she is the sole
can prevent it (Walsh 2004). Yet, authority in the school.
the principal’s authoritative power
seemed more dominating in the Hostility, Rejection of
school, because two social science Participation and Denial of Access
teachers particularly, asked for a I requested the principal to allocate
photocopy of the principal’s approval a time-slot for the concerned teacher
despite reading it in black and white to ease her participation. I thought
when they were approached again in that she might have been interested
the second week. In addition, they for the study, though genuinely
again rescheduled interviews for not getting little time to contribute.
another week by pointing the hectic Allocating the time, the principal
work in the term examinations. also immediately made a note and
I, immediately, furnished the signed. However, when I showed it to
concern of these two teachers by the teacher, surprisingly she became
providing them the photocopy. very furious and alleged that the time
However, researchers must also was allocated because I complained.
Although I tried to clarify, she was postponing their participations. She

completely reluctant to listen to also pointed that she does not bother
anything and threatened to speak if I approach another director again
to the principal for nagging. Thus, for the permission of access. However,
it became very clear that actually I clearly understood what catalysed
she was not interested in the study the problems, when met her errand
though she was repeatedly assuring boy and told the incidence just before
her willingness for participation and leaving the school premises.
that might be due to the principal’s What the errand told me was
authoritative power. Was she really something that I was completely
interested or willed? She could have unaware. He revealed that during
managed the time, howsoever, she the principal’s previous tenure,
was busy, as did another social someone complained against her for
science teachers. Yet, just after two which she received suspension from
days of this incidence, when I went the head office. But, her job was not
to interview another social science at all affected due to her husband’s
teacher and met the principal on the influential position in the government.
corridor after the morning assembly,
In fact, not only the school staffs, but
she suddenly told me that the study
many officials in the head office also
is no more allowed in her school.
were not happy with her. Moreover,
Obviously, the social science
the previous principal was also not
teacher, who threatened me,
in good terms with her. Therefore,
complained to the principal. But, it
not only my haste that intercepted
was totally shocking when she alleged
the new principal’s willingness
that I was disturbing the teachers by
going into their classrooms. I tried to to delay the study, but also the
tell her that it was a complete fallacy, director’s overpowering by directing
but again she was unwilling to listen her perhaps catalysed the problem.
anything and asked me to leave In addition, another cause of the new
the premises immediately. Hence, principal’s apathy towards the study
I started pleading to save my study perhaps was the previous principal.
and the career. Yet, I had nothing Further, constantly pursuing the
to do except to walk out of the gate two social science teachers for
silently and as quickly as possible their participation, being unable to
to save myself when she threatened understand their tacit unwillingness,
to call the police. No doubt, the also aggravated the problem. But, if
environment of the research site the director’s overpowering or the
turned totally hostile and it could previous principal’s approval caused
not be abated. Perhaps, the principal the new principal’s resentment
also lacked interest towards the towards the study, then surely the
study, like the teachers who were researcher and the research were
the victims of narrow organisational more willing to collaborate” (Holloway

politics. and Wheeler 2002, p. 48). On the
Obviously, being at the top of other hand, for Buchanan et al (in
management hierarchy, the deputy’s Bryman, 1988), sometimes securing
power was more than the school- access through a gatekeeper at the
principal’s in the middle. But the lower levels by creating interests
process of re-accessing in this for the research and influencing to
study was not started at the top, act like a sponsor is advantageous,
because the consent was already though that may be time consuming
gained from the top during the and rejected by the top. Moreover,
pilot. In addition, document loss entry solely through the top, may
by the school administration which have the problem of subsequent
contained the previous principal’s identification and resistance by
approval and the new principal’s lower power positions. In this regard,
attitude towards the final study was Foster (2006) argued that the help
completely unpredictable. Further, from a sponsor is a common strategy
despite having more power being the for gaining access to the research
head of the school, the latter only settings that might remain closed
advised to get written permission otherwise. Yet, researchers often
from the former. In fact, according have choice of which gatekeepers
to Buchanan and Bryman (2009), to approach in order to gain access
gatekeepers can make their consents (Buchanan and Bryman 2009).
so contingent that even confuses the
researchers. In addition, it is also Re-negotiation With the Top
politically unwise to approach more Management and Gaining Access to
than one gatekeeper simultaneously A New School

for access. However, scholars differ in A ‘sponsor’ being ‘an established and
their opinions, whether permission trusted figure’ within an organisation
for the access to research sites and not only can vouch for a researcher’s
participants should be sought at the intentions and the purpose of the
top or lower level power position in study to any gatekeeper, but may
the management hierarchy (Bryman also provide invaluable advice
2005). about the most appropriate ways
As per Irvine and Gaffikin (2006), to successfully complete the study
it is risky to approach anywhere (Foster 2006, p. 68). In the above
in the management hierarchy but case, the previous principal of the
at the top, because they can even school, who had been promoted
restrict access being most powerful. in the regional office as a school
“If they cooperate, the path of inspector, was such a figure. He was
research can be smoothed, and their the last resort to help me conduct
recommendations might make others the study because of the established
rapport with him due to his positive I had to negotiate with him, by
impression about my university. In revealing how the research questions
fact, though I had no evidence to prove surfaced from the research gaps
against the false allegation, slammed and reassuring the ethical measures
by the new principal of the previous as he inquired about the particular
school, I eagerly wanted someone information the study needed,
to understand my situation as well despite these were clearly mentioned
as trust and help me to gain access in the proposal and the consent form.
without any hitch to some research In the new school, total seven
participants, in any of the school teachers participated and among
in Delhi, run by the organisation. them were also the principal and
Indeed, hearing my plight in mid of vice-principal. They extended full
a school inspection, the previous cooperation and were never worried
principal promised to help and asked about any kind of permission,
me to meet him in his office the next because the principal took the
day. effort to call up a formal meeting to
I could also go to the deputy introduce me with the vice-principal
in the head office for help. Yet, and head of the environment
approaching him again for another club. She clearly conveyed the
problem was not a good idea as it consent from the regional office and
could spoil any positive impression instructed them to further introduce
created. Moreover, it could even stop me with other teachers, whosoever,
any further chance to gain access to was needed. Indeed, this helped
any of the schools in Delhi, had he me to break the wall of anonymity
turned skeptical on my truthfulness with the participants, and thus,
and asked for evidence. On the other straightway talking about the study
hand, pursuing the school inspector could have been started, avoiding
in the regional office to favor me their perceptual engagement with
was much easier, due to the already any kind of skepticism. But, squarely,
established rapport and cordial, this became possible, due to the
friendly behavior with me. When I school inspector’s good terms with
met him the next day, he introduced the principal and their initiatives in
me to the regional director and taking the study. In fact, the regional office
his consent, called up another school extended the opportunity in such a
principal to brief her about me, the school, where the stuffs were most
study and the director’s permission. cooperative. Hence, as Buchanan
Of course, as Padgett (1998) coined, et al. (1988, p. 55) rightly stated,
the director was no exception to gaining access to the school and
many of the gatekeepers who remain participants necessitated exploiting
skeptical about the researchers and the ‘opportunities offered in the
the benefits of their studies. Hence, circumstances’, and this involved
some combination of possibilities pilot and final study. Yet, ethical

and dumb luck. issues cannot be forgotten by just
getting the consent forms duly filled
Dealing With the Ethical Issues up from the participants at the
and Dilemmas beginning of a study (Miller and Bell
Gaining voluntary participation 2002). This is because the power
and informed consents from the dynamics between the gatekeepers
participants is obligatory as per and the research participants and the
the university ethical guidelines. roles played by them in the research
However, it not only requires providing underpin the co-production of the
information to them about the study, research data. Although approaching
but also let them exercise their via agencies is a useful way to gain
choice of participation (Miller and access to vulnerable people, the
Bell 2002). In addition, researchers participants may feel obligation
should obtain their consents both to participate in the research and
in written and verbal form (Pitney provide positive views about the
and Parker 2009). Further, they agencies since these agencies
should also ensure respondents’ support them. Moreover, accessing
validity for the trustworthiness of the participants via agencies
the research data (Barbour 2007). increases the possibility of losing
Hence, although the consent forms control over their selections (Henn
contained all the needed information et al. 2006). Therefore, researchers
for the participants, they were also encounter ethical dilemmas while
explained verbally, both, while accessing the participants for their
handing over those and getting signed voluntary participation and informed
from them before the interviews. consents (Miller and Bell 2002).
In addition, the participants were Not to mention, ethical dilemmas
contacted for the interviews as per were not exceptional, and these were
their convenience, after few days of faced at several occasions while
giving the consent forms. Further, doing the study.
they were given back full, verbatim In order to minimise the possibility
transcriptions after the interviews. of losing control over the selections
Finally, ethical considerations also of participants due to gatekeepers’
included thanking the participants power influence, the initial data-
and gatekeepers cordially, and gathering was conducted through
gaining passive consents from the the informal discussions with the
students and their guardians for non- participants followed by the selection
participant classroom observations. of the potential ones. In addition,
Ethical considerations in snowball technique was used to
gaining informed consents from the identify additional participants by
participants were the same in both asking already contacted ones to
name others since it is one of the the participants in the new school.
most common forms of purposeful Unlike the teachers in the previous
selection of the participants in school, they never inquired of any
qualitative case studies (Merriam permission. Instead, they extended
2009). As such, in the new school, full cooperation, and obviously,
the references of prospective that is, because the vice-principal
participants started building up as conveyed the principal’s and regional
the principal introduced me with director’s approval while introducing
the vice-principal and head of the me with them.
environment-club and asked them Ethical obligation of voluntary
to further introduce me with other participation stipulated by the ethical
teachers. However, first encounter committees implies the assumption of
with the ethical dilemma related to no physical or psychological coercion
participants’ voluntary participation (Christians 2005). However, ethical
in the study occurred when one dilemma arises due to the dualistic
of the social science teachers in stances between the gatekeepers’
the previous school mentioned her power and the participants’ voluntary
incapacity to spare time and wanted
participation. Gaining access to the
the principal to allocate a time-slot
teachers and their participation was
for the interview.
not possible without the principal’s
No doubt, the new principal was
approvals and teachers perhaps
the main gatekeeper in the previous
expressed willingness or participated
school. Yet, her high authoritative
in the research, due to the approvals
power to allow or withhold anyone’s
from the authoritative power positions
action within the school premises
probably influenced many of the though they might not have been
teachers’ participation in the study. actually interested. In fact, a subtle
On the other hand, the social science coercion is involved as employees feel
teachers, who were constantly obliged to participate in research, due
postponing the interview, might not to their employers or employment
have been getting little free time to expectations, though they may not
contribute in the study due to their wish to do so (Hennink et al. 2011).
overloaded work. Hence, I was in an Then, ethical obligation of voluntary
ethical dilemma whether to approach participation and informed consents
the principal to request a time-slot of the participants, through the
for the concerned teachers or to gatekeepers itself incubates a subtle
avoid their participation since the form of coercion, because the name
gatekeeper’s authoritative influence or any previous experience with a
does not assure participants’ university may positively influence a
voluntary participation in the gatekeeper, which in turn even may
study. Similar was the case with influence the participants.
According to Hennink et al (2011), between the gatekeepers and

in order to gain participants’ trust and participants did not invalidate
ensure their voluntary participation, the research findings though the
researchers must inform them participants gave positive accounts
about their particular right to refuse of the environmental education in
participation, without any fear of their respective schools. This is
retribution from their employers or because the research questions
the gatekeepers. In addition, they had no concern at all, on how
should also be promised anonymity the environmental education was
and confidentiality. In the above imparted in the school. In fact, when
study, though the consent-forms researching vulnerable people, one
included all these information in way to eliminate agency influence
detail, some of the participants on the participants is not to include
of the previous school perhaps anything into the research objectives
lacked reading those properly. that directly deals with the services
Further, they never disclosed their of the agencies (Henn et al. 2006).
unwillingness to participate, despite Yet, gaining informed consents from
their rights being informed verbally the participants involves another
and repeatedly to them. Probably, serious ethical dilemma due to two
either the participants didn’t pay contrasting obligations: publishing
much attention when those were research findings that may improve
explained, or the researcher totally the society and protecting the
failed to build trust and rapport. As participants from any kind of herm
such, gaining informed consent from due to the publications (Kelly and Ali
the participants in its true sense is 2004).
not easy and straightforward (Eynon Actually, the nature of ‘consent’
et al. 2008). Moreover, building trust only becomes clear at the end of
and rapport requires prolonged a study because the impact due to
engagement with the participants, presentation of the research findings
such as, the residents of care homes by the researcher may not resonate
to investigate their relationship with the research aims informed to the
development (Wilson et al. 2009). participants at the outset (Miller and
Prolonged engagement with the Bell 2002, p. 54). Hence, for Robert-
participants was neither possible nor Holmes (2011), providing feedback to
desirable in this study, since getting the participants about the learning
their views for the research questions constituted from the study is ethically
did not require high intimacy important. However, a range of
with them. In addition, prolonged ethical approaches exists upon which
engagement is ‘primarily appropriate ethical decisions in research are
for ethnography’ (Lichtman 2010, made, such as, the consequentialist,
p. 230). Further, the power relation non-consequentialist, virtue ethics,
etc. (Wiles 2012). Moreover, ethical same school, due to the resistance
guidelines of the IRBs are the universal and sabotage of the uncooperative
statutory and ethical praxis in social factors despite the formal permission
and educational research is local of the gatekeepers. This is perhaps
and specific; cannot be universalised because of the participants’
(Simons and Usher 2000). In the skepticism about the researcher
above study, research findings were or the topic could not be avoided,
not shared with the participants since the middle management
and gatekeepers, because if it was gatekeepers in that school, didn’t
done, participants would have felt do anything, like introducing the
defamed, and consequently hindered researcher formally and freshly with
the greater interest of contributing the participants. On the other hand,
for the academic community. the participants in the new school
became very cooperative only when
Conclusion the middle management gatekeepers
The experiences of gaining access helped as a sponsor and offered the
and re-access to the research opportunity by properly introducing
site and the participants for the researcher with the participants.
their voluntary participation and In fact, the organisation ran many
informed consents through the schools, and accessing one of these
gatekeepers, while following the as well as the cooperation from the
university ethical guidelines were participants for the study was not
like crossing a barbed gate. Indeed, possible without the permission of
it was thorny and challenging, but the gatekeepers. Moreover, there
offered a crucial reflection. Although was change in the top and middle
the selection of the school for the management gatekeepers. Hence, an
study was purposeful and the pilot opportunistic approach in gaining
was conducted successfully, the access was most appropriate for the
final study didn’t succeed in the above study.
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Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
A Great Educational Pioneer
Najmah Peerzada*
Abstract
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad was a great intellectual, scholar and philosopher.
He was one of the prominent freedom fighters of India, president of Indian
National Congress and the first education minister of free India. Maulana
Azad erected his educational philosophy on the basis of his vast and thorough
knowledge of Islam and the concepts of both the East and the West. He
approached education in a manner which was relevant and suitable to man
as the supreme creation among all creatures on the earth. He visualised such
an educational system which could help in bringing readjustment among
different outlooks and ideas. He proposed scientific and technological outlook
in educational system, so as to deal with the present situation, not only at the
national level, but also to compete at the international level. In his involvement
with education as a mission of guiding mankind towards higher goals of life,
he provided, over a period of half a century, a kind of educational leadership,
which the present study seeks to examine in depth.
Introduction In 1923, he was elected as the

president of Indian National
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, originally Congress. In 1947, he became the first
named Muhiyuddin Ahmad, was born education minister of free India and
on 11th November 1888 in Mecca, remained at this post till his death
Saudi-Arabia. Maulana Azad was in 1958. He was a great scholar of
a Muslim theologian, philosopher Urdu, Persian and Arabic languages.
and one of the most learned men He wrote a number of articles on
of the east. He was the best author education, history and literature. He
of modern commentary on Quran. enlightened new lamps of hope among
*Assistant Professor, Faculty of Education, University of Kashmir, Hazratbal, Srinagar, Jammu and
Kashmir.
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad — a Great Educational Pioneer 167
Indian scholars. Maulana Azad was a humble, he was also a man who often
brilliant debater, as indicated by his led from the front and set personal
name — “Abul Kalam” which literally examples for others, which could be
means “Lord of Dialogues”. summed in the following words by
In the field of education, Maulana Akbar Allahbadi,
Azad had been an uncompromising “The sluggards are quite content with
exponent of universalism, that had mundane delights;
been distilled into his mind from the wise cannot but strive for the
the Sufistic legacy of his home and ultimate.”
from the pantheistic traditions
of his country. In order to guide His Works
mankind towards the supreme Basic Concept of Quran, Ghubar-e-
goal, he launched the programme Khatir, Dars-e-Wafa, India Wins
of educating his countrymen and Freedom, Tazkirra, Khutabat-e-Azad
through them, the entire human etc.
race. The real objective of education,
according to Azad, was to train Periodicals Edited
the children as members of the Al-Balagh (Calcutta), Al-Hilal
community and to instill in them the (Calcutta), Al-Jamia (Calcutta),
habit of cooperative action for the Al-Nadwa (Luknow), Lisanal Sidq
social good. As the quality of a man (Calcutta), Paigham (Calcutta).
in the ultimate analysis depends on
the education he receives and the Azad’s Philosophy
values he was taught to cherish, At the core of Azad’s philosophy was
he felt that the government has a his deep religious temperament. He
duty to organise a truly liberal and was a spiritualist and a scholar of
humanitarian educational system, Islamic religion and philosophy. He
which would set the country on the was free from communal feelings
roads to progress. Azad’s ideal was and prejudices. He praised Islamic
a fusion of the Eastern and Western religion but did not criticise any
concepts of man, to create a fully other religion.
integrated personality. Whereas the There are three basic metaphysical
Eastern concept dwelt on spiritual concepts of Azad: God, Universe and
excellence and individual salvation, Man. The concept of God is the most
the Western concept laid stress on important of all. The concept includes
worldly achievements and social man’s innate faith in the divine
progress. Azad felt that the two existence on the one hand and his
should ideally be integrated into a acquired belief in his attributes on the
wider philosophy of education for other. While his faith has remained
the world. Maulana Azad was not uninfluenced by his intellectual
only enlightened, learned, wise and advancement, his belief has made
perceptible progress towards cum accountability’. Maulana dealt,

transcendentalism, monotheism and however, delicately with ‘Wahi’
concept of love and beauty. On the (revelation) — the supreme kind of
scale of evolution, man has reached inspiration, learning that man is
the stage where he must look to God endowed with. He says the revelation
in his endeavor towards higher levels is the supreme faculty guiding man
of creation. God must therefore, bear in his/her direction.
for him, the attributes within his In Azad’s philosophy there are
comprehension, and as a source of five universal values which one must
inspiration also. try to achieve in order to claim to
The concept of universe follows be a full fledged man. These are —
from Maulana’s concept of God — the Ma’aruf (Good), Haq (Truth), Jamal
universe manifests all his attributes (Beauty), Love and Adl (Justice).
for its operation as the perfect scheme
of creation. For example, his attribute Azad and Education
of providence, sustains its existence. The core of his educational thinking
His benevolence provides for its grace is Islamic, but it is modified in the
and beauty and His justice brings the light of his knowledge of modern
scheme to its perfection. educational thought in the West
The concept of man evolves from and in India. He gave a scientific
the two proceeding concepts. In basis to the system of Islamic higher
the gamut of creation, the creative education, deriving his inspirations
process has finally flowered in the from the European and American
appearance of man, who has by virtue experiences and practices of
of his inherent qualities, assumed education. The impact of the West
the office of God’s vicegerent on on his thinking is seen significantly
this planet and even around it. In at work, in his attempt at modeling
his sharing of the infiniteness of a new system of child education in
the divine attributes, he alone, of India. He was highly impressed by
all the creatures, has acquired the the West in the education of children
competence to achieve “mastery over at the elementary stage. Azad
the entire creation”. This points to desired a similar move in the Indian
man as a free agent of God and at the educational setup.
same time, offers an optimistic view Maulana Azad felt that a
of his destiny. reorientation and revision in the
Maulana’s Tarjuman–e–Quran content of education was necessary
(1945) depicts well, the concept in the context of the changed needs
of his religious faith in Islam as a of independent India. He held that
whole, the concept of “Taqdir” (luck) the education system was little
etc. While, explaining the term inclined towards academic and
Taqdir, Maulana dealt with ‘freedom literacy studies, in keeping with
the requirements of a colonial the individual is not an integrated

administration. In independent personality, society cannot be
India, there was the need to develop harmonious. The function of education
the agricultural sciences and to focus in the modern world is therefore, to
on technological and engineering build up integrated individuals in an
studies. Further, owing to a false integrated society and the concept
sense of values, there was too much of both the East and the West must
importance attached to a university contribute to such a development.
degree and too little to the quality
of the education imparted. In an Women’s Education
address to UNESCO, Azad emphasised Our educational programmes will
that the future of man was dark ultimately depend upon the proper
unless concepts of international education of women. If women are
understanding, and world unity were educated, more than half of our
explained to children in schools in problems will be solved. Educated
realistic terms. mothers will mean, children who can
Maulana Azad considered be easily made literate.
education to be the birthright of
all men. He viewed education as a Status of Women
process leading to the growth of the “Providing education to women
“Complete Man”. He explained that without giving them freedom and
literacy would give man the access to forcing them to conformity to the veil,
knowledge of the wide world, which will not only be useless but injurious
in turn, would enable him to live in and baneful.” (Inaugural Address
harmony with his environment. He by Azad at the UNESCO Seminar
felt that the state had an obligation on Rural Adult Education, Mysore,
to ensure education to all, at least November 02, 1949).
upto the secondary education —
elementary, middle and higher. Medium of Instruction
Of these, elementary and middle Azad holds that there is no place for
are more important, because the English as the medium of instruction
foundation of the entire national in future in India, but at the same
education is laid in the early stage. time, there should be no precipitate
For these two stages, it is accepted action that may damage the cause
that the pattern of basic education of education. It holds that the
is of great importance to the whole replacement of English as a medium
structure of our national education. of instruction should be gradual
Experience has shown that and stage-by-stage, so that, there
education can profoundly affect the is the least possible interruption
development of an individual and or interference with the process of
through individuals, of societies. If education in the country.
Azad’s Educational Policy Relations, for introduction of

Azad’s educational Policy can better Indian culture to other nations.
3. Institute of international studies
be defined by his five point’s scheme.
was established in Saproo House.
It includes:
4. Following three academics were
1. Compulsory education for children
formed:
of 6 –14 year of age;
• Sahitya Academy for
2. Social education for illiterate development of literature;
adults; • Sangeet Natak Academy for
3. Standard higher education; the development of Indian
4. Art education for the development music and dance;
and preservation of National • Lalit Kala Academy for the
culture; and development of painting;
5. Education of science and 5. With the aim of preservation and
technology for the development of development of national culture,
the country. and also with the aim of study of
Sanskrit language and literature,
Azad as Minister of Education
many institutions, especially
Azad was the first education universities were established.
minister of independent India. He, 6. Indara Uloom-e-Shariqa and
in his tenure from 1947 to 1958, did Indara Uloom-e-Islami institutions
tremendous work for the upliftment or the development of Islamic
of the country. Following are some of Education of Osmania University,
them: Hyderabad were promoted by him.
1. For the progress and development 7. Azad was a scholar of History. In
in science education, following his regime, national archive and
institutions were established: national museum were looked
• Scientific Research Institute after properly.
under the chairmanship of
Conclusion
Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar;
• A separate institute for atomic Maulana Azad wanted to bridge
development; the gulf between the East and
• Indian Council for Agriculture the West, through the system of
and Scientific Research education. Undoubtedly, the ideology
• Indian Council for Medical propounded by Maulana can resolve
Research; antagonism between materialism
• Indian Council for Historical and spiritualism, that has prevailed
in human world in the past. It
Research; and
can also guide man in his future
• Indian Council for Social
advancement towards the higher
Science Research.
levels of existence.
2. Indian Council for Cultural
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The Journal of Indian Education is a quarterly periodical published every year in

May, August, November and February by the National Council of Educational

Single Copy : Rs. 45.00

Understanding Religious Diversity: I, the Other and Us 5

Education of Muslim Girls — Barriers, Challenges and Possibilities 27

Presence of a Global Language in India — A Case for English 46

Curriculum Change in English Language Education in the State of 53

Each Child Can Construct Knowledge 72

Situating Essentials of ‘Learning to Live Together’ 78

A Study of Stress Level among Adolescents in Government 90

Causes of Scholastic Dishonesty among the Examinees 127

B.Ed. Students’ Ability of Identifying Focal Points and Command 134

Crossing the Barbed Gate — Experiences of Accessing the 145

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad — A Great Educational Pioneer 166

Assessment and examination is an indispensable component of our

Introduction even a part of these mishaps. How

* Professor of Education, Central Institute of Education, University of Delhi, Delhi–110007

change so fast that an adult can feel identification and communication

is required as students as well as Can a response, like the one

gender, caste, class and region. For so by integrating popular democratic

a particular authority and rule are of the society. Ideology, according

such a selection was based on discussion and semi–structured

in this ideal. Rather they reveal unrestricted, un–imposed. “In our

themselves, as if racial consciousness you have to believe in this God, you

he reflects a sense of belongingness patriotism through proactive action.

One student, Saumya was aware of studies of education and racism,

We need, then, an education While NCF – 2005 has for the

Report of the Planning Commission. 2005. Government of India. New Delhi.

Introduction National Policy on Education, 1986

* Assistant Professor, Department of Gender Studies, NCERT, New Delhi–110016

inhibiting women’s access to, and major reduction in gender, social

higher secondary schools across the Despite these multi–dimensional

educational status of the Muslim Muslim settlements lack schooling

of schools, including residential are lagging behind in educational

Sample Sample Rural Locations Urban Locations

Methodology their parents’ attitudes, as well as the

schooling facilities, especially in (much below the state averages

She further said that though The shortages of women teachers

School upto VI standard. I had to She further narrated that if she

to Saiyad community. She has two Poverty emerges as another

their daughters from schools if they it costs me ` 20 per day. There is a

inter-college at a distance of one and girl’s reputation is spoiled if she goes

She further said that though studied in an Urdu medium school

Focus Group Discussions is to seek the cooperation of the

While selecting the persons from the in secondary education indicates

In a world where socialism and to attain global standards of

In school education English is More and more parents demand

consciousness of others to dare and which they strongly aspire, rests

in critical praxis, although it is not a users of English. The prominent

* Paper presented in the 47th Annual International Conference of IATEFL (International

The Story from various fields, including NGOs

initial stage of this revision revealed the Corporate Social Responsibility

This ‘eclectic way of conducting Teachers who claim to follow the

way, helped the developers to design teachers and learners because it

Figure 1 Textbook in English Class VI

Figure 2 Teacher’s Page of Class VI Textbook

Figure 3 Variety of Texts: Cartoon as Reading Input

• Pedagogical Grammar. It was materials. The group was able

What materials should do? (Tomlinson, B. 1998:7-21)

of expertise in order to produce Lessons Learnt

the above questions or aspects guideline (through a workshop)

(iii) Selection of Material a launching pad for providing

interested in and concerned reduces the broader perspective