Writing a Science lab report

Many of your Science units will require you to write a formal laboratory report. The purpose is to report on what you did, what you
learned from an experiment and why the findings matter.

The marker is looking for evidence that you:

 understand what happened, why it happened and what it signifies in relation to the experimental aims
 can structure and present your lab report in accordance with discipline conventions.

Disclaimer:
Please note that many units require students to record notes and observations in logbooks in the laboratory. These have their own
purpose and conventions and are different from lab reports.

Lab report structure

Lab reports can vary in length and format. These range from a form to fill in and submit before leaving the lab, to a formal written
report. However, they all usually follow a similar basic structure.

Title
 precisely identifies the focus of the lab

Abstract
 provides an overview of the report content, including findings and conclusions
 usually the last part of the document to be written
 may not be required in a short lab report

Introduction
 provides appropriate background to the experiment and briefly explains any relevant theories
 states the problem and/or hypothesis and
 concisely states the objective/s of the experiment

Method
 describes equipment, materials and procedure(s) used
 may include flow charts of procedures and/or diagrams of experimental set-up
 outlines any processing or calculations performed on the collected data (if applicable)

Results and Analysis

 presents results of the experiment graphically or by using tables. Figures often include error bars where applicable
 discusses how results were analysed, including error analysis

Discussion
 interprets key results in relation to the aims/research question
 summarises key findings and limitations
 makes recommendations to overcome limitations and indicate future directions in research

Conclusion
 reminds the reader what problem was being investigated
 summarises the findings in relation to the problem/hypothesis
 briefly identifies big-picture implications of the findings (Answers the question "So What?")

References
 lists the publication details of all sources cited in the text, allowing readers to locate sources quickly and easily
 usually follows a specific referencing style

Appendices
an appendix (plural = appendices) contains material that is too detailed to include in the main report, such as tables of raw data or
detailed calculations.
 Title

Your title needs to reflect the purpose of the experiment. Check with your demonstrator or lecturer for specific requirements.

PHS1022 Week 5 Laboratory

The Period of a Simple Pendulum

Abstract

An abstract provides a brief overview of the experiment, including its findings and conclusions. In general the abstract should
answer six questions:

 Why was the experiment conducted? (big-picture/real-world view).

 What specific problem/research question was being addressed?
 What methods were used to solve the problem/answer the question?
 What results were obtained?
 What do these results mean?
 How do they answer the overall question or improve our understanding of the problem?

The most important thing to remember when writing the abstract is to be brief and state only what is relevant. No extraneous
information should be included. It also must be clear enough so someone who is unfamiliar with your experiment could understand
why you did what you did, and the conclusions you reached, without needing to read the rest of the report.
An abstract is usually only one paragraph (200-300 words max).
Tip : An abstract should be written last (even though it appears as the first section in your report), as it summarises information from
all the other sections of the report.
Introduction

The Introduction should:

 provide the context and motivation for the experiment

 briefly explain relevant theory in sufficient detail
 introduce any relevant laws, equations or theorems
 clearly state the aim or research question that the experiment is designed to address.

Tip:
 Always write the introduction in your own words; don’t just copy from the lab notes.
 Some brief lab reports do not require an introduction and will just begin with an aim/statement.
 Always check with your lecturer/demonstrator if you’re not sure what is expected.

Method
The method section is where you describe what you actually did. It includes the procedure that was followed. This should be a
report of what you actually did, not just what was planned. A typical procedure usually includes:

1. How apparatus and equipment were set up (e.g. experimental set-up), usually including a diagram,
2. A list of materials used,
3. Steps used to collect the data,
4. Any experimental difficulties encountered and how they were resolved or worked around.

If any aspects of the experimental procedure were likely to contribute systematic error to the data and results, point this out in
sufficient detail in this section.

Experimental set-up and materials

Your description of the experimental set-up should be sufficient to allow someone else to replicate the experiment themselves. You
will usually begin with a description of the materials used and/or the apparatus set-up accompanied by:

 an image showing the relevant features of any object or material under investigation
 a diagram of the experimental setup, with each component clearly labelled
 Procedure

When you carry out an experiment, you usually follow a set of instructions such as these, which may include extra information to
guide you through the steps.

Lab handout example

Week 5 Laboratory instructions

Procedure

1. Use a clean pipette to measure 25ml of HCl(aq) into the conical flask.
2. Rinse a burette with standardised NaOH(aq).
3. Fill the burette to the 0.0ml marking with standardised NaOH (aq). Remember to take the reading from the centre of the
meniscus, and from eye level. Record the actual reading in Table 1.
4. Place a sheet of white paper under the burette. This is to make it easier to observe the colour change during the reaction.
5. Place the conical flask onto the white paper...

Lab report example

Procedure

The equipment was arranged as shown in Fig. 2.

25.0ml HCl(aq) was pipetted into a 100ml conical flask. A burette was clamped to a retort stand and filled with standardised NaOH(aq)
and the initial measurement was recorded. The conical flask was placed below the burette, on top of a piece of white paper. Five
drops of universal indicator solution were added to the flask...

Figure 2. Experimental set-up for titration (taken from Carroll 2017)

Lecturer's comment

When writing up the procedure, you must report what was actually done and what actually happened, and omit any extra
information such as helpful hints included in the instructions. Your goal for this section should be to include enough detail for
someone else to replicate what you did and achieve a similar outcome. You should also explain any modifications to the original
process introduced during the experiment.

Tip : In the Procedure section you should use:

 the past tense when you are reporting on something you did.

While most science units require that you report in the passive voice, some require the active voice. In the example below, the first
person is used e.g. "we initiated". This is accepted in some disciplines, but not others. Check your unit guide or talk to your unit
coordinator.
 Instruction Your report

Initiate the bicarbonate feed pump. We initiated the bicarbonate feed pump. (active voice)

The bicarbonate feed pump was initiated. (passive voice)

Results and analysis

In this section, you present the main data collected during your experiment. Each key measurement needs to be reported
appropriately. Data are often presented in graphs, figures or tables.

This section often also includes analysis of the raw data, such as calculations. In some disciplines the analysis is presented under its
own heading, in others it is included in the results section. An analysis of the errors or uncertainties in the experiment is also usually
included in this section.

Tables, graphs and figures

Most numerical data are presented using tables or graphs. These need to be labelled appropriately to clearly indicate what is
shown.

Titles and captions

 Tables should be labelled numerically as Table 1, Table 2, etc.

 Everything else (graphs, images, diagrams etc.) is labelled numerically as Figure 1, Figure 2, etc. (References to figures in
the main body of the text are usually written in abbreviated form, e.g. ‘see Fig. 1’).
 Table captions appear above the table. Figure captions appear below the figure.

Note that in Fig. 3, above, the student has omitted error bars on the data points. For most experiments an error analysis is
important, and errors should be included in tables and on graphs.

Also, it is always best to draw figures yourself if you can. If you do use figures from another source, indicate in the citation whether
you have modified it in any way.
Data can be presented in other formats, such as images:

Calculations

When showing calculations, it is usual to show the general equation, and one worked example. Where a calculation is repeated
many times, the additional detail is usually included in an appendix. Check the requirements given in your unit guide or lab manual,
or ask your tutor if you are unsure where to place calculations.

In some disciplines, if formulae are used, it is common to number them as equations:

Lecturer's comment: In some schools, like Biology, calculations that are too detailed to go into the main body of the report can be
added in an appendix. The purpose of such appendices is to present the data gathered and demonstrate the level of accuracy
obtained.
Results
A chromatogram was produced for the unknown compound U, and each of the known compounds, A-E. Rf values for each
substance are listed in Table 1.
Table 1: Rf values for known compounds (A-E).

Compound Rf value Present in U?

A 0.95+/-0.03 Y

B 0.75+/-0.10 Y

C 0.88+/-0.04 N

D 0.45+/-0.06 N

E 0.33+/-0.05 Y

Note: U is the unknown compound.

Error analysis
As well as presenting the main findings of your experiment, it is important that you indicate how accurate your results
are. This is usually done through determining the level of uncertainty. The sources of error that you need to consider
will vary between experiments, but you will usually need to factor in both random and systematic errors. Your error
analysis should identify the main causes of uncertainty in your measurements, note any assumptions, and show how
you have calculated any error bars. Check with your demonstrator, tutor or lecturer if you are unsure about how to
determine uncertainties or whether error bars are required for your experiment.

Discussion

The discussion section is where you:

 comment on the results you obtained

 interpret what the results mean
 explain any results which are unexpected.

Your discussion section should demonstrate how well you understand what happened in the experiment. You should:

 identify and comment on any trends you have observed

 compare the experimental results with any predictions
 identify how any sources of error might impact on the interpretation of your results
 suggest explanations for unexpected results, and
 where appropriate, suggest how the experiment could have been improved.

The discussion example below is from a first-year Biology unit. The aim of this experiment was to identify decomposition rates of
leaf breakdown to establish rates of energy transfer.

Discussion

It was expected that the leaves would show a far higher rate of decomposition in the shore zone, where there are more chances for
sediments to rub against them. However the two zones show no significant difference in leaf breakdown, although these results are
non-conclusive due to the limitations of this experiment. The two zones of leaf decomposition were physically too close, and over
the incubation period reeds were observed growing close to the limnetic zone. This may have negatively affected the accuracy of
the results by reducing the differences in habitat at these sites, as seen in other experiments (Jones et al. 2017). The results also had
large standard deviations, possibly due to these physical constraints or human error in weighing leaves. Further studies with more
diverse zones and precise procedures should be undertaken in order to explore leaf decomposition and rates of energy transfer
more effectively.

Conclusion

The conclusion section should provide a take-home message summing up what has been learned from the experiment:

 Briefly restate the purpose of the experiment (the question it was seeking to answer)
 Identify the main findings (answer to the research question)
 Note the main limitations that are relevant to the interpretation of the results
 Summarise what the experiment has contributed to your understanding of the problem.

Lecturer's tip: In brief lab reports, the conclusion is presented at the end of the discussion, and does not have its own heading. This
type of conclusion can also be thought of as the sentence that answers the question “So what?”. Note that a conclusion should
never introduce any new ideas or findings, only give a concise summary of those which have already been presented in the report.

Conclusion

The concentration of salicylic acid in commercially available aspirin tablets was determined through UV spectroscopy. The mean
concentration from three different tablets was determined to be 301.1+/-4.36 mg per tablet, which is within commercially
permitted limits. The results for individual tablets were found to be dependent on the accuracy of measurements during the
process, and the purity of the other reagents. Standardised solutions might further improve the accuracy of the results. These
findings show that analytical chemistry techniques such as spectrometry can be used for fast, accurate determination of compound
composition. This is important in many industries, where consistency is crucial for effective use of the product, or is vital to the
safety of the product.
 References

It is quite possible that you may have in-text citations in your lab reports. Typically these will be included in the introduction to
establish evidence of background for current theories or topics. Your discussion section will often include in-text citations, to show
how your findings relate to those in the published literature, or to provide evidence-based suggestions or explanations for what you
observed.

When in-text citations are incorporated into your lab report, you must always have the full citations included in a separate
reference list. The reference list is a separate section that comes after your conclusion (and before any appendices).

Check your lab manual or unit guide to determine which referencing style is preferred. Carefully follow that referencing style for
your in-text references and reference list. You can find examples and information about common referencing styles in the Citing and
referencing Library guide.

The following is an example of a reference list based on the in-text citations used in the Introduction and Conclusion sections in this
tutorial. It has been formatted in accordance with the CSIRO referencing style.

References

Jones T, Smith K, Nguyen P, di Alberto P (2017) Effects of habitat overlap on population sampling. Environmental Ecology Journal 75,
23-29. doi: 10.5432/1111.23

Tian M, Castillo TL (2016) Solar heating uptake in Australia: rates, causes and effects. Energy Efficiency Reports. Report no. 10, The
Department of Sustainability and Environment, Canberra.

Appendices

An appendix (plural = appendices) contains material that is too detailed to include in the main report, such as tables of raw data or
detailed calculations.

Each appendix must be:

 given a number (or letter) and title

 referred to by number (or letter) at the relevant point in the text.

Example text

The calculated values are shown in Table 3 below. For detailed calculations, see Appendix 1.

In summary:

Many of your Science units will require you to write formal laboratory reports. The purpose is to report on what you did, what you
learned from an experiment and why the findings matter.