POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
BACHELOR IN LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE

COMMUNITY
ECOLOGY

GROUP 3
ABESAMIS, ELEAZAR C.
ALMENDRA, MARLOU
BESORIO, DARWIN
FELICES, ABEGAIL
GABAGAT, EDITHA MAE
JANDOC, FATIMA
MIRANDA, MA. DOMINIQUE
RAMOS, ELISSE JAEL T.
SANTOS, VANESSA
Ma’am ESTER DIZON
Professor
 COMMUNITY ECOLOGY

Community ecology

 Is the study of the interactions between species in communities on many spatial and
temporal scales, including the distribution, structure, abundance, demography,
interactions between coexisting populations.

A. Community structure

a) Habitat and Niche

Habitat

 Is an ecological or an environmental area that is inhabited by particular species of

animal, plant or other type of organism.
 It is the natural environment in which an organism lives, or the physical
environment that surrounds a species population.
 Made up of physical factors such as soil, moisture, range of temperature,
and light intensity as well as biotic factors such as the availability of food and the
presence or absence of predator.
 Habitats change over time. This may be due to a violent event such as the eruption
of a volcano, an earthquake, a tsunami, a wildfire or a change in oceanic currents; or
the change may be more gradual over millennia with alterations in the climate as ice
sheets and glaciers advance and retreat, and as different weather patterns bring
changes of precipitation and solar radiation. Other changes come as a direct result of
human activities; deforestation, the diversion and damming of rivers, the draining of
marshland and the dredging of the seabed.

Types of habitat

a) Terrestrial habitat - include forests, grasslands, wetlands and deserts. Within

these broad biomes are more specific habitats with varying climate types,
temperature regimes, soils, altitudes and vegetation types. Many of these habitats
grade into each other and each one has its own typical communities of plants and
animals.
b) Freshwater habitats - include rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, marshes and bogs.
Although some organisms are found across most of these habitats, the majority have
more specific requirements. The water velocity, its temperature and oxygen
saturation are important factors, but in river systems, there are fast and slow
sections, pools, bayous and backwaters which provide a range of habitats.

c) Marine habitats - include brackish water, estuaries, bays, the open sea, the
intertidal zone, the sea bed, reefs and deep water zones.
Niche

 Niche is a term that is used in ecological biology to define an organism's role in an

ecosystem. Not only does a niche include the environment a given organism lives in,
it also includes the organism's "job" in that environment. A niche may also
encompass what the organism eats, how it interacts with other living things or
biotic factors, with the nonliving, or abiotic factors of the environment as well.

 A niche is an organism's role in its ecosystem and a habitat is where an organism

lives. They help the organism in its life. A habitat is where the organism lives;
desert, jungle, ocean etc. Many organisms can live in the same habitat. The niche is
the organism’s role within the habitat. Niches are generally much smaller than that
of the habitat. A termite lives in a log and its job is to dig tunnels. A habitat is the
physical place that an organism lives on than planet. A niche is the unique location
of the organism. A habitat can help to define a niche but cannot fully describe it.

 Examples of niches and habitats: A giraffe's niche is feeding on the canopy on trees,
and its habitat is the Savannah. A squirrel's niche is eating acorns, and its habitat is
the forest. A bee's niche is making honey, pollinating flowers, and drinking nectar
and its habitat is a forest or a field. A habitat is the location of where the organism
lives; the niche is the role which the organism plays in its own environment.
by Heather Scoville
Updated April 12, 2017

b)Stratification
 Stratification in the field of ecology refers to the vertical layering of a habitat
 The arrangement of vegetation in layers.
 It classifies the layers of vegetation largely according to the different heights to
which their plants grow.
 The individual layers are occupied by different animal and
plant communities (stratozones).

Types of Stratification:

1. Vertical stratification
2. Horizontal stratification

Vertical stratification:

 It refers to the vertical distribution of organisms in a community.

 Vertical stratification is found in forest community, grassland community and
aquatic communities.

Eg: forest community

A forest is formed of five layers.

Sunlight is the main cause behind the development of vertical stratification.

STRATIFICATION in FOREST COMMUNITY- A forest community shows 5 vertical

strata:

1) Subterranean Strata- Basal portion, covered by litter & debris of plants as well as
animals.

2) Forest Floor- Second layer, abundance of litter. This region is the zone of
decomposition.

3) Stratum of Herbaceous Vegetation- Third layer, formed by herbaceous plant like

grasses, dicotyledonous annuals etc.

4) Stratum of Shrubs- Located below the crown layer & above the herbaceous layer,
represented by shrubby life form.

5) Stratum of Tree- Topmost layer, also called CROWN LAYER which represents highest
limit of plant community in given region.

Horizontal stratification:

It refers to the distribution of individuals on a horizontal plane in the community. In a

terrestrial community, the individuals may be distributed on the floor in three ways,
namely uniform, clumped and random.
The spatial distribution of individuals within the population

Three types:

 Clumped Dispersion

 Even Dispersion

 Random Dispersion

Clumped Dispersion

 Individuals are clustered together

Occurs:

 When resources (food, water, living spaces) are clumped together

 Species have a certain social behavior

 For example: herding animals, flocks of birds, schools of fish, hives of bees

Even Dispersion (a.k.a Uniform Dispersion)

Individuals are separated by a fairly even distance.

Occurs:

 As a result of social interaction

 Individuals trying to get as far away from each other as possible.

 Limited resources, competition, nesting

Random Dispersion

Location of one individual is independent of the location of the other individuals

Examples:
Seed dispersal by the wind or animal

c. Ecotone and edge effect

 Was coined from a combination of eco(logy) plus -tone, from the Greek tonos or
tension (a place where ecologies are in tension).

 Ecotone is the intermediate zone lying between two adjacent communities

 An ecotone is a zone of junction or a transition area between two biomes

[diverse ecosystems]. It is where two communities meet and integrate.
 For e.g. the mangrove forests represent an ecotone between marine and
terrestrial ecosystem. Other examples are grassland (between forest and
desert), estuary (between fresh water and salt water) and river bank or marsh
land (between dry and wet).
Characteristics of ecotone

 The ecotone prevails environmental conditions intermediate to both two adjacent

communities

 The ecotone offers an abundance of food and shelter

 It contain organisms of both community

 As a rule ecotone contains more species often denser population than either of the
neighbouring communities. This is called edge effect

 The ecotone contain certain species which are completely restricted to this region
and they are called edge species

 The ecotone may be as broad as 100 km. or as narrow as 1 .0 km.

 It may be narrow (between grassland and forest) or wide (between forest and
desert).
 As it is a zone of transition, it has conditions intermediate to the adjacent
ecosystems. Hence it is a zone of tension.

Edge Effect – Edge Species

 An “edge” is the boundary or interface between two biological communities or

between different landscape elements.
 Refer to the changes in population or community structures that occur at the
boundary of two habitats.
 In ecology, edge effects refer to the changes in population or community structures
that occur at the boundary of two habitats (ecotone).
 Sometimes the number of species and the population density of some of the species
in the ecotone is much greater than either community. This is called edge effect.
  The organisms which occur primarily or most abundantly in this zone are known
as edge species.
 In the terrestrial ecosystems edge effect is especially applicable to birds. For
example the density of birds is greater in the mixed habitat of the ecotone between
the forest and the desert.

Types of Edge Effect

• Inherent - Natural features stabilize the border location.

• Induced - Transient natural or human related activities, subject borders to

successional changes over time.

• Narrow - One habitat abruptly ends and another begins.

• Wide (ecotone) - Substantial distance separates border from point where physical
conditions and vegetation do not differ from interior of patch.

• Convoluted - Border is non-linear.

• Perforated - Border has gaps that host other habitats.

B. Community changes

C. Community interactions

Community Interactions

 Individual organisms live together in an ecosystem and depend on one

another. In fact, they have many different types of interactions with each
other, and many of these interactions are critical for their survival.

Kinds of Community Interactions

Community interactions take many forms, including:

 Competition
 Predation
 Parasitism
 Commensalism
 Mutualism

Competition
  Competition is an interaction that may occur between individuals or species
vying for the same, limited resources like energy, nutrients, and space.
Competition is just likely to be intraspecific or interspecific.

An Intraspecific interaction occurs within a species (e.g., two bull elephant seals
competing for a harem of females or two English ivy plants competing for space and
sunlight), and an Interspecific interaction occurs between members of different species
(e.g., when two different species of corals compete for space and sunlight on a coral reef by
trying to outgrow each other).

Predator-Prey Interactions

 A predator is an organism that eats another organism. The prey is the

organism which the predator eats. Predators include herbivorous as well as
carnivorous organisms. Predators tend to be larger and more numerous than
their prey. Sometime one predator may also be another organism’s prey.
Some examples of predator and prey are lion and zebra, bear and fish, and
fox and rabbit. The words "predator" and "prey" are almost always used to
mean only animals that eat animals, but the same concept also applies to
plants: Bear and berry, rabbit and lettuce, grasshopper and leaf.

Parasitism

 Parasitism describes a relationship between two organisms where one

benefits, and the other is harmed. The parasite is the organism that benefits
from the relationship, while the host is harmed by the relationship. Parasites
can be a number of things including plants, animals and even viruses and
bacteria. Example is when a tick sucks blood out of a dog.

Commensalism

 Commensalism is beneficial for one organism, but do not affect the other in a
positive or a negative way. The interaction is seemingly neutral for one of the
organisms. For example, a barnacle attached to a whale is able to travel
thousands of miles collecting and filtering food from the moving water. The
whale doesn’t seem to be affected by the little hitchhikers.

Mutualism

 Mutualism is a relationship between organisms in which both species

involved benefit to some extent with neither species being harmed. Example
is a flowering plant provides a source of food for the animal in the form of
nectar. In return, the animal provides a service by spreading the pollen of the
 flower from plant to plant, increasing the spread of genetic information and
providing for more biological diversity.

Forms of Organisms’ Defense

 Defense mechanisms are very important to all animal life. Animals in every
biome must eat to survive. With predators being high on the food chain and
always on the lookout for a meal, prey must constantly avoid being eaten.
Adaptations that prey employ add to the chances of survival for the species.
Some of these adaptations include defense mechanisms that can give prey an
advantage against their enemies. The following are some mechanism animals
and plants use:
 Camouflage
 Aposematism (Warning Coloration)
 Mimicry
 Chemical Warfare
 Electrocution
 Playing Dead

Camouflage

 Camouflage renders animals inconspicuous even when in plain sight. May

include evolved colors, patterns, and shapes that resemble one’s
surroundings. To avoid detection by predators, some animals have evolved
to resemble objects such as bird droppings, leaves, or thorns. Some plants
have evolved to resemble rocks to avoid detection by herbivores.

Aposematism (Warning Coloration)

 Conspicuously recognizable markings of an animal that serve to warn

potential predators of the nuisance or harm that would come from attacking
or eating it. The bold patterns of skunks and the bright colors of poison
arrow frogs are examples of warning coloration.

Mimicry

 Mimicry refers to a situation in which one species has evolved to resemble

another organism. Two or more distasteful species may each benefit from a
shared warning coloration pattern (Müllerian mimicry). Predators need
only experience one distasteful species to learn to avoid all with that color
pattern. Some harmless organisms can gain a selective advantage by
 resembling poisonous species (Batesian mimicry). For example, a harmless
hoverfly resembles bee, a harmless mountain king snake resembles the
venomous coral snake.

Chemical Warfare

 Both predators and prey have evolved toxic chemicals for attack and defense.
For example, spiders and poisonous snakes use venom to paralyze their prey
and deter predators. Bombardier beetle sprays hot chemicals from its
abdomen. Also, plants have evolved chemicals to deter herbivores.

Electrocution

 Some animals can give off bursts of electric current. The electric eel can turn
it up to over 500 volts. That is enough electricity to be fatal to a human being.

Playing Dead

 Some animals pretend to be dead when faced with danger. This type of
adaption is known as thanatosis. Opossums and snakes can even emit fluid
that produces a foul smell. This tricks predators into thinking that the animal
is dead.

Comparative Ecosystem
A. Biomes if the world
 Biomes are the world's major habitats. These habitats are identified by the
vegetation and animals that populate them. The location of each biome is
determined by the regional climate.

1. Tropical Biomes

Tropical rain forests are noted for their diversity of plant and animal life. A 10 square-
kilometer are of tropical rain forest may contain 1,500 species of flowering plants and up to
750 species of trees.

The term “tropical forest” brings to mind images of the lush green jungles of the
Amazon. The rain forest occupies those regions of the world where the temperatures are
warm through the year and rainfall, measured in meters, occurs almost daily. The
combination of constant warmth and abundant moisture makes the tropical rainforest a
suitable environment for many plants and animals. Tropical rainforests contain the
greatest biodiversity in the world.
Disadvantages:

1. Tropical Diseases - Tropical diseases thrive in the rainforest area because of the hot,
humid climate. Many are difficult to treat and many are deadly if not caught early.
Malaria, a common disease found in tropical rainforests, can be treated but there's no
vaccine for prevention. Other common tropical diseases include dengue, Chagas disease,
schistosomiasis, leishmaniasis and African trypanosomiasis. Some of these are bacterial
disease, some are parasites. If you were living in the tropical rainforest, your chances of
contracting a tropical disease at some point are high.

2. Poverty - The populated areas surrounding tropical rainforests tend to be poor.

According to the University of Connecticut, the poorest people in Brazil live in the
rainforest area. Areas surrounding tropical rainforests are also mostly local. This means
few hospitals, schools and other comforts of modern life. When these are available, they
are usually of lower quality than those you would find in more urban areas.

3. Isolation - Areas near tropical rainforests are scarcely populated or rural; if you need or
want something from town, you'll have to travel to get it. Distances could be long and
you might lack basic comforts, such as electricity, Internet connection or potable water.

Advantages:

Rainforests whether tropical or temperate both are source of advantages in many

ways. They are so fertile, so green and resourceful that makes them combination of beauty
and benefits. The advantages obtained from rainforests are so common and so basic that
life without them is not secure and reliable even sustainability of life shaken if they are
removed from our daily life.

1. Natural Treasure - Rainforests are not man-made and human has no share in their
presence on the earth. It is a treasure, a natural treasure given by God to utilize it with
great care. A treasure worth capable of supporting our lives and our environment in a
natural way just needs not to be treated callously. It means it should not be clear from
the earth for logging and agriculture without proper considerations.

2. Sustainable Reservoirs - Rainforests are sustainable reservoirs of wood and by products

of wood. This wood is used for many purposes like furniture, paper, building blocks,
boats, and many other uncountable accessories are made by these rainforests.
3. Natural Pharmacy - Rainforest is like a natural pharmacy open by God on earth and
accessible. It helps to cure gastric diseases, skin burning and infection, respiratory, and
headache. Rainforests are still in the infancy stage to explore it benefits regarding
complex diseases treatment. They are versatile and so many different species of plants
are there that scientist can manage a short area to examine. Yet they are successful to
treat serious health problem what if they succeed to examine further kinds and find the
solution even for AIDs, and other incurable disease.

4. Earth Protector - Another advantage of rainforest is that they protect the earth by
avoiding soil erosion instead of the heavy rain. They are so compact and show the
behavior of unity that nothing can harm them like rain or storm. As human beings are
busy in deforestation program to provide the logging this is creating often earthquakes
and flood.

5. Globe Lungs - If you observe these forests are the global lungs. They balance the amount
of carbon emission from human activities by releasing oxygen in the air. As we are busy
in urbanization and setting up new industrial plants while cutting the forests in large
number we are playing with our lives. Less forests and more industrialization means
suffocation and globe can be dead if suffocation increases.

6. Research - As one percent exploration of these rain forests shows immense advantage
what if rest of the 2 % of tropical rainforest would be explored. For the comprehensive
research and experiments research units has been working with modern laboratories to
examine the specimen on the spot for correct results. It is hoped that many incurable
disease would be possible to treat if they succeed to find the right ingredients.

Tropical rainforests are among the most threatened ecosystems globally due to large-
scale fragmentation as a result of human activity. Habitat fragmentation caused by
geological processes such as volcanism and climate change occurred in the past, and have
been identified as important drivers of speciation.[10] However, fast human driven habitat
destruction is suspected to be one of the major causes of species extinction. Tropical rain
forests have been subjected to heavy logging and agricultural clearance throughout the
20th century, and the area covered by rainforests around the world is rapidly shrinking.
 2. TEMPERATE BIOMES

Temperate inspite of their name, do not have a temper environment. They occupy
topographic positions that range from low-lying lands to mountaintops, and environmental
conditions that range from warm and semirid to cold and wet.

Temperate forests occur in eastern North America, northeastern Asia, and western and
central Europe. Well-defined seasons with a distinct winter characterize this forest biome.
Moderate climate and a growing season of 140-200 days during 4-6 frost-free months
distinguish temperate forests.

What makes a forest a temperate forest?

Temperature - Temperate means "not to extremes" or "in moderation". In this case

temperate is referring to the temperature. It never gets really hot (like in the rainforest) or
really cold (like in the Taiga) in the temperate forest. The temperature is generally between
minus 20 degrees F and 90 degrees F.

Four seasons - There are four distinct seasons: winter, spring, summer, and fall. Each
season is about the same length of time. With only a three month winter, plants have a long
growing season.

Lots of rain - There is lots of rain throughout the year, usually between 30 and 60 inches of
rain.

Fertile soil - Rotted leaves and other decaying matter provide a rich, deep soil that is good
for trees to grow strong roots.

PLANTS

Trees and plants in deciduous forests have special adaptations to survive in this biome.
Deciduous trees are trees with leaves rather than pine needles, and they dominate
temperate forests. As the seasons change each year, so do the leaves. Each year deciduous
trees loose their leaves, and grow them back. In the summer their broad green leaves
capture sunlight and help the trees make food through photosynthesis. As temperatures
cool in the fall, the chlorophyll (green pigment in leaves) breaks down, causing the
beautiful red, yellow and orange leaf colors of fall. In the cold winter, deciduous trees and
plants go into dormancy, kind of like sleep. It is too cold for them to protect their leaves
from the damage of freezing in the winter, so they simply loose them and seal up the places
where the leaves attach to the branch. The warmer spring days signal to the trees that they
can grow new leaves again, and restart the cycle.

ANIMALS:
Animals in temperate deciduous forests have to adapt to changing seasons. They must be
able to cope with cold winters and hot summers. Some animals hibernate or migrate during
the winter to escape the cold. Animals who do not hibernate or migrate must have special
adaptations to deal with higher exposure to predators in the winter. When leaves fall, there
is less cover for animals in this biome to hide from predators.

PEOPLE AND THE TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS FOREST:

Temperate forests are very important to people as they provide enjoyment as well as many
resources including food, timber, and oxygen for us to breathe. However, we are also the
cause of some major threats to this biome, one of which is acid rain. Acid rain caused by
industrial and vehicle emissions damages the leaves of trees, and causes them to produce
smaller and fewer seeds. It also reduces the trees' resistance to disease, pests, and frost.
Clear cutting of forests is also a threat to this biome. Trees are cut for timber and land
cleared for agriculture. Another problem associated with deciduous forests is the
introduction of non-native plant and animal species because it upsets the balance of the
forest ecosystem. Non-natives may compete for food and habitat space, possibly
threatening the native species.

3. ARID BIOMES

Location of Arid Biomes/climate

The Arid biome is a type of planet biome. Like other dry climates (such as the Desert or
Barren biomes), rainfall and any bodies of water on the surface tend to be very rare. There
is a lot of tightly packed sand and dirt, and grass is common despite the Arid biome being a
dry climate. Trees are sparse, and one can occasionally find floating mounds of dirt shaped ,
often supported by dirt backgrounds.

Nearly 33% of the Earth's land is covered in Arid climate. The word arid means dry. The
two colors on the map represent warm and cold Arid climates. If land has an Arid climate it
is usually a desert. Most deserts are found along the 30 degree latitude line (north and
south of the equator). This is due to the pattern of cold water currents, which force dry air
over the land. Other Arid climates exist in the center of continents or in the rain shadow of
large mountain ranges. A rain shadow is land on a side of a mountain that is very dry
because the mountain forces warm air higher into the sky, which cools it and it falls as rain,
but only on one side of the mountain.

What Seasons Does it Have?

Most Arid areas do not have regular seasons. For instance the Sahara Desert is always hot
and dry. However, some places do have changes in temperature depending on the latitude
and the surrounding climates. So, since there are temperature differences, we can say
there are 2 seasons, summer and winter.

Temperatures

Temperatures can reach as high as 130 degrees or as low as negative 30 degrees. The
temperatures will depend on the latitude of the desert. The farther from the equator the
colder they will be. On the map above you can see areas of cold desert (light red) and hot
desert (dark red), and distance from the equator is clearly the cause.

Kinds of Vegetation (Plants)

There are a few Arid climate areas that are so dry that no plants can survive, such as
Atacama Desert. However, many Arid climate areas do receive some rain (up to 10 inches a
year), so you will find vegetation in most Arid areas. To survive in this climate, plants must
either require very little water or be able to store water. The plants often have long roots
and thorns. Some examples are scrub bushes, grasses, and cactus.

Kind of Animals

Over thousands of years certain animals have adapted to the lack of water and extreme
temperature to survive in an arid climate. Camels store water in their bloodstream and can
drink 40 gallons of water in 10 minutes, allowing them to go days without water. Foxes
and jackals can also be found in deserts around the world. Snakes such as the Sidewinder
and scorpions can also survive the arid climate.

4. Application

DEFORESTATION

With the world growing at a pace hard to match, the increasing need for space is turning
out to be an area of concern. With desperate need for land for agricultural, industrial and
most importantly urban needs to contain cities and their growing population, a direct
action that we have come to recognize as “Deforestation” occurs. Deforestation in simple
term means the felling and clearing of forest cover or tree plantations in order to
accommodate agricultural, industrial or urban use. It involves permanent end of forest
cover to make that land available for residential, commercial or industrial purpose.

Deforestation can also be seen as removal of forests leading to several imbalances

ecologically and environmentally. What makes deforestation alarming is the immediate and
long term effects it is bound to inflict if continued at the current pace. Some predictions
state that the rainforests of the world will be destroyed completely if deforestation
continues at its current pace.
CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION

1. Agricultural Activities: Agricultural activities are one of the major factors affecting
deforestation. Due to overgrowing demand for food products, huge amount of tress
are fell down to grow crops and for cattle grazing.
2. Logging: Apart from this, wood based industries like paper, match-sticks, furniture
etc also need a substantial amount of wood supply. Wood is used as fuel both
directly and indirectly, therefore trees are chopped for supplies. Firewood and
charcoal are examples of wood being used as fuel. Some of these industries thrive on
illegal wood cutting and felling of trees.
3. Urbanization: Further on order to gain access to these forests, the construction of
roads are undertaken; here again trees are chopped to create roads. Overpopulation
too directly affects forest covers, as with the expansion of cities more land is needed
to establish housing and settlements. Therefore forest land is reclaimed.
4. Desertification of land: Some of the other factors that lead to deforestation are
also part natural and part anthropogenic like Desertification of land. It occurs due to
land abuse making it unfit for growth of trees. Many industries in petrochemicals
release their waste into rivers which results in soil erosion and make it unfit to grow
plants and trees.
5. Mining: Oil and coal mining require considerable amount of forest land. Apart from
this, roads and highways have to be built to make way for trucks and other
equipment. The waste that comes out from mining pollutes the environment and
affects the nearby species.
6. Forest Fires: Another example would be forest blazes; Hundreds of trees are lost
each year due to forest fires in various portions of the world. This happens due to
extreme warm summers and milder winters. Fires, whether causes by man or
nature results in huge loss of forest cover.

EFFECTS OF DEFORESTATION

Forests are complex ecosystems that affect almost every species on the planet. When they
are degraded, it can set off a devastating chain of events both locally and around the world.

 Climate Imbalance: Deforestation also affects the climate in more than one ways.
Trees release water vapor in the air, which is compromised on with the lack of trees.
Trees also provide the required shade that keeps the soil moist. This leads to the
imbalance in the atmospheric temperature further making conditions for the
ecology difficult. Flora and fauna across the world are accustomed to their habitat.
 This haphazard clearance of forests have forced several of these animals to shift
from their native environment. Due to this several species are finding it difficult to
survive or adapt to new habitats.
 Increase in Global Warming: Trees play a major role in controlling global
warming. The trees utilize the greenhouse gases, restoring the balance in the
atmosphere. With constant deforestation the ratio of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere has increased, adding to our global warming woes.
 Soil Erosion: Also due to the shade of trees the soil remains moist. With the
clearance of tree cover, the soil is directly exposed to the sun, making it dry.
 Floods: When it rains, trees absorb and store large amount of water with the help of
their roots. When they are cut down, the flow of water is disrupted and leads to
floods in some areas and droughts in other.
 Wildlife Extinction: Due to massive felling down of trees, various species of
animals are lost. They lose their habitat and forced to move to new location. Some of
them are even pushed to extinction. Our world has lost so many species of plants
and animals in last couple of decades.

SOLUTIONS FOR DEFORESTATION

1. The best solution to deforestation is to curb the felling of trees, by employing a

series of rules and laws to govern it. Deforestation in the current scenario may have
reduced however it would be too early to assume. The money-churner that forest
resources can be, is tempting enough for deforestation to continue.
2. Clear cutting of forests must be banned. This will curb total depletion of the forest
cover. It is a practical solution and is very feasible.
3. Land skinned of its tree cover for urban settlements should be urged to plant trees
in the vicinity and replace the cut trees. Also the cutting must be replaced by
planting young trees to replace the older ones that were cut. Trees are being planted
under several initiatives every year, but they still don’t match the numbers of the
ones we’ve already lost.

SOIL EROSION

Soil erosion is, at its core, a natural process. Put simply, it is when topsoil, which is the
upper-most layer of the ground, is moved from one spot to another. Why this matters is
because topsoil is the part of the land that is highest in organic matter and best suited for
farming and other fertile activities, which is why soil erosion can have the greatest impact
on farmers and agricultural land. In other words, soil erosion is a naturally occurring and
slow process that refers to loss of field’s top soil by water and wind or through conversion
of natural vegetation to agricultural land.

When farming activities are carried out, the top soil is exposed and is often blown away by
wind or washed away by rain. When soil erosion occurs, the movement of the detached
topsoil is typically facilitated by either a natural process – such as wind or water movement
– or by the impact of man, such as through tilling farmland.

CAUSES OF SOIL EROSION

The predominant causes of soil erosion are either related to naturally-occurring events or
influenced by the presence of human activity. Some of the principal causes of soil erosion
include:

1. Rain and rainwater runoff: In a particular heavy rain, soil erosion is common. First
of all, the water starts to break down the soil, dispersing the materials it is made of.
Typically, rainwater runoff will impact lighter materials like silt, organic matter, and
finer sand particles, but in heavy rainfall, this can also include the larger material
components as well.
2. Farming: When land is worked through crops or other agricultural processes, it
reduces the overall structure of the soil, in addition to reducing the levels of organic
matter, making it more susceptible to the effects of rain and water. Tilling in
particular, because it often breaks up and softens the structure of soil, can be a
major contributor to erosion. Farming practices that reduce this activity tend to
have far less issues with soil erosion.
3. Slope of the land: The physical characteristics of the land can also contribute to soil
erosion. For example, land with a high hill slope will perpetuate the process of
rainwater or runoff saturation in the area, particularly due to the faster movement
of the water down a slope.
4. Lack of vegetation: Plants and crops help maintain the structure of soils, reducing
the amount of soil erosion. Areas with less naturally-occurring flora may be a hint
that the soil is prone to erosion.
5. Wind: Wind can be a major factor in reducing soil quality and promotion erosion,
particularly if the soil’s structure has already been loosened up. However, lighter
winds will typically not cause too much damage, if any. The most susceptible soil to
this type of erosion is sandy or lighter soil that can easily be transported through the
air.
EFFECTS OF SOIL EROSION

A major problem with soil erosion is that there is no telling how quickly or slowly it will
occur. If largely impacted by ongoing weather or climate events, it may be a slow-
developing process that is never even noticed. However, a severe weather occurrence or
other experience can contribute to rapid-moving erosion, which can cause great harm to
the area and its inhabitants.

Some of the greatest effects of soil erosion include:

 Loss of topsoil: Obviously, this is the biggest effect of soil erosion. Because topsoil is
so fertile, if it is removed, this can cause serious harm to farmer’s crops or the ability
to effectively work their land.
 Soil compaction: When soil under the topsoil becomes compacted and stiff, it
reduces the ability for water to infiltrate these deeper levels, keeping runoff at
greater levels, which increases the risk of more serious erosion.
 Reduced organic and fertile matter: As mentioned, removing topsoil that is heavy
with organic matter will reduce the ability for the land to regenerate new flora or
crops. When new crops or plants can’t be placed successfully in the area, this
perpetuates a cycle of reduced levels of organic nutrients.
 Poor drainage: Sometimes too much compaction with sand can lead to an effective
crust that seals in the surface layer, making it even harder for water to pass through
to deeper layers. In some ways, this can help erosion because of the densely packed
soil, but if it perpetuates greater levels of runoff from rainwater or flooding, it can
negatively impact the crucial topsoil.
 Issues with plant reproduction: When soil is eroded in an active cropland, wind in
particular makes lighter soil properties such as new seeds and seedlings to be
buried or destroyed. This, in turn, impacts future crop production.
 Soil acidity levels: When the structure of the soil becomes compromised, and
organic matter is greatly reduced, there is a higher chance of increased soil acidity,
which will significantly impact the ability for plants and crops to grow.
 Long term erosion: Unfortunately, if an area is prone to erosion or has a history of it,
it becomes even harder to protect it in the future. The process has already reduced
the soil structure and organic matter of the area, meaning that it will be harder to
recover in the long run.
 Water pollution: A major problem with runoff from soils – particularly those used
for agricultural processes – is that there is a greater likelihood that sediment and
contamination like the use of fertilizer or pesticide. This can have significant damage
on fish and water quality.
SOLUTIONS FOR SOIL EROSION

When it comes to finding solutions for soil erosion, the most useful techniques found tend
to be those that emphasize reinforcing the structure of the soil, and reducing processes that
affect it.

1. Careful tilling: Because tilling activity breaks up the structure of soil, doing less
tilling with fewer passes will preserve more of the crucial topsoil.
2. Crop rotation: Plenty of crop rotation is crucial for keeping land happy and healthy.
This allows organic matter to build up, making future plantings more fertile.
3. Increased structure for plants: Introducing terraces or other means of stabilizing
plant life or even the soil around them can help reduce the chance that the soil
loosens and erodes. Boosting areas that are prone to erosion with sturdy plant life
can be a great way to stave off future effects.
4. Water control: For those areas where soil erosion is predominantly caused by
water – whether natural or man-made – specialized chutes and runoff pipes can
help to direct these water sources away from the susceptible areas, helping stave off
excess erosion. Having these filters in particular areas rather than leading to natural
bodies of water is a focus to reduce pollution.
5. Increased knowledge: A major factor for preventing soil erosion is educating more
and more people who work with the land on why it is a concern, and what they can
do to help reduce it. This means outreach to farmers in susceptible areas for ways
that they can help protect crops from inclement weather, or ways that they can help
make sure their soil remains compact without restricting their plant growing
activities.

BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity or Biological diversity is a term that describes the variety of living beings on
earth. In short, it is described as degree of variation of life. Biological diversity
encompasses microorganism, plants, animals and ecosystems such as coral reefs, forests,
rainforests, deserts etc.

Biodiversity also refers to the number, or abundance of different species living within a
particular region. It represents the wealth of biological resources available to us. It’s all
about the sustaining the natural area made up of community of plants, animals, and other
living things that is begin reduced at a steady rate as we plan human activities that is being
reduced by habitat destruction.
CAUSES OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS

The main cause of the loss of biodiversity can be attributed to the influence of human
beings on the world’s ecosystem, In fact human beings have deeply altered the
environment, and have modified the territory, exploiting the species directly, for example
by fishing and hunting, changing the biogeochemical cycles and transferring species from
one area to another of the Planet. The threats to biodiversity can be summarized in the
following main points:

 Alteration and loss of the habitats: the transformation of the natural areas
determines not only the loss of the vegetable species, but also a decrease in the
animal species associated to them.
 Introduction of exotic species and genetically modified organisms: species
originating from a particular area, introduced into new natural environments can
lead to different forms of imbalance in the ecological equilibrium. Refer to,
“Introduction of exotic species and genetically modified organisms”.
 Pollution: human activity influences the natural environment producing negative,
direct or indirect, effects that alter the flow of energy, the chemical and physical
constitution of the environment and abundance of the species;
 Climate change: for example, heating of the Earth’s surface affects biodiversity
because it endangers all the species that adapted to the cold due to the latitude (the
Polar species) or the altitude (mountain species).
 Overexploitation of resources: when the activities connected with capturing and
harvesting (hunting, fishing, farming) a renewable natural resource in a particular
area is excessively intense, the resource itself may become exhausted, as for
example, is the case of sardines, herrings, cod, tuna and many other species that
man captures without leaving enough time for the organisms to reproduce.

Preventing Biodiversity Loss

Plant native trees, shrubs and grasses; build a frog pond; place nest boxes on trees
for birds and possums; and leave rocks and logs in your garden to attract lizards,
beetles and other insects.
Care for sick or injured native wildlife by taking them to an animal shelter.
 Protecting Areas: Creating protected areas where human activity is limited is
the best way to prevent deforestation and exploitation of organisms and the
resources they need to survive. In order to truly make a difference, much
planning needs to go into the creation of a protected area. It needs to consider all
 elements of the ecosystem it is trying to protect, so that it isn’t too small. It needs
to include all resources that are utilized by its inhabitants; for example leaving
out a stream where half of the mammals go to drink would not make a protected
area very effective.
 Informing/ Educating: Education is a powerful tool, and the more people know
about diversity loss, the more they will be prepared to help slow it. Spreading
the word about detrimental human effects on plants and animals can encourage
people to change their ways and effects to preserve biodiversity.
 Slowing Climate Change: Climate change is the documented cause of several
extinctions that new know about, and has likely caused hundreds of species to go
extinct about which we may never know . Any effort as individuals, organization,
or governments, to slow current human caused global warming is a step towards
slowing biodiversity loss.

IMPORTANCE

Biodiversity has a number of functions on the Earth. These are as follows:

 Maintaining balance of the ecosystem: Recycling and storage of nutrients,

combating pollution, and stabilizing climate, protecting water resources, forming
and protecting soil and maintaining ecobalance.
 Provision of biological resources: Provision of medicines and pharmaceuticals,
food for the human population and animals, ornamental plants, wood products,
breeding stock and diversity of species, ecosystems and genes.
 Social benefits: Recreation and tourism, cultural value and education and research.

The role of biodiversity in the following areas will help make clear the importance of
biodiversity in human life:

 Biodiversity and food: 80% of human food supply comes from 20 kinds of plants.
But humans use 40,000 species for food, clothing and shelter. Biodiversity provides
for variety of foods for the planet.
 Biodiversity and human health: The shortage of drinking water is expected to
create a major global crisis. Biodiversity also plays an important role in drug
discovery and medicinal resources. Medicines from nature account for usage by
80% of the world’s population.
 Biodiversity and industry: Biological sources provide many industrial materials.
These include fiber, oil, dyes, rubber, water, timber, paper and food.
  Biodiversity and culture: Biodiversity enhances recreational activities like bird
watching, fishing, trekking etc. It inspires musicians and artists.

GARBAGE DISPOSAL

Garbage pollution means littering civic waste particularly household waste into places not
designated to dispose it off. It is mainly caused by mismanagement of solid waste when
garbage is not lifted from streets and areas to carry it to landfill sites for its final disposal. It
all happens owing to poor system of either garbage collection or its disposal.

CAUSES OF GARBAGE POLLUTION

Pollution of garbage increases in cities and towns where there is no proper system of
garbage collection. Households have to simply collect the entire garbage of their houses
and place it to outside home in dustbin or bag.

Its collection is the task of civic agency of the area. If garbage collection agency or
contractor does not play its role properly and does not collect the garbage regularly then
the problem of this kind of pollution would obviously arise.

EFFECTS OF GARBAGE POLLUTION

In least developed countries mostly garbage is dumped in open or freely available places
and to make its final disposal entire garbage is burnt and no one stops them because of un-
awareness.

Burning garbage not only adds land pollution after being fully burnt but it also becomes
source of air pollution by emitting harmful gases while burning. It is called one of the worst
air polluting acts because it remains directly in breathing zone of human beings.

Garbage pollution is main cause of various bacterial diseases and gastro is one of them.
Moreover, typhoid, malaria and various infectious diseases are also caused by it.
Mosquitoes and other insects amasses in places where there are piles of garbage and
ultimately spread various diseases in the area.

SOLUTIONS FOR GARBAGE POLLUTION

The key solution for garbage pollution lies in proper management of solid waste. Apart
from that there are three slogans to address this issue; reduce, reuse and recycle. In this
way garbage pollution issue could be solved with simply community efforts.

Here reduce means to generate garbage less means fully use the thing and then treat it as
garbage like write on every inch of a paper and then through it as useless.Similarly reuse
means if possible use again and again an item instead of throwing it away; for example if
you buy oil in a bottle so after consuming that oil use the bottle to keep any other liquid
item in it like liquid soap or dish washer liquid etc.

Recycle means instead of disposing of garbage in landfill site sort out from it the things
which can be made reusable after slight treatment to it like cans, tins, bottles etc.

REUSE CREATIVELY

To reuse the used-things is itself an art. You have to apply your mind to do this. You buy
milk pack. You get daily one empty milk-pack which you have to put in dustbin for at least
12 hours till the garbage collector comes at your door. This also in case you have two-time
garbage collection facility else you have to wait for 24 hours. Just think about its reuse.
First of all you can buy the biggest packet of milk-pack to generate less garbage. You just
have to keep it in fridge for the use of maximum period of time. So the big-pack you can use
for keeping soil of the garden or other rough stuff. If the pack is strong enough you can
contact to nearby charity to donate it for onward giving it to needy people or to packing in
it any dole out for deserving people. Just apply your mind to make every used-item
reusable without any extra money and much effort.

RECYCLE VERY CREATIVELY

There are several recycling companies in developed regions of the world where you can
sell out the recyclable things for cheap prices. All the used things which you cannot discard
easily or you think these can never be degraded or recycled. It means entire plastic as well
as unbroken and broken glass material is recyclable. But before selling it out you can reuse
it at your home. Inside your home every ornamental plant must be in glass bottle from your
used items.
 LAND POLLUTION

Land pollution, in other words, means degradation or destruction of earth’s surface and
soil, directly or indirectly as a result of human activities. Anthropogenic activities are
conducted citing development, and the same affects the land drastically, we witness land
pollution; by drastic we are referring to any activity that lessens the quality and/or
productivity of the land as an ideal place for agriculture, forestation, construction etc. The
degradation of land that could be used constructively in other words is land pollution.

Land Pollution has led to a series of issues that we have come to realize in recent times,
after decades of neglect. The increasing numbers of barren land plots and the decreasing
numbers of forest cover is at an alarming ratio. Moreover the extension of cities and towns
due to increasing population is leading to further exploitation of the land. Land fills and
reclamations are being planned and executed to meet the increased demand of lands. This
leads to further deterioration of land, and pollution caused by the land fill contents. Also
due to the lack of green cover, the land gets affected in several ways like soil erosion occurs
washing away the fertile portions of the land. Or even a landslide can be seen as an
example.

CAUSES OF LAND POLLUTION

 Deforestation and soil erosion: Deforestation carried out to create dry lands is
one of the major concerns. Land that is once converted into a dry or barren land,
can never be made fertile again, whatever the magnitude of measures to redeem
it are. Land conversion, meaning the alteration or modification of the original
properties of the land to make it use-worthy for a specific purpose is another
major cause. This hampers the land immensely. Also there is a constant waste of
land. Unused available land over the years turns barren; this land then cannot be
used. So in search of more land, potent land is hunted and its indigenous state is
compromised with.
 Agricultural activities: With growing human population, demand for food has
increased considerably. Farmers often use highly toxic fertilizers and pesticides
to get rid off insects, fungi and bacteria from their crops. However with the
overuse of these chemicals, they result in contamination and poisoning of soil.
 Mining activities: During extraction and mining activities, several land spaces
are created beneath the surface. We constant hear about land caving in; this is
nothing but nature’s way of filling the spaces left out after mining or extraction
activity.
  Overcrowded landfills: Each household produces tonnes of garbage each year.
Garbage like aluminum, plastic, paper, cloth, wood is collected and sent to the
local recycling unit. Items that can not be recycled become a part of the landfills
that hampers the beauty of the city and cause land pollution.
 Industrialization: Due to increase in demand for food, shelter and house, more
goods are produced. This resulted in creation of more waste that needs to be
disposed of. To meet the demand of the growing population, more industries
were developed which led to deforestation. Research and development paved
the way for modern fertilizers and chemicals that were highly toxic and led to
soil contamination.
 Construction activities: Due to urbanization, large amount of construction
activities are taking place which has resulted in large waste articles like wood,
metal, bricks, plastic that can be seen by naked eyes outside any building or
office which is under construction.
 Nuclear waste: Nuclear plants can produce huge amount of energy through
nuclear fission and fusion. The left over radioactive material contains harmful
and toxic chemicals that can affect human health. They are dumped beneath the
earth to avoid any casualty.
 Sewage treatment: Large amount of solid waste is leftover once the sewage has
been treated. The leftover material is sent to landfill site which end up in
polluting the environment.

EFFECTS OF LAND POLLUTION

o Soil pollution: Soil pollution is another form of land pollution, where the
upper layer of the soil is damaged. This is caused by the overuse of chemical
fertilizers, soil erosion caused by running water and other pest control
measures; this leads to loss of fertile land for agriculture, forest cover, fodder
patches for grazing etc.
o Change in climate patterns: The effects of land pollution are very
hazardous and can lead to the loss of ecosystems. When land is polluted, it
directly or indirectly affects the climate patterns.
o Environmental Impact: When deforestation is committed, the tree cover is
compromised on. This leads to a steep imbalance in the rain cycle. A
disturbed rain cycle affects a lot of factors. To begin with, the green cover is
reduced. Trees and plants help balance the atmosphere, without them we are
subjected to various concerns like Global warming, the green house effect,
irregular rainfall and flash floods among other imbalances.
 o Effect on human health: The land when contaminated with toxic chemicals
and pesticides lead to problem of skin cancer and human respiratory system.
The toxic chemicals can reach our body through foods and vegetables that we
eat as they are grown in polluted soil.
o Cause Air pollution: Landfills across the city keep on growing due to
increase in waste and are later burned which leads to air pollution. They
become home for rodents, mice etc which in turn transmit diseases.
o Distraction for Tourist: The city looses its attraction as tourist destination
as landfills do not look good when you move around the city. It leads to loss
of revenue for the state government.
o Effect on wildlife: The animal kingdom has suffered mostly in the past
decades. They face a serious threat with regards to loss of habitat and natural
environment. The constant human activity on land, is leaving it polluted;
forcing these species to move further away and adapt to new regions or die
trying to adjust. Several species are pushed to the verge of extinction, due to
no homeland.
o Other issues that we face include increased temperature, unseasonal
weather activity, acid rains etc. The discharge of chemicals on land, makes it
dangerous for the ecosystem too. These chemicals are consumed by the
animals and plants and thereby make their way in the ecosystem. This
process is called bio magnification and is a serious threat to the ecology.

SOLUTIONS FOR LAND POLLUTION

 Make people aware about the concept of Reduce, Recycle and Reuse.
 Reduce the use of pesticides and fertilizers in agricultural activities.
 Avoid buying packages items as they will lead to garbage and end up in landfill
site.
 Ensure that you do not litter on the ground and do proper disposal of garbage.
 Buy biodegradable products.
 Do Organic gardening and eat organic food that will be grown without the use of
pesticides.
 Create dumping ground away from residential areas.
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