Chapter-1 Anatomy & Physiology: Restricted

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CHAPTER- 1
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
CELL
1. Definition: Cells are the structural and functional units of all living organism.
2. Components: Cells have 3 major components.
a. Cell membrane which closes protoplasm, the living substance of the cell.
b. Nucleus- The central more dense part of the cell.
c. Cytoplasm the outer dense part that surrounds the nucleus. In the cytoplasm there
are a number of organelles having distinctive structure and functions. They are:
(1) Mitochondria.
(2) Endoplasmic reticulum.
(3) Golgi complex
(4) Lysosomes.
(5) Ribosomes.
(6) Centrioles.
(7) Microtubles and
(8) Filaments etc.
3. Cell membrane: The outer limit of the cell is known as cell membrane. It is a thin,
tough and elastic linning membrane about 7.5-10.0 nm thick, composed of phospolipid,
cholesterol & proteins etc. The cell membrane performs the following functions.
a. Maintains the shape of the cell.
b. Controls movements of substance in and out of the cells.
c. The cell membrane forms a sensory surface
d. Kills different types of micro organisms.
4. Nucleus: The nucleus is the largest single organelle of the cell that contains the
cellular DNA. It is located in the centre of the cell.
a. Components:
(1) Nuclear envelope

(2) Chromatin.
(3) Nucleolus.
(4) Nuclear matrix
b. Functions:
(1) It is essential for biosynthetic events that characterize cell types &
function.
(2) It contains and controls genetic material.
(3) Takes part in cell division.
5. Mitochondria: This is spherical or filamentous organelles present in almost all

cells.
a. Functions.
(1) The chief source & energy in the cell.

(2) Synthesize their own DNA and some proteins.
6 Endoplasmic reticulum: It is an anastomosing network of membrane bound

channel in the form of vesicles
a. Function:
(1) Detoxification, Oxidation & conjugation of potentially toxic substances.

(2) It regulates muscular contraction
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7. Golgi complex: It is a membrane bound compartment found in almost all cells

typically near the nucleus
a. Function:
(1) Modification of secretory products.
(2) Packaging of secretory products.
(3) Concentration and storage of secretory products.
8. Lysosomes: Lysosomes are membrane limited vesicles that contains a large variety
of enzymes.
a. Function:
(1) Digest foreign particles and unwanted cell organelles.

(3) Destroy all organelles before the cell dies.
(4) Act as intracellular scavengers.
9. Ribosomes: The ribosomes are small electron dense particles.
a. Function:
(1) Synthesis of proteins for cellular use.
(2) Synthesis of proteins for extra cellular use.
10. Centrioles: This is a special zone of cytoplasm that contains sharply staining
granules
a. Function.
(1) Helps in the mitotic cell division.
(2) Gives rise to motile cilia or flagella.
(3) It serves as a cell centre.
11. Microfilaments: This are thread like structure 5-7 nm in diameter, composed of
actin.
a. Function:
(1) It participates in muscular contraction.
(2) Takes part in membranous activities.
(3) Plays role in movement of the cells.
(4) Acts shifting cytoplasmic components.
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TISSUE
1. Definition: A tissue is a colleection of cells and cell products having a common
function.
2. Types: The human body is composed of mainly four basic types of tissue.
a. Epithelial tissue
b. Connective tissue.
c. Muscular tissue.
d. Nervous tissue.
3. Epithelial tissue: Epithelial tissues may be defined as a collection of closely

aggregated polyhedral cell with intracellular substance which covers the surface of the body and
lines its cavities.
a. Function:
(1) Protection of the body from abrasion/injuries.
(2) Absorption of material from a lumen.
(3) Secretion of mucous and hormones etc.
(4) Detection of sensation.
(5) Contraction.
(6) Transcellular transport of various molecules.
(7) Control of movement of materials in and out of the cells.
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4. Connective tissue: The connective tissues are a group of tissues structurally
composed of cells, fibers and ground substances and are responsible for maintaining a
functionally integrated body e.g Bone, Cartilage, Tendon, Capsules and Blood etc.
a. Function:
(1) Give support to the body.

(2) Provide tight covering for deeper structures.
(3) Hold bone ends together at joints.
(4) Provides planes along which blood vessels and lymphaties travel to their
destination.
5. Muscle tissue: Muscle is the basic tissue composed of differentiated cells

containing contractile proteins which are specialized to perform the function of movement or
locomotion through the process of contraction and relaxation.
a. Function:
(1) Helps in locomotion and movement of the body.

(2) Help to maintain the temperature of the body.
(3) Help for maintenance of posture.
(4) Influences in the modeling of the bones of the skeleton.
(5) Maintain stability for the joints.
6. Nervous tissue: Nervous tissue is specially designed to receive stimuli from either
inside or out side the body, and when stimulated to carry impulses rapidly to other tissues.
Nervous tissue consists of nerve cells called neurones, and a special supporting network called
neuroglia. A nerve cell consists of a large cell body, to which several short processes, called
dendrites, bring impulses from other cells and tissues. From the cell body there is one long
process called the axon, which carries impulses away from the cell body.
ORGAN
6. Definition: Organs are composed of two or more tissue types that together perform
one or more common functions e.g Liver, Heart, Lungs etc.
SYSTEM
7. Definition: A system consists of a group of organs classified as a unit because of a
common function or set of functions. The body is considered to have 11 major systems. They are
as follows.
a. Skeletal system.
b. Muscular system.
c. Integumental system.
d. Nervous system.
e. Endocrine system.
f. Cardiovascular system.
g. Lymphatic system.
h. Respiratory system.
i. Digestive system.
j. Urinary system and
k. Reproductive system.
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CAVITIES OF HUMAN BODY

1. The cavities of human body and its contents are as follows:
A. The cavities of the Head:
a. The cranium or cranial cavity, containing the brain
b. The orbits or orbital cavity, containing the eyes.
c. The nasal cavities, for the taking in and out of air.
d. The mouth or oral cavity, for the taking in of food.
B. The cavities of the trunk:
a. The thorax or thoracic cavity: It contains-

i) The heart and the large blood vessels leading to and from it.
ii) The lungs and the air passages, which bring the air we breathe to them.
iii) The oesophagus, the passage through which food passes to the stomach.
b. The abdomen or abdominal cavity: It contains-

i) The stomach.
ii) The small intestine.
iii) The large intestine.
iv) The liver.
v) The pancreas.
vi) The spleen.
vii) The kidneys.
viii) The ureters.
c. The pelvis or pelvic cavity: It contains-

i) The bladder, though, as this fills with the urine excreted by the kidneys, it rises
into the abdomen.
ii) Some of the reproductive organs.
(1) The female reproductive organs are-
(a) The two ovaries which produce the ova or egg cells.
(b) The uterine tubes, which convey these egg cells to the uterus.
(c) The uterus, in which the fertilized egg cells develop till the
child is capable of a separate existence.
(d) The vagina, which leads from the uterus to the external skin.
(2) The male reproductive organs are-
(a) The testes, which produce the spermatozoa or male
reproductive cells.
(b) The different ducts, the ducts which convey the male
reproductive fluid in which the sperm are carried to-
(c) The seminal vesicles, in which it is stored.
(f) The ejaculatory ducts lead from these vesicles to the urethra, the
common passage for urine and the male reproductive fluid
which contains the spermatozoa.
These organs lie in the pelvis except for the testes which are
carried in a pouch of skin, known as the scrotum.
iii) The rectum, the last part of the large intestine.
d. The spinal canal, a posterior cavity inside the vertebral column containing the spinal
cord which joins the brain.
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MUSCULO SKELETAL SYSTEM

1. The musculoskeletal system is mainly consists of the following structures:
a. Muscles.
b. Cartilage.
c. Bones &
d. Joints.
2. Muscles: There are three basic types of muscle tissue:

a. Skeletal muscle: Which is striated voluntary and constitutes the muscles of
the skeleton of the body.
b. Cardiac muscles: Which is also striated but involuntary and is the muscle
of the heart.
c. Smooth muscles: Which is not straited, involuntary and provides the muscle
of the blood vessels, internal organs and viscera.
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3. Important muscles of the body
a. Muscles of the neck
(1) Sternocleidomastoid.
(2) Trapezius.
b. Muscles of the chest
(1) Pectoralis.
(2) Internal & external oblique.
c. Muscles of Abdomen
(1) Rectus abdominis.
d. Muscles of the Arm
(1) Deltoid.
(2) Triceps.
(3) Biceps.
e. Muscle of the legs & thigh
(1) Sartorius.
(2) Semitendinosus.
(3) Semimembranosus.
(4) Gastrocnemius.
f. Muscles of the back
(1) Latissimus.
(2) Gluteus.
4. CARTILAGE
a. Definition: Cartilage is a specialized connective tissue characterized by an
intracellular matrix that form & support the soft tissue and joints e.g. Nose, Larynx,
auditory tube and inter vertebral disc.
b. Functions:
(1) Involved in supporting the soft tissue.

(2) Allows the tissue to bear stress.
(3) It is a shock absorbing and sliding area for joints.
(4) Cartilage forms a template that is essential for the development and growth
of long bones.
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5. BONE
a. Definition: Bone is a special type of highly vascular, mineralized connective
tissue which forms the framework of human body.
b. Types of bones: According to size & shape of the bone it can be classified
into 06 types.
(1) Long bones e.g. Femur, Tibia, Fibula, Radius, Ulna etc.
(2) Short bones e.g. Carpal, Tarsal bones etc.
(3) Flat bones e.g. Scapula, Parietal, Frontal bones etc.
(4) Irregular bones e.g. Vertebral, Hip bone etc.
(5) Pneumatic bones e.g. Maxilla, Sphenoid etc.
(6) Sesamoid bones e.g. Patella etc.
c. Number of bones: Human skeleton is made up of 206 bones. Among them 80

bones are axial or in the midline and 126 bones are appendicular. They are as follows.
(1) Axial bones - 80
(a) Skull bone - 22

i. Cranial -08
ii. Facial -14
(c) Vertebral column - 33

i. Cervical -07
ii. Thoracic -12
iii. Lumbar -05
iv Sacral -05
v. Coccygeal -04
(d) Sternum - 01
(e) Ribs - 24
(2) Appendicular bone -126
(a) Upper limb - 64

(i) Clavicle -02.
(ii) Scapula -02
(iii) Humerous. -02
(iv) Ulna -02
(v) Radius -02
(vi) Carpal -16
(vii) Metacarpals -10
(viii) Phalanges -28
Total -64
(b) Lower limb - 62
(i) Hip bone -02
(ii) Femur -02
(iii) Tibia -02
(iv) Fibula -02
(v) Patella -02
(vi) Tarsal -14
(vii) Metatarsals -10
(viii) Phalanges -28
Total -62
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d. Functions of bones
(1) Provide shape and support to the body.

(2) Provide surface for the attachment of muscles, tendons &
ligaments.
(3) Act as a lever for muscle for action.
(4) Provide mechanical protection to vital organs of the body.
(5) They contain bone marrow, a blood forming organ.
(6) They store 99% of body’s calcium.
(7) Maintain body’s electrolytes balance
(8) Takes parts in body’s immune responses.
(9) Affect the timber of the voice.
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FIG: Skeletal (Male)

FIG: General View of the formation of the vertebral column
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6. JOINT
a. Definition. Joint is a site where two or more bones come together.
b. Classification. Joints may be classified broadly into two types.
(1) Synarthoses. Joints in which very limited or no movement occurs

e.g. suture of skull, Pubic symphysis.
(2) Diarhoses. Joint which generally unites long bones and have great
mobility. e.g. elbow & Knee joint. This joint is termed as synovial joint which can
again divided into 07 types. They are as follows
(a) Plane joint e.g. Inter matatarsal joints.
(b) Hinge joint e.g. Humero-ulnar joint.
(c) Pivot joint eg. Proximal radio-ulnar joint.
(d) Condyloid joint e.g Tempero mandibular joint.
(e) Ellipsoid joint e.g. Wrist joint
(f) Saddle joint e.g Ankle joint.
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(g) Ball and socket joint e.g Shoulder joint.
c. Function.
(1) Joints permit various types of movement of the body e.g.

(a) Gliding movement.
(b) Angular movement.
(c) Circumduction.
(d) Rotation.
(e) Supination & pronation
(f) Invertion & eversion.
(g) Dorsiflexion & plantar flexion.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
1. Definition. Respiratory system consists of two lungs and number of air passage or
tubes that lead to and from lung.
a. Air passage: The air passage consists of two major parts.

(1) Conducting portion: Composed of nasal cavity, nasopharynx,
oropharynx , larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles.
(2) Respiratory portion. Air passage where respiration or gaseous

exchange takes place. It is composed of respiratory bronchioles, alveolar duct,
atria, alveolar sacs and alveoli.
b Naso pharynx: The first part of the pharynx is called nasopharynx. It is

situated in between nasal cavity and oropharynx. It is respiratory in function and no food
enters into it.
c. Larynx. The larynx is the organ for production of voice, extends from the
root of the tongue to the trachea. It is about 30- 44 mm in length. The larynx is made up
of 09 cartilages, few muscles and vocal fold.
(1) Functions
(a) It produces voice by vocal cord.

(b) It acts as an air passage.
(c) Acts as a sphincter at the inlet of the lower respiratory tract.
d. Trachea The trachea is a thin walled tube that extends from the base of the
larynx to the point of bifurcation into bronchi. It is about 4-6 inch long and acts as an air
passage.
e. The lungs. The lungs are a pair of respiratory organs situated in the thoracic
cavity. The lungs are brown & spongy in texture. The Rt lung weights about 265 gm and
50 gm heavier than the Lt. The Rt lung is divided into 03 lobes normally superior, middle
and inferior by two fissures. The left lung is divided into two lobes by the oblique fissure.
f. Bronchial tree: The trachea is divided into two pulmonary bronchi which
enters the lungs at the hilum. The bronchial trees are arranged as follows:
Primary bronchi∧Secondary/Lobar bronchi∧Tertiary/ Segmental

bronchi∧Bronchiole ∧Terminal bronchiole∧Respiratory bronchiole∧Alveolar
duct∧Atrium∧Alveolar sacs∧Alveoli.
g. Functions
(1) To exchange of breathing gases.

(2) To take O2 and gives off CO2
(3) To purify deoxygenated blood.
(4) To expel vapor.
(5) To secrete few enzymes /hormones.
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h. Mechanism of respiration: The respiration consists of two phases, they are
inspiration & expiration. Inspiration means process of air taking in, in the lungs & expiration
means process of air driving out from the lungs.
j. Muscles of inspiration
(1) The diaphragm.

(2) The external intercostal muscles.
(3) The sternocleido mastoid.
(4) The Anterior serrate.
(5) The scalene.
k. Muscles of expiration
(1) The Rectus abdominis.

(2) The internal intercostal muscle.
l. Basic mechanism of inspiration
(1) When the diaphragm contracts during inspiration it flattened & lowered
then the thoracic cavity is increased in length. The external intercostal muscles
contracts & lift the ribs & draw them out causing increase the depth of thoracic
cavity from back to front.
(2) The sternocleidomastoid muscles contract & draw the sternum & increase
the depth of the thoracic cavity from back to front.
(3) The serratus anterior & pectoralis major pull the ribs outwards & the arm
are fixed. As a result the chest wall moves up & out ward. The parietal pleura
which are closely attached moves with it.
(4) The visceral pleura pulls the parietal pleura, resulting the lungs expanded
to fill the space & air is sucked by bronchial tree.
m. Basic mechanism of expiration Expiration during quiet breathing is

passive when the diaphragm relaxes & assumes its original dome shape. The external
intercostals muscle relaxes & the ribs reverse to the previous position. The lungs recoil & air is
driven out through the bronchial tree. In forcefully expiration, the internal intercostal muscles
contract actively & lower the ribs.
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THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

1. Definition. The circulatory system is a system of closed tubes which carry blood
from the heart to different parts of the body & then return back to the heart. It is a system
through which oxygen & nutritive materials are transported to the tissue & from there
carbondioxide & waste products of tissue metabolism are carried to the regions of excretory
system. The circulatory system consists of the Heart, Blood vessels and capillaries.
2. Blood vessels: It is the route by which the blood travels to and through the tissues and
back to the heart. In the body blood is always contained in blood vessels & does not pass out into
the tissues except when there is injury or disease. The blood vessels, except the capillaries, in
general have walls comprising 03 layers:
a. Innermost layer-Tunica intima
b. Middle layer- Tunica media.
c. Outer layer- Tunica adventitia
3. Types of blood vessels
a. Arteries The arteries are tough walled vessels which carry the blood away
from the heart. They carry bright red oxygenated blood except in the case of pulmonary
arteries, which carry deoxygenated blood.
b. Capillaries. The capillaries are fine, hair-like vessels, microscopic in size.

They join the arterioles to form the venules. They receive blood from the arterioles &
pass it into the venules. Their walls are one cell in thickness. Through them gases,
nutrients, metabolic wastes, hormones & signaling substances are interchanged or passed
between blood & tissues of the body to sustain normal metabolic activities.
c. Veins. The veins are thin-walled, collapsible vessels which carry blood to the
heart from the tissues. Small veins form larger veins which ultimately unite to form two
large veins, the superior & inferior vena cavae, which empty into the right atrium of the
heart.
4. THE BLOOD
a. Definition. Blood is thick, red fluid & a specialized form of connective tissue
consists of formed elements or blood cells & a liquid intercellular substance, plasma. The
normal total circulatory blood volume is about 8% of the body weight (5600 ml in a 70
kg of men). About 55% of this volume is plasma & 45% is blood cells.
b. Composition of blood: Although blood is apparently fluid, it is actually
consists of the following parts:
(1) Fluid part - 55%
(2) Solid part- 45%
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c. Fluid part or plasma: This part of the blood is a clear straw colored
watery fluid similar to the fluid found in an ordinary blister. The plasma consists of the
following elements.
(1) Water, which forms over 90% of the whole blood.
(2) Mineral salts.
(3) Plasma proteins.
(4) Foodstuffs.
(5) Gases in solution.
(6) Waste products from the tissue.
(7) Antibodies.
(8) Hormones.
(9) Enzymes
d. Solid part or blood cells: The solid parts or blood cells are of three types.
(1) Erythrocytes or red blood cells.

(2) Leukocytes or white blood cells.
(3) Thrombocytes or platelets.
5. Erythrocytes: Erythrocytes are circular bi-concave non-nucleated discs that are
manufactured in the red bone marrow. They are numerous, about 50 Lac/cmm of blood. Each
human red cell is about 7.5 µm in diameter & 2 µm thick. The average normal red blood cell
count is 5.4 million/ml in men & 4.8 million/ml in women.
6. Leukocytes or white blood cells: These cells are larger than the red cells. It is
measuring about 10 µm in diameter & they are less numerous. There are 6000-10,000/ cmm of
the blood. When infection is occurred it may be increased up to 30,000/cmm. The increase of
WBC is called leucocytosis & decrease called leucopenia.
a. Types of leukocytes
(1) Granulocytes-
(a) Neutrophils -60-70%
(b) Eosinophils -2-4%
(c) Basophils -0-1%
(2) Agranulocytes-
(a) Lymphocytes -20-30%
(b) Monocytes -3-8%
7. Thrombocytes or platelets Thrombocytes are small non-nucleated, disc-like cell

fragments, 2-4 µm in diameter. The average platelet count is about 2.50, 000/cmm of blood.
8. Function of the blood
a. The blood transports oxygen as oxyhaemoglobin from the lungs to the tissues &
returns carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs for excretion.
b. To carry food & all nourishments to the cells/tissues.
c. To carry away waste products to the organ that excretes them.
d. The blood transports hormones & enzymes from their cells of origin to their target
organs & tissue.
e. To fight the bacterial infection through white blood cells, antibodies & anti-
toxins.
f. To distribute the secretions of ductless glands & enzymes.
g. To distribute heat throughout the body.
h. The blood helps to maintain the body temperature.
i. To provide materials from which glands make their secretions.
j. To produce antibody & antitoxins.
k. To arrest haemorrhage through clotting process.
9. Functions of the plasma: Plasma acts as the medium for the transmission of
nutrient, salts, fats, glucose & amino-acids to the tissues, and as the medium for carrying away
waste materials e.g. urea, uric acid & carbon di-oxide. It is also responsible for his osmotic
pressure which maintains the blood volume.
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10. The circulation of the blood: The heart is the chief organ of the circulation of the
blood. The circulation of blood through the blood vessels can be summarized in 3 different
patterns:
a. The systemic/ general/greater circulation.

b. The pulmonary or lesser circulation.
c. The portal circulation.
Branches of the general circulation
d. The coronary circulation.
11. The systemic circulation: Passage of blood from the left ventricle through the
aorta to the tissues & from the tissues to the right atrium through the inferior & superior
venacava is called systemic circulation.
(i.e. Left ventricle ∧ Aorta ∧ artery ∧ Arterioles ∧ capillary ∧ venules ∧ vein ∧ inferior
& superior venacava ∧ right atrium of the heart.
12. The Pulmonary circulation: Passage of blood from the right ventricle through
the lungs to the left atrium of the heart is called pulmonary circulation.
(i.e. Right ventricle ∧ Pulmonary artery ∧ Lungs ∧ Pulmonary vein ∧ Left atrium)
13. The portal circulation:
The portal circulation is a branch of the general circulation dealing with blood rich in food-stuffs
from the abdominal organs. Blood from the stomach, intestines, spleen and pancreas is gathered
up into one large vein, the portal vein, which runs into the liver and there divides into a second
set of capillaries. As the blood passes through these capillaries excess food not required for the
immediate needs of the body is removed and stored in the liver cells until required for use or is
altered as required for body metabolism. The blood passes from the capillaries into veins, which
unite to form three large hepatic veins and number of smaller ones, which empty into the inferior
vena cava, carrying into the circulation the food required for immediate use. The hepatic veins
also bring back the blood brought by the hepatic artery to supply the liver with oxygen.
14. The coronary circulation: The coronary circulation, which is also a branch of the
general circulation, supplies the myocardium. The right and left coronary arteries leave the aorta
at its commencement and run back into the myocardium, where they form a network of
capillaries to supply the heart with blood. During contraction of the ventricles, which the aortic
valve is open, the entrances to the coronary arteries are covered by the cusps of the aortic valve.
The coronary arteries can, therefore, only receive blood during diastole. From the capillaries the
blood is collected into one vein, the coronary sinus, which empties directly into the right atrium
by a special opening which is guarded by a valve, the coronary valve. This valve protects the
coronary vessels from being filled by back pressure with de-oxygenated blood when the atrium
contracts.
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FIG: Cardiovascular System
THE EYE BALL

1. Definition: The eye ball is the organ of sight. It closely resembles a camera in its
structure: It is almost spherical in shape & has a diameter of about 2.5 cm. It is made up of three
concentric coats. The outer or fibrous coat comprises the sclera and the cornea. The middle or
vascular coat (also called the uveal tract) consists of the choroid, the ciliary body & the iris. The
inner or nervous coat is the retina.
2. Refractory media: Light entering the eye ball passes through several refracting
media. From forwards backwards these are the cornea, the aqueous humour, the lens & the
vitreous body.
3. The sclera: The sclera is opaque structure which forms the posterior five sixths of
the eyeball. It is composed of dense fibrous tissue which is firm & maintains the shape of the
eyeball.
4. The cornea: The cornea is transparent. It replaces the sclera over the anterior one
sixth of the eyeball.
5. The choroid: It is a thin vascular layer which separates the posterior part of he
sclera from the retina.
6. The ciliary body: This is a thickened part of the uveal tract lying just posterior to
the corneal limbus. It suspends the lens & helps it in accommodation for near vision.
7 Iris: This is the anterior part of the uveal tract. It forms a circular curtain with an
opening in the center, called the pupil. By adjusting the size of the pupil it controls the amount of
light entering the eye & these behave like an adjustable diaphragm.
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8. Retina: This is the thin, delicate inner nervous layer of the eyeball. This is
continuous posteriorly with the optic nerve.
9. Aqueous Humour: This is a clear fluid which fills the spaces between the cornea in
front & the lens behind. This space is divided by the iris into anterior & posterior chambers
which freely communicate with each other through the pupil.
10. The lens: The lens is a transparent bi-convex structure which is placed between the
anterior and posterior segments of the eye. It is circular in outline & has a diameter of 1 cm.
11. Vitreous body: It is a colorless, jelly like transparent mass which fills the posterior
segment of the eye ball.
FIG: THE EYE BALL
FIG: THE EAR
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THE EAR
1. Definition: The ear is an organ of hearing. It is also concerned in maintaining the
equilibrium of the body. It consists of three parts:
a. The external ear.

b. The middle ear.
c. The internal ear.
2. External ear: The external ear consists of
a. The Auricle or pinna

b. The External acoustic meatus.
3. The Auricle (Pinna): This is the part seen from outside. The greater part of it is
made up of a single plate of cartilage which is covered on both sides by skin.
4. External Acoustic meatus: This canal conducts sound waves from the conchae to
the tympanic membrane. This is S-shaped.
5. Tympanic Membrane: This is a thin, translucent partition between the external

acoustic meatus & the middle ear.
6. The middle ear: It is also called the tympanic cavity or tympanum. The middle ear
is a narrow air filled space situated in the petrous part of the temporal bone between the
external ear and the internal ear.
a. Contents:
(1) Three small bones namely, the maleus, the incus & the stapes.
(2) Ligaments of the ear ossides.
(3) Two muscles, the tensor tympani & the stapediss.
(4) Vessels supplying & draining the middle ear.
(5) Nerves- Chorda tympani & tympanic plexus.
b. Functions of the middle ear:
(1) It transmits sound waves from the external ear to the internal ear through
the chain of ear ossicles & this transforms the air borne vibrations from the
tympanic membrane to liquid borne vibrations in the internal ear.
(2) The intensity of the sound waves is increased ten times by the ossicles. It
may be noted that the frequency of sound does not change.
7. Internal ear: The internal ear or labyrinth lies in the petrous part of the temporal
bone. It consists of the bony labyrinth within which there is a membranous labyrinth.
a. Bony labyrinth: The bony labyrinth is consists of three parts
(1) The cochlea anteriorly.

(2) The vestibule, in the middle.
(3) The semicircular canals posteriorly.
b. Membranous labyrinth: It is in the form of a complicated, but continuous

closed cavity filled with endolymph.
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THE NOSE
1. Definition: The nose is a respiratory passage and organ of smell. For descriptive
purposes the nose is divided into two main parts.
a. The external nose.

b. The nasal cavity.
2. The external nose: The external nose has a skeletal framework that is partly bony &
partly cartilaginous. The main bones are the nasal bones, which form the bridge of the nose.
3. The nasal cavity: The nasal cavity extends from the external nostrils to the posterior
nasal apertures, is sub-divided into right & left halves by the nasal septum
4. Nasal septum: Nasal septum is median osteocartilaginous partition between the

two halves of the nasal cavity.
5. Lateral wall of the nose: The lateral wall of the nose is irregular owing to the
presence of three shelf-like bony projections called conchae. The conchae increase the surface
area of the nose for effective conditioning of the inspired air.
6. Paranasal sinuses:
a. These are air filled spaces present within the bones around the nasal cavities. The
sinuses are:
(1) Frontal sinus.

(2) Maxillary sinus.
(3) Sphenoidal sinus.
(4) Ethmoidal sinus.
b. All of the sinus opens into the nasal cavity through its lateral wall. The function of
the sinuses is doubtful. They possibly make the skull lighter and add resonance to the
voice. In infections of the sinuses (Sinusitis) the voice is altered.
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

1. Introduction: The digestive system consists of the alimentary tract, plus the
accessory organs of digestion. As food passes along the alimentary tract digestion & absorption
occur and eventually waste material is eliminated. Secretions of the accessory organs assist in
preparing food for absorption and use by the tissue of the body.
2. The alimentary tract: The alimentary tract is about 9 m (30 ft) long and the small
and large intestines comprise about 8.50 m (28 ft) of its length. The alimentary tract consists of
the following parts:
a. The Mouth/oral cavity.

b. The pharynx.
c. Stomach
d. The small intestine: (Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum.)
e. The large Intestine: (The caecum, ascending colon, descending colon, sigmoid
colon and
the rectum)
f. The anal canal.
g. Anus.
3. The accessory organs: That aid the process of digestion they are
a. Salivary glands.
b. Pancreas.
c. Liver.
d. Gallbladder.
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4. Mouth: In the mouth the teeth break up the food into small particles before it is
swallowed. Salivary, parotid, sub-maxillary and sublingual glands secrete saliva which moistens
the food and makes it easier to chewing and lubricates food mass to aid in swallowing. About
1500 ml of saliva is secreted daily. Saliva contains one principal enzyme, ptyalin which initiates
digestion of starches breaking them into the complex sugar and maltose.
5. Tongue: The tongue is a muscular organ attached at the floor of the mouth to the
lower jaw, is involved in taste, speech, mastication and swallowing.
6. Pharynx: The pharynx is the passageway situated between the mouth and
oesophagus and is shared with the upper respiratory tract.
7. Oesophagus: The oesophagus is a muscular tube about 25 cm long, which begins at

the pharynx and passes through the mediastinum of the chest to and into the stomach. By means
of waves of muscular contraction called peristalsis, food is pushed through this tube to the
stomach. When peristalsis is reversed, vomiting occurs. Vomiting may be the result of
overloading the stomach, disease of the intestinal tract, abnormalities of the brain, or a toxic
reaction to certain drugs.
8. Stomach: The stomach is a saccular enlargement of the gastro-intestinal tube,

connecting the lower end of the oesophagus & the first portion of the small intestine
(duodenum). It lies in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen. Muscular rings, or sphincters, at
each end of the stomach form valves to close off the stomach and prevent its contents from
escaping in either direction while mixing is achieved by peristaltic muscular contractions of the
stomach wall. The sphincter at the oesophageal end is the cardiac sphincter, at the duodenal end,
is the pyloric sphincter. The functions of the stomach are as follows:
a. Function: The stomach acts as an initial storehouse for swallowed material

and helps in the chemical breakdown of food substances. Small glands in the walls of the
stomach secrete gastric juice, the principal components of which are hydrochloric acid
and pepsinogen.
9. Small intestine: The small intestine is a muscular tube about 7 m (23 ft) long
attached to the posterior abdominal wall. The small intestine is divided into three continuous
parts. They are duodenum, jejunum & ileum.
10. Duodenum: The duodenum is a tube about 25 cm (10 inch) long which forms a ‘C’
shaped curve around the head of the pancreas, posterior to the liver. It receives digestive juices
from three accessory organs of digestion. i.e. pancreas, liver, and gall bladder.
11. Jejunum: This is the middle part of the small intestine, about 2.5 m (7.5 ft) long,
and its enzymes continue the digestive process.
12. Ileum: This is the last and longest part of the small intestine. Most of the
absorption of the food takes place in the ileum where fingerlike projections from the wall, called
villi, provide a large surface for absorption.
13. Large intestine: The large intestine is about 1.5 m (5 ft) long. It receives the
unutilized, undigested, and indigestible food residues from the ileum. The unabsorbed material
that enters the caecum, eventually travels through the ascending colon, transverse colon,
descending and sigmoid colon to reach the rectum. The appendix, a long, narrow tube with a
blind end, is an out pouching of the caecum located near the junction of the ileum and caecum. It
has no known function.
14. Rectum and anal canal: The rectum is about 12 cm (5 inch) long and follows the
contour of the sacrum and coccyx until it curves back into the short 2.5 to 4 cm anal canal.
15. Anus: The anus is the external opening at the lower end of the digestive system, except
during bowel movement, it is kept closed by a strong muscular ring, the anal sphincter.
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16. Accessory Organs of Digestion:
a. Pancreas: The pancreas is a large, elongated gland lying posterior to the

stomach. Its digestive juices amylase, trypsin, chymotrypsin and lipase are secreted
through the pancreatic duct into the duodenum and act on all types of food. The pancreas
contains special groups of cells, the islets of Langerhans which secrete the hormone,
insulin, needed for the utilization of sugar by the body tissue. Thereby, it is one of the
endocrine glands.
b. Liver: The liver is the largest gland in the body. It is located in the upper
abdomen on the right side, just under the diaphragm and superior to the duodenum and
the pyloric end of the stomach. Some of the functions of the liver are as follows:
(1) Metabolic function:
(a) Stored fat is broken down to provide energy. This process is called
catabolism.
(b) Excess amino acids are broken down & converted to urea.
(c) Drugs and poisons are de-toxicated.
(d) Vitamin ‘A’ is synthesized from carotene.
(e) It is the main heat producing organ of the body.
(f) The plasma proteins are synthesized.
(g) Worn out tissue cells are broken down to form uric acid and urea.
(h) Excess carbohydrate is converted to fat for storage in the fat
depots.
(i) Antibodies and antitoxins are manufactured.
(j) Prothormbin and fibrinogen are synthesized from amino acids.
(k) Heparin is manufactured.
(2) Storage functions:
(a) It stores vitamin A&D.

(b) Iron from the diet & from worn-out red blood cells is stored.
(c) Glucose is stored as glycogen and converted back to the glucose in
the presence of insulin as required.
(d) Anti- anemic factor are maintained.
(3) Secretory functions:
(a) Formation and excretion of bile salts and pigments from bilirubin,
a waste product of red blood cell destruction.
(4) Protective functions:
(a) Production of antibodies and essential elements of the blood

clotting mechanism.
c. Gallbladder: The gallbladder is a sac, usually stained dark green by the bile
it contains, shaped like a black jack, located in a hollow on the under side of the liver, Its
duct, the cystic duct, join the hepatic duct from the liver to form the common bile duct which
enters the duodenum. The main function of the gallbladder is the storage and concentration
of the bile when not needed for digestion.
16. Defecation: The passage of faces or a bowel movement is called defecation. It is

begun by contraction of abdominal and pelvic muscles. At the same time, the sphincter of the
anus relaxes and there is a peristaltic wave of the sigmoid colon and rectum. The faeces are then
expelled as the result of these co-ordinated muscle actions.
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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
1. Introduction: The endocrine system is made up of glands of internal secretion; these
are called ductless glands because they have no ducts to carry away their secretions. The
secretion of an endocrine gland is called hormone. They enter directly into the blood or lymph
circulation. The various glands of human body are described below.
2. Pituitary gland:
a. The pituitary is a small pea-sized gland located at the base of the brain and has
been referred to as the orchestra leader of the endocrine glands because it has control
over all other endocrine glands in the body. It is divided into two lobes, the anterior & a
posterior. The anterior lobe plays the master role and many different functions are there
to its secretions. These are appended below.
(1) Growth hormone: Influences skeletal growth of the body. Diseases

of the gland may cause gigantism, dwarfism or acromegaly.
(2) Thyrotrophic hormone: Influences the thyroid gland, stimulating

the thyroid to secrete its hormone.
(3) Gonadotrophic hormone: Influences the gonads (ovaries or

testicles) and is essential for normal development and functioning of the
reproductive system.
(4) Adrenocorticotrohic hormone: (ACTH) is related to the activity of

the cortex of the adrenal glands, removal of the pituitary leads to the rapid atrophy
of this portion of the adrenal glands.
(5) Parathormove: Contributes to the function of the parathyroid gland.
b. The posterior lobe of the pituitary produces at least three secretions. Antidiuretic
hormone (ADH) or vasopresion, which inhibits secretion of water by the kidney and
stimulates contraction of smooth muscles, especially in blood vessel wall. Oxytocin
(pitocin) which specifically stimulates contraction of the muscles of the uterus,
particularly following delivery. When ADH is not produced in adequate amounts, urine
volume ranges between 10 and 15 liters per day instead of the normal 1.5 liters.
3. Thyroid gland: The thyroid, a butterfly shaped gland, lies in the anterior part of the
neck below the larynx. It consists of two lobes, one on each side of the upper trachea, connected
by a strip of tissue called the isthmus. The hormone secreted by the thyroid is thyroxin which
controls the rate of metabolism of the body. Excessive secretion of thyroxin raises the metabolic
rate and causes a condition known as hyperthyroidism. Hyperthyroidism is characterized by a
fast pulse rate; increase in the basal metabolism, profuse sweating, and a tremendous appetite yet
to loss of weight. The eyeballs may protrude and enlargement of thyroid may develop at first
only palpable and later plainly visible in the lower neck. Hypothyroidism, the opposite of
hyperthyroidism, is caused by an insufficient secretion of thyroxin. The patient exhibits a
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decrease in basal metabolism and sweating is almost absent. There may be weight gain and a
continually tired feeling. The heart rate may be low. There may be an enlargement of the gland
called simple goiter. To prevent simple goiter, iodine containing foods such as vegetables,
iodized salt, & sea food should be eaten.
4. Parathyroid glands: Parathyroid glands are small round bodies, usually four in
number, located just posterior to the thyroid gland. Their hormone regulates the calcium and
phosphorus content of the blood and bones. This amount of calcium is important if certain tissue
activities such as bone formation, coagulation of blood, maintenance of normal muscular
excitability and milk production in the nursing mother. Diminished function or removal of the
parathyroid gland results in a low calcium level in the blood and in extreme cases death occurs
proceeded by a strong contraction of the muscles (tetany) and convulsions.
5. Adrenal glands: The adrenal glands are sometimes referred as the suprarenal
glands, since they are placed like small caps, on the superior part of each kidney. They consist of
an outer portion, the medulla and an inner portion, the cortex of the adrenal gland is essential for
life. The tissue secretes some 28 known compounds, of which six are biologically active. These
six are referred to collectively as corticoids and steroids (fat like compounds). Insufficiency of
these steroids upsets salt and water balance affects the ability of the body to conditions of stress
and diminishes the ability to resist infection.
The medulla of the adrenal glands secretes adrenaline which stimulates the automatic nervous
system. Injection of adrenaline results in rise in arterial blood pressure, constriction of arterioles,
increased strength and rate of heart beat, relaxation of coronary arteries, uterine muscle, muscles
of bronchi, dilation of the pupil of the eye, liberation of glucose from glycogen stores in the
liver, elevation of blood sugar, increase in metabolic rate.
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6. Gonads: The gonads, ovaries in the female and testes in the male, produce hormones that
are important for the functioning of the reproductive system. These glands become active at
puberty and are responsible for the appearance of secondary sex characterstics. This includes
pubic and axillary hair, the beard in the male, the development of the breasts in the female and
the changing of the voice.
7. Pancreas: The pancreas contains clusters of specialized cells called the Islets of
Langerhans. These cells secrete insulin into the blood stream. Insulin is essential for the use and
storage of carbohydrates by the body.
THE URINARY SYSTEM

The urinary system consists of the 02 kidneys which produce the urine, 02 tubes the
urethras, which drain the urine from the kidneys, a large reservoir the urinary bladder where the
urine is temporarily stored prior to discharge from the body and a tube the urethra which carries
the urine from the bladder to the exterior. All these parts are the same in both sexes with the
exception of the urethra. The various parts of the urinary system are described below:
a. The kidneys:
(1) General description: The kidneys are 02 large, bean-shaped

organs designed to filter waste materials from the blood. They lie on the posterior
abdominal wall, one on either side of the vertebral column behind the peritoneum.
Each kidney is about 11.25 cm in length, 5-7.5 cm in breadth, and about 2.5 in
thickness. The weight of the kidney in the adult male varies from 125 gm to 170
gm. On the medial border of each kidney there is a notch called the hilum through
which it passes the ureter and blood vessels. The upper portion of the ureter
expands to form the funnel shaped renal pelvis from which a number of branches
are given off. These branches, or calyces, project still further into the kidney
substance and collect the urine that is formed by the kidney tissue. The essential
unit in the kidney is the nephron, composed of the glomerulus and the renal
tubules. Each kidney contains a million or more of these units which represent a
considerable reweave. The total length of all the tubules in the human kidneys is
about 75 miles.
(2) Functions of the kidney: The kidneys are effective blood filters &
purifiers. Its functions are appended below.
(a) The kidney maintains the extra/intra-cellular fluid volume.
(b) The kidney secretes & excretes the waste products as urine.
(c) It maintains the water balance in the body.
(d) It filtrates out 150-180 ltrs of fluid in a day & about 1.5 ltrs leaves
from the body as urine.
(e) Maintains the PH of the blood.
(f) It is controlled by the secretions of anti-diuretic hormones from the
posterior lobe of the pituitary gland.
(g) Nervous control together with the hormones adrenaline & nor-
adrenaline.
(h) It maintains the blood pressure of the high level required for
filtration in the capillary tufts
(j) The kidney secretes the erythropoetin hormones which stimulate
the bone marrow & produce RBC.
(k) It converts the vitamin D & work in the body.
b. Ureters: The ureters are 02 musculo-membranous tubes, about 30 cm long
and varying in diameter throughout their length from 1 to 10 mm, which extend from the
kidney pelvis down to the urinary bladder, peristaltic contractions of the uterus aid in
transporting urine to the bladder.
c. Urinary Bladder: The urinary bladder is a musculomembranous sac located
on the floor of the pelvis which serves as a reservoir for urine. It empties through the
urethra.
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d. Urethra: The urethra is the tube which carries the urine from the bladder to
the exterior. Its character differs in the 02 sexes. In the male it is common to the
excretory and the reproductive system, but in the female it belongs only to the excretory
system. The female urethra is about 4 cm long and its posterior wall is united firmly with
the anterior wall of the vagina. The male urethra is about 20 cm long.
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THE SKIN
1. Introduction: The skin covers almost every visible part of the human body. Even
the hair and nails are outgrowths from it. The skin contributes much to the personal appearance
of the body, and it also has important functions. It protects the underlying structures, preventing
bacteria from penetrating in to them & protecting them from injury & drying, it contains nerves
that transmit the sensations of touch, heat, cold, pressure & it helps to dispose of body waste. It is
composed of two chief layers, the outer layer the epidermis & the inner the dermis or true skin.
The outer cells of the epidermis are flat and lifeless & look like dry, clear, overlaping scales. The
true skin has nerve ending for touch, heat, cold & pain & also motor nerves leading to the blood
vessels, and secretory nerve fibre to the glands.
2. Hairs & nails: The hairs & nails are modified epidermis. Hair is present in
varying lengths and thickness over almost the entire surface of the body, palms & soles. The
parts of the hair are the root, portion below the surface, and the shaft above the surface.
3. Sebaceous glands: The sebaceous glands are associated with the hair follicles. The
secrete oil, sebum, & empty into the hair follicles near the surface of the skin Sebum keeps the
hair from becoming dry or brittle and forms a protective film of the skin which limits
evaporation and absorption of water.
4. Functions of the skin:
a. Provides a cover for the underlying soft tissues.
b. Provides protection against injury, bacterial invasion and desiccation.
c. Regulates body temperature.
d. A very important sensory organ receiving continual sensations from the
environment (e.g. touch, temperature & pain).
e. Excretes sweat from sweat glands.
f. Can absorb ultraviolet radiation from the sun for vitamin D synthesis.
g. The pigment in the epidermis protects the tissues against harmful effects of light
(especially ultraviolet light)
5. Sweat glands: The sweat glands are coiled tubular glands which lie embedded in
the dermis and are surrounded by small tufts of capillaries. These glands, located partly in the
subcutaneous tissue, open by ducts to the surface of the skin. The sweat glands excrete sweats,
also called perspiration, which is a clear, colorless liquid with a slightly acid reaction. It has a
salty taste and a distinctive rancid odour, or no odour at all. Normally, about one liter of fluid is
excreted daily. Sweat consists of water, salts, and small amounts of urea. There are two types of
sweat glands.
(a) Exocrine (merocrine)

(b) Apocrine.
THE REPRODUCTIVE/GENITAL SYSTEM

1. Male Reproductive system: The male organs of reproduction are the penis & testes
(testicles) with associated ducts and glands.
a. Testes:
The testes are oval glands suspended by the spermatic cords in a cutaneous pouch, the
scrotum. The testes perform two functions:
(1) Production of spermatozoa ( Sperm or male genital cells)
(2) Secretion of an endocrine hormone, the male sex hormone, androgen.
Lying closely adjacent to the superior pole of each testis is the epididymis, a ductal
system that collects and transmits sperm from the testis.
b. Scrotum: The scrotum is a cutaneous pouch which contains the testes &
parts of the spermatic cord. The muscular activity of the scrotum acts effectively to
regulate the environmental temperature of the testes.
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c. Spermatic cords: The two spermatic cords, each of which suspends and
supplies the testis, are formed by the ductus deferens, arteries, veins, lymphatics &
nerves, found together by connective tissue.
d. Vas deferens: The vas deferens is a small tube which connects the
epididymis and ejaculatory duct and contributes to the transmission of sperm to the
ejaculatory system.
e. Seminal vesicles: The seminal vesicles are two pouches that lie between the
bladder and the rectum. They secrete and store a fluid to be added to the secretion of the
testes at the time of ejaculation.
f. Ejaculatory duct: The vas deferens and duct from the seminal vesicles on
each side converge, and with the opposite ducts, form the short ejaculatory duct which
leads into the prostatic urethra.
g. Penis: The penis is composed of three cylindrical bodies of the spongy,
cavernous tissue, bound together by connective tissue & loosely covered by a layer of
skin. The dilated distal end of the corpora spongiosum is known as the glans penis. The
cavernous tissue becomes greatly distended with blood during sexual excitement causing
erection of the penis. The loose skin of the penis folds back on it self distally forming the
prepuce, or fore skin, and covers the glans, frequently it is surgically removed
(circumcision) to prevent irritation and to facilitate cleanliness.
h. Prostate gland: The gland is made up of smooth muscle and glandular
tissue that surrounds the first portion of the urethra. It resembles a chestnut in size and
shape. The prostate gland secretes an alkaline fluid to keep the sperm mobile and protect
them from the acid secretion of the female vagina. This substance is discharged into the
urethra as a part of the ejaculate or semen, during the sexual act.
j. Semen: The semen is made up of spermatozoa and secretions from the
seminal vesicles, prostate & bulbourethral glands, discharged as the ejaculate during
sexual intercourse. There are millions of sperm cells in the semen in each ejaculation, but
only one is needed to fertilize an ovum. It is generally considered that fertilization of the
ovum occurs while it is still in the uterine tube.
FIG: MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN
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FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE / GENITAL ORGANS

1. Introduction: The female reproductive system includes the ovaries, the uterine
(fallopian) tubes, the uterus, the vagina, the external genitalia and the mammary glands. The several
parts are described below.
a. Ovaries: The ovaries are two almond shaped glands suspended by ligaments in
the upper pelvic cavity one on either side of the uterus. Their prime function is to produce the
ova and the female hormones oestrogen and progesterone. These hormones play essential
roles in development of secondary sex characteristics, the reproduction cycle and gestation
and lactation. Each ovary normally releases an ovum each 56 days, the right & left ovary
alternately discharge an ovum every 28 days. Menstruation in most women is there fore a 28
days cycle.
b. Uterine Tubes (Fallopian tubes): The uterine tubes convey the ova from the
ovaries to the cavity of the uterus.
c. Uterus: The uterus is a hollow, pear shaped organ with thick muscular walls.
It is lined with a specialized epithelium called endometrium. It is the endometrium which
undergoes partial destruction every 28 days in the non-pregnant woman. Normally the uterus
is about 7 cm long by 5 cm wide at its upper widest portion. The parts of the uterus are the
body, which is the large upper portion, and the cervix, which is the smaller portion which
projects into the upper part of the vagina. The cervical opening into the vagina is called the
external os
d. Vagina: The vagina is a muscular canal lined with mucous membrane which
extends from the cervix to the vulva. The canal is about 7.5 cm long & its lining membrane,
which is greatly folded, is continuous with the inner lining of the uterus. It also forms an
important part of the birth canal, stretching widely during delivery.
e. Vestibular glands: The vestibular glands (Bartholine glands) are the female
counterpart of the male bulbourethral glands. They consist of two small, roundish bodies on
either side of the vagina.
f. External genitalia: The external genital organs, refered too collectively as
the valva, include the mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora and clitoris. The mons pubis is
the fat pad located anterior to the symphysis pubis. The labia majora are two folds of skin
extending from the mons pubis anteriorly to the anus posteriorly. Within these two folds of
skin are two smaller folds called the labia minora. The clitoris is a small body composed of
erectile tissue located at the point where the two labia minora meet; vestibule is the area
between the labia minora into which the urethral and vaginal orifices open.
g. Mammary glands: The mammary glands or breasts are accessory organs
of the female reproductive system. They secrete milk for the nourishment of the newborn
infant, a process called lactation.
FIG: FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN
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THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

1. Definition: This is the system for the communication in the various parts of human
body. It is also the controlling system which governs the activities of the various organs.
2. Divisions of the nervous system: The nervous system may be divided into
following parts.
a. The central nervous system (CNS), which is made up of the brain and spinal cord.
b. The peripheral nervous system, which consists of the peripheral nerves and
ganglia associated with them.
3. The brain: The brain consists of the following parts.
a. The cerebrum, comprising two large cerebral hemispheres.
b. The cerebellum
c. The Brainstem is made of
(1) The midbrain
(2) The pons
(3) The medulla: The medulla is continuous, below, with the spinal cord.
Peripheral nerves attached to the brain are called Cranial nerves, and those attached to
the spinal cord are called Spinal nerves.
(4) The peripheral nerves include those that supply the skin, muscles and joints of
the body wall and limbs, and those that supply visceral structures e.g heart, lungs,
stomach etc.
4. Tissues constituting the nervous system: The specialized cells that constitute the
functional units of the nervous system are called Neurons. Neurons are supported by a special
kind of connective tissue called neuroglia. Nervous tissue is richly supplied with blood. A neuron
consists of a cell body which gives off a variable number of processes. Most neurons give off a
number of short branching processes called dendrites and one longer process called an axon.
Dendrites terminate near the cell body.
5. Grey and white matter: Sections through the spinal cord or through any part of
the brain show certain regions that are whitish and others that have a darker grayish colour.
These constitute the white matter and gray matter respectively.
6. Cavities within the brain and spinal cord: The exterior of the brain contains a
series of cavities. The cerebrum contains a median cavity, the third ventricle and two lateral
ventricles, one in each hemisphere. The cavities are filled by the cerebrospinal fluid.
7. The meninges : The brain and spinal cord are enclosed by the three membranous
coverings or meninges. These are the dura mater, the arachnoid mater and the pia mater.
8. CEREBROSPINAL FLUID (CSF):
a. The cerebrospinal fluid is a modified tissue fluid. It is contained in the ventricular
system of the brain and in the subarachnoid space around the brain and spinal cord. CSF
replaces lymph in the CNS. Total quantity is 150 ml. It is formed 200 ml per hour or 550
ml per day. The normal pressure of CSF is 70-180 mm.
b. Function of CSF
(1) Protective.
(2) Nutritive &
(3) A pathway for excretion from the CNS
9. THE SPINAL CORD: The spinal cord is the lower elongated, cylindrical part of the
CNS. It occupies the upper two thirds of the vertebra canal. It extends from the level of the upper
border of the atlas to the lower border of vertebral L1, or the upper border of the vertebra L2. It is
about 45 cm long. The lower end is conical. The spinal cord gives off 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
10. THE CEREBELLUM:
a. The cerebellum is the largest part of the hind brain. It is situated in the posterior
cranial fossa behind the pons & medulla.
b. Functions of the cerebellum: The functions of the cerebellum are as follows:
(1) The cerebellum coordinates voluntary movements so that they are smooth,
balanced and accurate.
(2) The cerebellum controls tone, posture and equilibrium.
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THE CEREBRUM
a. The cerebrum is made of two cerebral hemispheres which are incompletely
separated from each other by the median longitudinal fissure.
b. Main functional areas of cerebral cortex: The following areas are commonly
referred to in clinical work:
(1) The motor area, stimulation of this area results in movements in the
opposite half of the body. The body is represented upside down in this area.
(2) The premotor area, it is also called psychomotor area. It is believed that
patterns of movement are remembered in this area.
(3) The motor speech area, injury to this area results in inability to speak.
(4) The sensory area, as in the motor area the body is represented upside down
in the sensory area.
(5) The visual area.
(6) The acoustic area for hearing.
c. Functions of the cerebram:
(1) It controls the food habits necessary for the survival of the individual.
(2) It controls sex behavior necessary for survival of the species.
(3) It controls emotional behavior expressed in form of joy, sorrow, fear, fight
& friendship and liking & disliking.
12. CRANIAL NERVES: The cranial nerves are sensory, motor, or mixed (sensory &
motor). There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves in the human body. They are as follows.
a. The olfactory nerve (sensory).
b. The optic nerve (sensory).
c. The oculomotor nerve (motor)
d. The trochlear nerve (motor).
e. The trigeminal nerve (sensory, some motor).
f. The abducent nerve (motor).
g. The facial nerve (Motor &sensory).
h. The Vestibulocochlear nerve (sensory).
i. The glossopharyhgeal nerve (motor &sensory).
j. The vagus nerve (motor, some sensory).
k. The Accessory nerve (motor).
l. The hypoglossal nerve (motor).
13. SPINAL NERVES: Spinal nerve arises from the spinal cord & leaves the
vertebral canal in the spaces between the vertebrae. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
8 - Cervical
12 – Thoracic.
5 – Lumber.
5 – Sacral,
1 – Coccygeal.
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THE HEART
1. The heart is a conical, hollow muscular organ situated in the left side of the chest of
which 1/3 of it line to the right and 2/3 to the left of the median plane. The heart has four
chambers these are the right & left atria and right & left ventricles. The atria are separated from
each by interatrial septum and the ventricles are separated from each other by inter ventricular
septum.
2. The right atrium: It is the right upper chamber of the heart. It receives venous
blood from the whole body and pumps it to the right ventricles through tricuspid opening.
3. The right ventricle: The right ventricle is a triangular chamber which receives
blood from the right atrium and pumps it to the lungs through pulmonary arteries.
4. The left atrium: It is a quadrangular chamber situated posteriorly. It forms 2/3rd of

the base of the heart. It receives oxygenated blood from the lungs through pulmonary veins and
pumps it to the left ventricle through the mitral opening.
5. The left ventricle: It forms the apex of the heart and receives oxygenated blood from
the Lt atrium and pumps it into the aorta.
6. The valves: The valves of the heart maintain unit sectioned flow of the blood and
prevent its regurgitation in the opposition direction. There are two pairs of valves in the heart.
They are:
(a) The atrioventricular valve –01 pair.
(b) The seminular valve - 01 pair.
The right atrioventriculer valve and the left atrioventricular valve are known as the tricuspid and
the bicuspid valve or mitral valve. The semilunar valve includes the aortic and pulmonary valves
7. The conducting system of the heart: The heart is made of myocardium that is
specialized for initiates and conduction of the impulse the conducting system has the following
main parts..
(a) SA node (sinuatrial node): It is known as pace maker of the heart situated in
the upper part of the Rt atrium.
(b) AV node (Artrioventricular node): It is smaller than SA node situated in the

lower part of the Rt atrium.
8. Blood supply of the heart: The heart is supplied by two coronary arteries and it is
drained by the various cardiac veins mainly through coronary sulcus vein.
9. Circulation of the heart: The Rt atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the
whole body through the superior and inferior venacava. It sends the blood to Rt ventricle through
Rt atrioventricular opening. The Rt ventricle propels blood to the lungs through the pulmonary
arteries where the blood is oxygenated. The oxygenated blood returns to the heart through
pulmonary vein to the Lt atrium. The Lt atrium sends blood to the Lt ventricle through the Lt
atrioventricular orifice. Finally the Lt ventricle contracts and drive the blood to the aorta and
ultimately to the whole body.
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(1) Nuclear envelope

5. Mitochondria: This is spherical or filamentous organelles present in almost all

(1) The chief source & energy in the cell.

6 Endoplasmic reticulum: It is an anastomosing network of membrane bound

(1) Detoxification, Oxidation & conjugation of potentially toxic substances.

7. Golgi complex: It is a membrane bound compartment found in almost all cells

(1) Digest foreign particles and unwanted cell organelles.

3. Epithelial tissue: Epithelial tissues may be defined as a collection of closely

(1) Give support to the body.

5. Muscle tissue: Muscle is the basic tissue composed of differentiated cells

(1) Helps in locomotion and movement of the body.

CAVITIES OF HUMAN BODY

B. The cavities of the trunk:

a. The thorax or thoracic cavity: It contains-

b. The abdomen or abdominal cavity: It contains-

c. The pelvis or pelvic cavity: It contains-

iii) The rectum, the last part of the large intestine.

MUSCULO SKELETAL SYSTEM

2. Muscles: There are three basic types of muscle tissue:

b. Muscles of the chest

(1) Rectus abdominis.

d. Muscles of the Arm

e. Muscle of the legs & thigh

f. Muscles of the back

(1) Involved in supporting the soft tissue.

c. Number of bones: Human skeleton is made up of 206 bones. Among them 80

(1) Axial bones - 80

(a) Skull bone - 22

(c) Vertebral column - 33

(a) Upper limb - 64

(1) Provide shape and support to the body.

FIG: Skeletal (Male)

b. Classification. Joints may be classified broadly into two types.

(1) Synarthoses. Joints in which very limited or no movement occurs

(1) Joints permit various types of movement of the body e.g.

a. Air passage: The air passage consists of two major parts.

(2) Respiratory portion. Air passage where respiration or gaseous

b Naso pharynx: The first part of the pharynx is called nasopharynx. It is

(a) It produces voice by vocal cord.

Primary bronchi∧Secondary/Lobar bronchi∧Tertiary/ Segmental

(1) To exchange of breathing gases.

(1) The diaphragm.

(1) The Rectus abdominis.

l. Basic mechanism of inspiration

m. Basic mechanism of expiration Expiration during quiet breathing is

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

3. Types of blood vessels

b. Capillaries. The capillaries are fine, hair-like vessels, microscopic in size.

(1) Erythrocytes or red blood cells.

7. Thrombocytes or platelets Thrombocytes are small non-nucleated, disc-like cell

8. Function of the blood

a. The systemic/ general/greater circulation.

13. The portal circulation:

FIG: Cardiovascular System

THE EYE BALL

FIG: THE EYE BALL

FIG: THE EAR

a. The external ear.

2. External ear: The external ear consists of

a. The Auricle or pinna

5. Tympanic Membrane: This is a thin, translucent partition between the external

b. Functions of the middle ear: