Unit 3 - Electromagnetic & Static Relays PDF

 At the end of this unit student will know/ learn
 Principle of operation and construction of

Electromagnetic relays
 Classification of Relays based on
▪ Construction
▪ Time of operation
 Application of relays
▪ Over current relays
▪ Directional relays
▪ Differential relays
▪ Distance relays and
▪ Static relays
Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 2
 Protection scheme required for the protection of power
system components against abnormal conditions such as
faults etc., essentially consists of protective relaying and
CBs.
 Protective relay functions as a sensing device, it senses the
fault, then determines its location and finally, it sends
tripping command to the CB.
 The CB after getting the command from protective relay

disconnects the faulted element.
 It can be concluded, that, the protective relay which is the

brain behind the scheme, plays a vital role.
Protective Relay: is an automatic device which
detects an abnormal condition (a fault) in an
electrical circuit and causes a CB to isolate
(disconnect) the faulty element of the system.
In some cases it may give an alarm or visible

indication to alert operator.

CB CT
Transmission Line
S
PT Fault
Trip
Setting
Current from CT
Trip Signal
to CB Voltage from PT
Setting
 In order to attain desired reliability, the power system
network is divided into different protection zones:
1. Generator Protection
2. Transformer Protection
3. Bus-bar & Feeder Protection
4. Transmission Line Protection
 The protective relays do not eliminate the possibility of fault

occurrence on the power system rather their action starts
only after the fault has occurred on the system.

 The relays employed for the protection of apparatus and
transmission lines are:
1. Over-Current Relays
2. Under-Voltage Relays
3. Under-Frequency Relays
4. Directional Relays
5. Thermal Relays
6. Phase Sequence Relays
7. Differential Relays
8. Distance Relays
9. Pilot Relays
All the existing relaying schemes employ either one or more of
these relaying schemes with sight modification
 The main features of good protective relaying is:
1. Reliability
2. Selectivity
3. Sensitivity
4. Simplicity
5. Speed and
6. Economy

1. Protective Relay: is an automatic device which detects an abnormal
condition in an electrical circuit and causes a CB to isolate the faulty
element of the system. In some cases it may give an alarm or visible
indication to alert operator.
2. Measuring Relay: it is the main protective relay of the protective

scheme, to which energizing quantities are applied. It performs
measurements to detect abnormal conditions in the system to be
protected.
3. Auxiliary Relay: it assists protective relays. They repeat the

operations of protective relay, control switches, etc. they relieve
the protective relays of duties like tripping, time lag, sounding an
alarm, etc. they may be instantaneous or may have a time delay.
4. Operating Force/ Torque: A force or torque which tends to close
the contacts of the relay.
5. Restraining Force/ Torque: A force or torque which opposes the
operating force/ torque.
6. Operating/ Pick-up (level): The threshold value of the actuating
quantity (current, voltage, etc.) above which the relay operates.
7. Reset/ Drop out (level):
1. The threshold value of the actuating quantity (current, voltage,
etc.) below which the relay is de-energized and returns to its
normal position or state. Or
2. The maximum value of actuating quantity below which contacts
are opened is called the reset or drop-out value.
8. Operating Time: it is the time which elapses from the instant at
which the actuating quantity exceeds the relay pick-up value to
the instant at which the relay closes its contacts.
9. Reset Time: it is the time which elapses from the moment the
actuating quantity falls below its reset value to the instant when
the relay comes back to its normal (initial) position.
10. Setting: The value of the actuating quantity at which the relay is
set to operate.
11. Burden: the power consumed by the relay circuitry at the rated
current is known as its burden.
12. Blocking: Prevention of tripping of the relay is called blocking. It
may be due to the operation of an additional relay or due to its
own characteristics.

 Depending on the technologies they use for
construction & operation:
1. Conventional Electromagnetic Relays
2. Static Relays: using semiconductor devices
like ICs, transistors, diodes etc.
3. Microprocessor based Relays

1. Conventional Electromagnetic Relays further
classified as:
a) Attracted Armature
b) Induction Disc & Cup
c) Printed Disc Dynamometer
d) Moving-Coil
e) Polarized Moving-iron

 These are the simplest type of relays.
 Electromagnetic attraction relays operate by virtue of
an armature being attracted to the poles of an
electromagnet or a plunger being drawn into a solenoid.
 Such relays may be actuated by DC or AC quantities.
 The important types of electromagnetic attraction relays are:

i. Hinged Armature Type
ii. Solenoid (Plunger) Type
iii. Balanced Beam (Rotating Armature) Type
iv. Polarized Type

 All these relays operate on the same principle.
 They respond to both ac and dc quantities.
 These are basically single actuating quantity relay.
 They have fast operation and fast reset.
 They are described as instantaneous.
 The operation is obtained by the virtue of an armature being
attracted to the poles of an electromagnet or plunger being drawn
into a solenoid.
 In case of ac quantity the electro-magnetic force developed is given
by: Fe  KI2  K I max sin wt 
2
1

 K I 2max  I 2max cos 2t
2

Constant Dependent of time and
independent pulsating at double the
of time Supply frequency
 The coil is energized by an operating quantity proportional to the
system current or voltage.
 This quantity produces a magnetic flux which is in turn produces an
electromagnetic force, which is proportional to the square of the flux
in the air gap or square of the current.
 Used mainly for protection of small machines.
 Also used as auxiliary relay. (indicating flags, alarm relays etc.)

 An iron plunger which moves in
and out of the solenoid to make
and break the contact.
 This type of construction became
obsolete as it draws more
current.

 It consists of two coils, one on each side.
 The beam remains in horizontal position till operating force
becomes more than the restraining force.
 When the operating torque increases, the beam tilts and the
contacts are opened.
 The net torque T  K1I12  K 2 I 22
I1
I2

 The sensitivity of the hinged armature relay can be
increased for DC operation by the addition of a
permanent magnet . This is known as polarized relay.
 It is most robust in construction.
 Most of these are employ leaf-spring supported
armatures.

1. Over-current Protection
2. Definite-time lag over-current protection
3. Earth fault protection
4. Differential protection
5. Auxiliary relays
 However, they are instantaneous relays and are

sensitive to starting currents, load fluctuations and
current surges.

 Electromagnetic relays are the most widely used relays for
protective relaying purposes involving only AC quantities.
 Operates on the principle of split-phase induction motor.
 In this type of relay a metal disc is allowed to rotate between
two electromagnets.
 The fields produced by them are displaced in space and phase.
 The torque is developed by the interaction of flux of one of the
magnets and the eddy currents induced in the disc by the
other.
 There are two popular constructions:
i. Shaded Pole Type
ii. Watt-hour Meter Type

 In this a C-shaped electromagnet is used.
 One half of the electromagnet is surrounded by a copper band known
as shading ring.
 The shaded portion of the pole produces a flux which is displaced in
space and time with respect to the flux produced by the un-shaded
portion of the pole.
 Thus two alternating fluxes displaced in space and time cut the disc
and produce eddy currents in it.
 Torques are produced by the
interaction of each flux with
eddy current produced by
other flux.
 The resultant torque causes
the disc to rotate.

 In this two electromagnets are used,
upper and lower one.
 Each magnet produces an alternating
flux which cuts the disc.
 To obtain a phase displacement
between two fluxes produced, their
coils may be energized by two
different sources.
 If they are energized by the same
source, the resistance and reactance of
the two circuits are made different so
that there will be sufficient phase
difference between the two fluxes.
Advantages/Disadvantages
 This type construction is robust and reliable.
 It is used for over-current protection.
 Gives an inverse time current characteristic.
 Slow compared to the induction cup and attracted
armature type relays.
 These are used for slow speed relaying.
 Its operating time is adjustable and is employed
where a time-delay is required.
 Its reset/ pick-up ratio is high, above 95% because its
operation does not involve any change in the air gap.
 The VA burden depends on its application, and is
generally of the order of 2.5VA.
 The torque is proportional to the square of the actuating
current if the single actuating quantity is used.
 It rotates at a constant speed.
 The disc inertia should be small as possible, so that it
should stop rotating as soon as the fault current
disappear.
 After the cessation of the fault current, the disc will travel
to some distance due to inertia. This distance should be
minimum. This is called over-run of the disc.
 A break magnet is used to minimize over-run.
 In this a stationary core is placed inside the rotating cup to decrease
the air gap without increasing inertia.
 The spindle of the cup carries an arm which closes contacts.
 A spring is employed to provide a resetting torque.
 It operates on the same principle of induction motor.
 It employs a 4 or 8-pole structure. The rotor is hallow cylinder
(inverted cup).
 When two actuating quantities
are applied, one may produce
operating torque and other may
produce restraining torque.
 A torque is produced due to the
interaction of rotating flux and
the induced current.
Advantages:
 The inertia of the cup is much less than that of a disc.
 The magnetic system is more efficient and hence the magnetic
leakage is minimum.
 Its VA is about three times that of an induction disc type
construction. (VA burden is greatly reduced)
 It possesses high sensitivity, high speed.
 Produces a steady non-vibrating torque.
 Its operating time is to the order of 0.01 sec.
 With its high torque/ inertia ratio, it is quite suitable for high speed
operation.
 Were widely used for distance and directional relays, later replaced
by bridge rectifier type static relays.

 This theory is true for both disc and cup type induction relays.
 Figure shows how force is produced in a rotor which is cut by φ1 and
φ2. The fluxes are alternating quantities and can be expressed as:
1  1m sin t 2  2m sin t   
where θ is the phase difference between φ1 and φ2

Voltage induced in the rotor are:
d1
e1   1m cos t
dt
d2
e2   2 m cost  t 
dt
It may be assumed that the induced eddy
currents in the rotor are in phase with their
voltages i1  1m cost
i2  2m cost   

The current produced by the flux By dropping the suffix m,
Interact with the other flux and
F  K12 sin 
vice versa. The forces produced are:
F1  1i2 If the same current produces
 1m sin t  2 m cost    φ1 and φ2, the force produced
 1m2 m cost     sin t is given by
F2  2i1 F  KI 2 sin 
 2 m sin t     1m cos t
If two actuating voltage is V
 1m2 m sin t     cos t
and current I produce φ1 and
As these forces are in opposition φ2, the force produced is
the resultant force is
F  KVI sin 
F1  F2  F1 
 1m2 m sin t     cost  cost     sin t  Universal Torque
 1m2 m sin  Equation
 According to timing characteristics the relays may be
classified as:
1. Instantaneous Relays: operate and reset without any
intentional time delay. It operates in 0.1 second.
2. Definite Time Lag Relays: operation or resetting of
which are intentionally time delayed
3. Inverse Time Lag Relays: operating time is inversely
proportional to the magnitude of the operating current.
4. Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) Lag Relays:
give an inverse time characteristic at lower value of the
operating current and definite time characteristic at
higher value of the operating current.
 Time lag Relays: the operation or resetting of which are
intentionally time delayed
 The time delay of the relay may be fixed or adjustable.
 Time lag relays are intended to operate after a specified
time on the appearance of the energizing quantity.
 The time lag of operation depends on the designed
characteristics of the relay.
 Many of the relays have definite minimum time of
operation which will help to attain proper time grading
between sections.

1. Operating time is less effected by 1. Operating time depend on the
magnitude of current. magnitude of current.
2. As the magnitude of current 2. As the magnitude of current
increases the operating time increases the operating time
remains constant over a definite becomes less. It is inversely
time. proportional.
3. Can be obtained by using definite
time over-current relay. 3. Can be obtained naturally by
4. Fault clearance is slow. electromechanical relay.
5. Time elapse between the instant 4. Fault clearance is at fast rate.
of pick-up and closing of relay 5. No time elapse.
contacts.
6. Low value of currents are 6. High values of currents are
obtained obtained
Definite Time Characteristics
Operating Time
Inverse Time Characteristics
Pickup Value
Actuating Quantity

 According to the application the relays may classified as:
1. Over-Current, Over-Voltage and Over-Power
Relays
2. Directional or Reverse Power relays
3. Directional or Reverse Current Relays
4. Differential Relays
5. Distance Relays
6. Under-Voltage, Under-Current, and Under-
Power Relays

 According to the time of operation
the over-current relays may
classified as: 10
i. Instantaneous Over-current Relay

Definite Time
ii. Inverse-time Over-current Relay
IDMT
iii. Definite time Over-current Relay
Operating Time
Very Inverse
iv. Inverse Definite Minimum Time 1
(IDMT) Over-current Relay

v. Very Inverse Over-current Relay
10 100
vi. Extremely Inverse Over-current
Multiples of Plug Setting
Relay

 No intentional delay is provided for operation.
 The relay contacts will close immediately after the current in the
relay coil exceeds that for which it is set.
 The characteristic can be achieved with the help of hinged
armature relay.
 Reducing the time of operation to a minimum for faults very close
to the source where the fault current is greatest.
 Is effective only where the impedance between the relay and
source is small compared with the section to be protected.
 Time of operation of 0.01 sec at three times setting can be
obtained.
 Employed for earth-fault and other types of circulating current
protection.
 Operating time is approximately inversely proportional to the
magnitude of the actuating quantity.
 At values of current less than pick-up value, the relay never
operate. At higher values, the operating time of the relay
decreases steadily with increase of current.
 The more pronounced the effect is more inverse the
characteristic
 They are normally more inverse near pick-up value of the
actuating quantity and become less inverse as it is increased.
 These characteristics can be obtained by induction disc and cup
relays.

 If the core is made to saturate at a very early stage, the time of
operation remains same over the working range. This
characteristic is known as definite time characteristic.
 This relay operates after a specified time irrespective of the
magnitude of the fault current.
 These relays are used in:
▪ Radial or loop circuits having a few sections,
▪ As back-up protection for other types of protection,
▪ On systems with wide variation of fault current due to source
impedance.
 Selectivity amongst such relays is obtained if there is difference
of 0.5s in the time settings of the two successive relays.
 Operating time is approximately inversely
proportional to fault current near pick-up value and
becomes substantially constant slightly above pick-up
value of the relay.
 This is achieved by using a core of the electromagnet
which gets saturated for currents slightly greater than
the pick-up current.

 In this the saturation of the core occurs still at a larger
stage.
 The time-current characteristic is inverse over a
greater range and after saturation tends to definite
time.
 These relays are employed on feeders and sub-
transmission lines.

 In this the saturation of the core occurs at a very late
stage.
 These relays quite suitable for protection of
transformers, cables etc., as it is possible to achieve
accurate discrimination with fuses and auto-reclosers.
 Are more suitable for installations with large in-rush
currents after an outage.

 General expression: t  nK Approximate t 
K
I 1 In
 For Definite Time Characteristic, the value of n = 0

 According to British Standards:
0.14
i) I.D.M.T : t
I 0.02  1
13.5
ii ) Very Inverse : t
I 1
80
iii ) Extremely Inverse : t  2
I 1
 The advantage of such simplified time-current curves

is the saving in time in calculating relay time settings.
To Trip Circuit
From CT

 In order to calculate the actual relay operating time, the
following must be known:
a) Current Setting
b) Time- PSM Curve
c) Time Setting
d) Fault Current
e) Current Transformer (CT) Ratio

 The current above which an over-current relay should operate
can be set.
 There are number of tappings on the current coil, available for
current setting.
 E.g. A relay can be set at 50% to 200% of the rated current in
steps of 25%. Means if the usual current rating of the relay is
5A, it can be set at 2.5a, 3.75A, 5A,…, 10A.
 When the relay is set at 5A, it will operate when the current
exceeds 5A.
 For phase-to-phase fault protection: 50 t0 200%, current rating
is 5A
 Earth Fault Protection: 20 to 80%, current rating is 1A
 The actual r.m.s. current flowing in the relay expressed as a
multiple of the relay setting current (pick-up current) is known
as Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM).
Secondary Current Primary Current DuringFault
PSM  
Relay Current Setting Relay Current Setting X C.T. Ratio
 Suppose, the rating of a relay is 5A and it is set at 200% i.e., at

10A. If the current flowing through the relay is 100A, then
PSM=10. If PSM=4, means 40A of current is flowing, PSM=6
means 60A of current is flowing and so on.
 If the same relay is set at 50%, i.e., at 2.5A, the PSM=4 means
10A, PSM=6 means 15A, PSM=10 means 25A and so on.

 The operating time of the relay can be set at a desired value.
 e.g., In induction disc type relay, the angular distance by which
the moving part of the relay travels for closing the contacts can
be adjusted to get different operating time.
 There are 10 steps in which time can be set.
 The values of TMS are 0.1, 0.2, …, 0.9, 1.
 Suppose, at a particular value of the PSM, the operating time is
4s with TMS = 1.
▪ The operating time for same current with TMS = 0.5 will be 4X0.5 =
2s
▪ The operating time for same current with TMS = 0.2 will be 4X0.2 =
0.8 s

e.g.: The current rating of a relay is 5A. PSM=1.5, TMS=0.4, C.T.
ratio=400/5, fault current = 6000A. Determine the operating
time of the relay. At TMS=1, operating time at various PSM are:
PSM 2 4 5 8 10 20
Operating time in Seconds 10 5 4 3 2.8 2.4
Fault Current If = 6000A
C.T. Ratio = 400/5 = 80
Rated Current of CT = Relay Current Setting X PSM = 5 X 1.5 = 7.5 A
Secondary Current Primary Current During Fault 6000
PSM     10
Relay Current Setting Relay Current Setting X C.T. Ratio 7.5 X 80
Operating time from the given Time-PSM at above calculated PSM = 10 is 2.8s.
This time is for TMS = 1.
Therefore, The actual operating time for TMS=0.4 will be 2.8 X 0.4 = 1.12s

1. An IDMT type over-current relay is used to protect a feeder through 500/1
A CT. The relay has a plug setting of 125% and TMS=0.3. Find the time of
operation of the said relay if a fault current of 5000A flows through the
feeder. Make use of the following characteristics.
PSM 2 3 5 8 10 15
Operating time in Seconds 10 6 4.5 3.2 3 2.5
2. Determine the time of operation of the relays placed at location 1 and 2

assuming that fault current is 2000A, CT ratio 200/1, relay 1 setting is 100%
and of 2 is 125% . For discrimination the time gradient margin between the
relays is 0.5s. And the relay 1 has a TMS =0.2. Also determine the TMS of
relay 2. The relay characteristic is given below:
PSM 2 3.6 5 8 10 15 20
Operating time in Seconds 10 6 3.9 3.15 2.8 2.2 2.1

 Definition:
A directional relay is able to detect whether the point of fault lies in
the forward or reverse direction with respect to the relay location.
 It is able to sense the direction of power flow, i.e., whether the
power is flowing in the normal direction or the reverse direction.
 Note: over-current relay is non-directional relays
 It is so designed that it obtains its operating torque by the
interaction of magnetic fields derived from both current and
voltage of the circuit it protects.
 Thus this type of relay is essentially a wattmeter and the
direction of the torque set up in the relay depends upon the
direction of the current relative to the voltage with which it is
associated.
 Consists of a aluminium disc – rotates
between the poles of two
electromagnets.
 Upper electromagnet – connected to PT
 Lower electromagnet – connected to CT
 The current coil is provided with tappings
connected to the Plug Setting Bridge. This
permits to have any desired current
setting.
 The restraining torque - a spiral spring.
 The spindle of the disc carries a moving
contact.
 Desired time-setting can be achieved by
adjusting the angle of rotation of the disc.
 Fluxes φ1 and φ2 .are set up by voltage and current respectively.
 Interaction of these two fluxes wit eddy currents induced in the disc
produce a driving torque which rotates the disc is given by:
T  12 sin  θ V
sin ce 1V ; 2I α
and   90  
T  VI sin( 90   )
φ2
 VI cos
I
 power in the circuit φ1
 It is clear that the direction of driving torque on the disc depends
upon the direction of power flow in the circuit to which the relay is
associated.

 When the power in the circuit flows in
the normal direction, the driving torque
and retraining torque (due to spring)
help each other to turn away the
moving contact from the fixed contacts.
The relay remain inoperative.
 However, the reversal of current in the
circuit reverses the direction of driving
torque on the disc. When the reversed
driving torque is large enough, the disc
rotates in the reverse direction and
moving contact closes the trip circuit.
 This causes the operation of the CB
which disconnects the faulty section.
 Directional power relay is unsuitable for use as a
directional protective relay under short circuit
conditions
 When the short circuit occurs, the system voltage falls

to a low value and there may be insufficient torque
developed in the relay to cause its operation.
 This difficulty is overcome in this relay, which is

designed to be almost independent of the system
voltage and power factor.
 It consists of two relay elements mounted
on a common case:
1.Directional element:
▪ It is essentially a directional power relay.
▪ The current coil is carried over the upper
magnet of the non directional element.
▪ The trip contacts (1 & 2) of the
directional element are connected in
series with the secondary circuit of the
over current element. Over
current
▪ This element must operate first in order element
(non
to operate the over current element. directional
)

2. Non directional element:
▪ It is similar to a non directional over
current relay.
▪ The spindle of the disc of this element
carries a moving contact which closes
the fixed contacts (trip circuit contacts)
after the operation of directional
element.
 Note:
Over
▪ plug setting bridge is also provided in current
element
the relay for current setting. (non
directional)
▪ The tappings are provided on the upper
magnet of over current element and are
connected to the bridge.
1. Under Normal Condition:
▪ Power flows in the normal direction in
the circuit protected by the relay.
▪ Therefore, directional power relay does
not operate, thus by keeping over
current element energized.
2. Under Abnormal Condition:
▪ There is a tendency for the current or
power flow in the reverse direction.
▪ The upper disc rotates to bridge the Over
current
contacts 1 & 2. This completes the circuit element
(non
for over current element. directional)
▪ The disc of this element rotates and

closes the trip circuit.
Non directional relay Directional relay
Protection of Parallel Feeders
Combined Earth Fault & Phase Fault Protection of Ring Mains

Protective Scheme with Two Over-
current and one Earth fault relays
Earth Fault Protective Scheme: Earth Fault Protective Scheme: Earth Fault
Directional Earth Fault Relays Relay connected in neutral-to-earth circuit

▪ Most relays so far discussed relies on excess of current
for their operation.
▪ They are less sensitive because they cannot make
correct distinction between heavy load conditions and
minor fault conditions.
▪ In order to overcome this difficulty differential relays
are used.

Definition:
A relay which operates in response to the (vector)
difference of two or more actuating quantities.
▪ Means, it requires two or more similar actuating quantities and these

should have phase displacement for the operation of the relay.
▪ It compares the current entering a section of the system with the
current leaving the section. Under normal conditions both quantities
are equal but under short circuit conditions this is no longer applies.
▪ The difference between the incoming and outgoing currents is
arranged to flow through operating coil of the relay. If this differential
current is equal to or greater than the pickup value, the relay will
operate.

 Almost any type of relay when connected in a particular way
can be made to operate as a differential relay.
 There are two fundamental systems of differential or

balanced protection:
a) Current Differential Protection
b) Voltage Differential Protection
Differential protection principle is employed for the

protection of generators, generator-transformer units,
transformers, feeders (transmission lines), large motors and
bus-bars.
 Disadvantages:
▪ The impedance of the pilot cables
generally causes a slight difference
between the currents at the two ends
of the section to be protected. If the
relay is very sensitive, then even if
small differential current causes
operation.
▪ Pilot cable capacitance causes
incorrect operation of the relay when a
large through-current flows.
▪ Accurate matching of current
transformers cannot be achieved due
to pilot circuit impedance
 Biased Beam Relay: is designed to respond to
the differential current in terms of its
fractional relation to the current flowing
through the protected section
▪ It is essentially an over-current balanced beam
relay type with additional restraining coil.
▪ The restraining coil produces a bias force in the
opposite direction to the operating force
▪ Under normal condition the bias force is more
than the operating force.
▪ When internal fault occurs the operating force
exceeds the bias force, and trips the contacts.
▪ The bias force can be adjusted by varying the
number of turns on the restraining coil.
 In this scheme, two similar CTs are connected at either end of the element to be
protected by means of pilot wires.
 The secondaries CTs are connected in series with the relay in such a way that under
normal conditions, their induced emf’s are in opposition.
 Under normal condition: currents in the CTs are equal and voltages are balanced
against each other and no current will flow through the relay operating coil.
 Under Fault conditions: the current in the two primaries differ from one another and
voltages will no longer be in balance.
 This voltage difference causes a current to flow through the operating coil of the
relay.
 Disadvantages:
▪ A multi-gap transformer construction is required to achieve the
accurate balance between current transformer.
▪ The system is suitable for protection of cables of relatively short
lengths due to the capacitance of pilot wires. On long cables,
charging current may be sufficient to operate the relay even if a
perfect balance of current transformer is attained.
 These disadvantages have been overcome in Translay Relay

 Translay scheme is a balanced
voltage scheme with the addition of
a directional feature
 An induction disc type relay is used
at each end of the protected line
section.
 The secondary winding of the relays
are interconnected in opposition as
a balanced voltage system by pilot
wires.
 The upper magnet of the relay
carries a summation winding, to
receive the output of CT.
 Under Normal & External Fault:
▪ No current circulates through the pilot wires
and hence through the lower magnets of the
relay.
▪ No operating torque is produced.
 Under Internal Faults:
▪ Current flows through the pilot wires and the
lower magnets of the relay
▪ The relay torque is produced from the
interaction of the two fluxes:
1.is directly from the local CT secondary
currents flowing through the upper magnet of
the relay.
2.is produced by the current flowing through
This scheme is suitable for
the lower magnet. This may be relatively
fairly long pilots having a
small.
loop resistance 1000Ω
 Circulating Current Relays has two principle settings
1. Setting of operating coil circuit (Bias setting)
Smallest current in operating coil to cause operation
% Bias Setting   100
Rated current of the operating coil
when the current in the restraining coil is zero

2. Setting of restraining coil circuit (pick-up value)
Current in operating coil to cause operation
% Pick - up value   100
Current the restrainin g coil
I1 - I 2
% Pick - up value   100
(I1  I 2 )/2

Definition:
A relay which measures impedance or a component of
impedance at the relay location is known as a distance relay
Or
A distance relay is one whose operation is based on measurement of
impedance, reactance or admittance of line between the location of
relay and the fault point.
 These relays are double actuating quantity relays with one coil energized
by voltage and other coil by current.
 Torque produced is such that when V/I reduces below a set value, the
relay operates.
 As the impedance of a line is proportional to the length of the line,
therefore a relay which measures impedance or its component is called a
distance relay.
 Distance protection is non-unit protection.
 The protection zone is not exact.
 It is high speed protection and is simple to apply.
 It can be used as primary and backup protection.
 This relays are widely used for the protection of transmission lines. It also
can be used in Carrier Aided Distance Protection schemes and in Auto-
reclosing schemes.
 Distance Relay Family:
1) Impedance Relays
2) Reactance Relays
3) MHO Relays
4) Angle Impedance Relays
5) Quadrilateral Relays
6) Elliptical and other Conic Section Relays
 Measures the impedance of the line at the relay location.
 To realize the characteristics of an impedance relay, current is compared
with voltage at the relay location.
 The current produces a positive torque (operating torque) and voltage
produces a negative torque (restraining torque).
 The equation for the operating torque of an electromagnetic relay can be
written as
T  K1I 2  K 2V 2  K3
Where K1, K2, K3 are constants, K3 being the torque due to the control-spring effect.
 Neglecting the effect of spring used, which is very small, the torque
equation can be written as
T  K1I 2  K 2V 2

 For the operating of the relay, the following condition should
be satisfied.
K1I 2  K 2V 2 or K1 I 2  K 2V 2
V2 K1
or 
I2 K2
V
or K where K is cons tan t
I
or ZK
 The above expression explains that the relay is on the verge of
operation when the ratio of V to I, i.e. the measured value of
line impedance is equal to a given constant.
 The relay operates if the measured impedance Z is less than the
constant.
I Operating
X R-X Diagram
Characteristic
+ve Torque
Region
φ
R
-ve Torque
F
Region
Trip
V
Block
Operating Time
Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 Distance 74

 An impedance relay is non-directional.
 It will trip for a fault point laying within the circle, irrespective of the in the
forward or reverse direction which is not desired.
Torque equation of Directiona l Impedance Relay
T  KVI cos(  )
for the operation of the relay, T should be positive,
hence KVI cos(  )  0
or cos(  )  0
or (  )  900
Hence, for positive torque,

φ should be within (α±900)

 Three units of Impedance Relays are requires at a particular location for three
zones of protection.
 It is normal to adjust the first unit to protect only upto 80% - 90% of the
protected line.
A3 A1, A2, A3 are operating
times for the I, II, and III zone
relays placed at A respectively
Operating Time
A2 B2
B1, B2, B3 are operating

A1 B1 times for the I, II, and III zone
relays placed at B respectively
B C
A
Distance

Connections of Impedance Relay & Connections of one measuring unit
Three Zone Impedance Relay
with Directional Unit
+ve Torque
Z3
Z2
t3
Z1 t2
t1
-ve Torque
Directional
Relay

 First Zone:
▪ High Speed unit , Instantaneous, Primary Protection,1 to 2 cycles.
▪ Not set to protect entire line to avoid undesired tripping due to overreach.
▪ Overreach may occur due to the transients during the fault condition.
 Second Zone:
▪ Is to protect the rest of the protected line, which is beyond the reach of the first unit.
▪ Adjusted to operate even for the arcing faults.
▪ Normal practice is to adjust this relay reach upto 50% of the shortest adjoining line section.
▪ Operates after a certain time delay, usually 0.2s to 0.5s.
 Third Zone:
▪ Is provided for backup protection of the adjoining line.
▪ Reach should extend beyond the end of the adjoining line under the maximum underreach
which may caused by arcs, intermediate current sources, and errors in CTs, PTs and
measuring units.
▪ Covers first line, longest second line and 25% of third line.
▪ Time delay is usually 0.4s to 1s.

1. Seal-in Relay: This is a kind of auxiliary relay. It is energized by the contacts
of the main relay. Its contacts are placed in parallel with those of the main
relay and is designed to relieve the contacts of the main relay from their
current carrying duty. It remains in the circuit until the CB trips. The seal-in
contacts are heavier than the main relay.
2. Primary Protection: If the fault occurs, it is the duty of the primary
protective scheme to clear the fault. It acts as a first line of defense. If it
fails, the back-up protection clears the fault.
3. Back-up Protection: Is designed to clear the fault if the primary protection
fails. It acts as second line of defense.
4. Back-up Relay: Operates after a slight delay, if the main relay fails to
operate.
5. Flag or Target: flag is a device which gives visual indication whether a relay
has operated or not.
6. Protective Zone: A power system is divided into a number of zones from
the protection point of view. Each element of the power system has a
separate protective schemes. The elements which come under a protective
scheme are said to be in the zone of protection of that particular scheme.
7. Reach: mostly used in connection with distance relays. A distance relay
operates when the impedance as seen by the relay is less than a preset
value. This preset impedance or corresponding distance is called the reach
of the relay. In other words, it is the maximum length of the line upto which
the relay can protect.
8. Overreach: sometime a relay may operate even when a fault point is
beyond its present reach, this is called overreach.
9. Under reach: sometimes a relay may fail to operate even when the fault
point is within its reach, but it is at the far end of the protected line. This
phenomenon is called under reach.
 Measures the reactance of the line at the relay location and is not affected
by variations in resistance.
 Hence, its performance remains unaffected by arc resistance during the
occurrence of fault.
 In case of fault on protected line, the measured reactance is the reactance
of the line between the relay location and the fault point.
 An induction cup structure can be used to realize a reactance relay
characteristics.
 The torque equation of the relay is given by:
T  K1I 2  K 2VI cos(90  )  K 3
 K1I 2  K 2 VI sin   K 3
 The relay will operate when

K1I 2  K 2VI sin 
V K
sin   1 or Z sin   K or X  K
I K2
Operating X X
Characteristic Block MHO Starter
25%
C
Trip Zone III
50% X2
Zone II
-R R B
-X X1 P2
80%
Operating Characteristic of Reactance Relay Zone I
P1
R
Reactance Relay with Starting Unit
(Directional unit with circular
characteristic acts as a III unit)

 Measures the component of admittance |Y | Ιθ.
 It is called mho relay because its characteristic is a straight line when plotted
on an admittance diagram (G-B axis)
 An induction cup structure can be used to realize this relay.
 The torque equation of the relay is given by:
T  K1VI cos(  )  K 2V 2  K3
I K
K1VI cos(  )  K 2 V 2 or cos(  )  2
V K1
K2 1
Y cos(  )  or K
K1 Y cos(  )
Z
or K or MK
cos(  )

t3 B
X (Z-Zr)
P
M3
Z
t2 M2
t1 M1
Zr
α φ
α
A R

 The actuating quantities to be compared are I and (V/Zr – nI). Where Zr is the radius of
the mho circle, which is equal to the impedance of the voltage circuit.
 Only a fraction of the CT output current is injected into the restraint circuit.
Z-nZr
Thus n is a fraction, i.e. n<1. Z
V
I   nI OR IZr  V  nIZr OR
Zr
V
nZr
Zr   nZ r OR Zr  Z  nZ r
I
 Where Z is fault point.
 Offset characteristics gives sufficient time-delay
for the III zone unit.
 When fault occurs in the zone of the II unit, it operates first and its tripping is not
blocked.
 In case of power swings, the zone III unit operates first and blocks the tripping of the
zone II unit.
 The main applications of offset MHO are:
1. Bus bar zone backup.
2. Carrier starting unit in distance/ carrier blocking schemes.
3. Power swing blocking. 25% Line
 In a distance protective scheme employing 50% C
MHO relays, the third unit may be an offset MHO. 80% B M3
It provides backup protection. M2
 The offset MHO relay has more tolerance to M1
arc resistance.
 It can also see a close-up fault and fault which lies φ
behind the bus bar. Hence it is able to clear bus A
bar faults. Offset
(1-nZr)
 Note: when a fault occurs, the voltage, current and phase angle change
instantaneously, whereas in case of power swing, the change slowly. This property is
utilized for the out of step blocking relay.
 An angle impedance relay measures a component of the
impedance of the line at the relay location.
 Its characteristic on RX diagram is a straight line and it is
inclined to the R-axis at any angle.
 This relay is used in conjunction with other relays X
M Block
 Used to limit the area of the MHO relay on the RX
diagram to make it less sensitive to power surges.
B
 In this application relay is called a blinder. Z1 P
Trip (2Zr-Z)
 Torque equation of the relay is given by Z C
900
T  K1I2  K 2VI cos(  )  K3 2Zr
φ α
 In the case of reactance relay α=900. Zr N
 But in case of OHM relay, it may have any value which R
governs the inclination of the characteristic with respect
to the R-axis
ZA Relay ZL Relay ZB
S
S
EA V EB
X
Reactance
Relay
MHO Relay
Impedance Relay

X X Z1 X Reactance
Z1
R R Arc Resistance
F F R1
F R2
O R
φ R
R MHO
Impedance
Fig1. Effect of Arc Resistance Fig2. Effect of Arc Resistance Fig3. effect of arc resistance
on Impedance Relay on MHO Relay on distance relays
29  103  l
The arc resistance given by Warrington formula: R arc  
1.4
I
16300(1.75S  vt )
Taking into account the wind velocity and time: R arc  
I1.4
L=length of the arc in meters in still air; I fault current in amperes
S= conductor spacing in meters; v= wind velocity in km/h
 The effect of arc resistance and power surges plays an important role in the
selection of distance relays for a particular distance protective scheme.
1. Impedance Relay:
1. Moderately affected by both power surges and arc resistance, hence,
suitable for medium length line for phase fault relaying.
2. Reactance Relay:
1. As remains unaffected by arc resistance, it is preferred for ground fault
relaying.
2. Also used for phase fault relaying in case of a short line.
3. These are more affected by power surges, hence, they are suitable for
long transmission line.
4. Power surges remain for a shorter period on short lines, hence their effect
is unimportant.

3. MHO Relay:
1. Is less affected by power surges, so it is best suited for the protection of
long lines against phase faults.
2. But most affected by arc resistance, but impedance of long transmission
line is very large and arc resistance does not cause appreciable error, so
the effect can be neglected.
 For very long transmission lines, elliptical or quadrilateral relays are best
suited as they occupy the least area on the RX diagram and hence least
affected by power surges.
 Note: There is no sharp dividing line which can decide the choice of a
distance relay for a particular application. Actually there is a lot of
overlapping between the areas of application where one or another type of
distance relay is best suited.
 Practical experience also plays an important role in the selection of distance
relays for a particular situation.
 In this relays, comparison or measurement of electrical quantities is
performed by a static circuit which gives an output signal for the tripping of a
CB.
 Most of the present day static relays include a dc polarized relay as a slave
relay. This is an output device and does not perform the function of
comparison or measurement, but simply closes the contact.
 A static relay employs semiconductor diodes, transistors, zener diodes,

thyristors, logic gates, etc. Now a days ICs are being used in place of
transistors.
 For distance and directional protections, induction cup units are replaced by
rectifier bridge type static relays which employed dc polarized relays as slave
relays.

1. Low burden on CTs and PTs. The static relays consume less power and in
most cases they draw power from auxiliary dc supply.
2. Fast response.
3. Long life.
4. High resistance to shock and vibration.
5. Less maintenance due to the absence of moving parts and bearings.
6. Frequent operations cause no deterioration.
7. Quick resetting and absence of overshoot.
8. Compact size.
9. Greater sensitivity as amplification can be provided easily.
10. Complex relaying characteristics can easily be obtained.
11. Logic circuits can be used for complex protective schemes

1. These are temperature sensitive. Characteristics may vary with the
variation of temperature. Temperature compensation can be made by
using thermister and by using digital techniques.
2. Sensitive to voltage transients. Semiconductor components may get

damaged due to voltage spikes. Filters and shielding can be used for their
protection against voltage spikes.
3. Need an auxiliary power supply. This can however be easily supplied by a

battery of a stabilized power supply.

 The static relay circuitry is designed to recognize the changes and to distinguish
between healthy and faulty conditions.
 Either magnitudes of voltage/ current are compared or phase angle between
voltage and current are measured by static relay circuitry and trip signal is sent to
the CB when a fault occurs.
 The part of the circuitry which compares the two actuating quantities is known as
the comparator.
 Comparators are two types

▪ Amplitude Comparator
▪ Circulating current type rectifier bridge comparators
▪ Phase splitting type comparator
▪ Sampling comparators
▪ Phase Comparator
▪ Vector product phase comparator
▪ Coincidence type phase comparator

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 At the end of this unit student will know/ learn

 Principle of operation and construction of

 The CB after getting the command from protective relay

 It can be concluded, that, the protective relay which is the

In some cases it may give an alarm or visible

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 4

 The protective relays do not eliminate the possibility of fault

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 6

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 8

2. Measuring Relay: it is the main protective relay of the protective

3. Auxiliary Relay: it assists protective relays. They repeat the

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 11

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 12

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 13

 The important types of electromagnetic attraction relays are:

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 14

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 16

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 17

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 18

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 19

 However, they are instantaneous relays and are

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 20

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 21

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 22

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 27

where θ is the phase difference between φ1 and φ2

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 28

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 31

Inverse Time Characteristics

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 33

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 34

i. Instantaneous Over-current Relay

(IDMT) Over-current Relay

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 35

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 37

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 39

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 40

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 41

 For Definite Time Characteristic, the value of n = 0

 The advantage of such simplified time-current curves

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 43

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 44

 Suppose, the rating of a relay is 5A and it is set at 200% i.e., at

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 46

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 47

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 48

2. Determine the time of operation of the relays placed at location 1 and 2

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 49

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 52

 When the short circuit occurs, the system voltage falls

 This difficulty is overcome in this relay, which is

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 55

▪ The disc of this element rotates and

Protection of Parallel Feeders

Combined Earth Fault & Phase Fault Protection of Ring Mains

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 59

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 60

▪ Means, it requires two or more similar actuating quantities and these

Aditya Group of Engineering Colleges_EEE_SGP_Unit_3 61

 There are two fundamental systems of differential or

Differential protection principle is employed for the

 These disadvantages have been overcome in Translay Relay