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John R. Marshall, MD
Management Of
Department of Emergency Medicine, Lincoln Medical and Mental
Health Center, Bronx, NY
Jordana Haber, MD
Editor-In-Chief of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New Attending Physician, Massachusetts Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Research Editor
Andy Jagoda, MD, FACEP York, NY General Hospital, Boston, MA Sinai, New York, NY Michael Guthrie, MD
Professor and Chair, Department of Michael A. Gibbs, MD, FACEP Charles V. Pollack, Jr., MA, MD, Scott Silvers, MD, FACEP Emergency Medicine Residency,
Emergency Medicine, Icahn School Professor and Chair, Department FACEP Chair, Department of Emergency Icahn School of Medicine at Mount
of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Medical of Emergency Medicine, Carolinas Professor and Chair, Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL Sinai, New York, NY
Director, Mount Sinai Hospital, New Medical Center, University of North Emergency Medicine, Pennsylvania
York, NY Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hospital, Perelman School of Corey M. Slovis, MD, FACP, FACEP International Editors
Hill, NC Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Professor and Chair, Department
Peter Cameron, MD
Associate Editor-In-Chief Philadelphia, PA of Emergency Medicine, Vanderbilt
Academic Director, The Alfred
Steven A. Godwin, MD, FACEP University Medical Center; Medical
Kaushal Shah, MD, FACEP Professor and Chair, Department Michael S. Radeos, MD, MPH Emergency and Trauma Centre,
Associate Professor, Department of Director, Nashville Fire Department and
of Emergency Medicine, Assistant Assistant Professor of Emergency International Airport, Nashville, TN Monash University, Melbourne,
Emergency Medicine, Icahn School Dean, Simulation Education, Medicine, Weill Medical College Australia
of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New University of Florida COM- of Cornell University, New York; Stephen H. Thomas, MD, MPH
York, NY George Kaiser Family Foundation Giorgio Carbone, MD
Jacksonville, Jacksonville, FL Research Director, Department of Chief, Department of Emergency
Emergency Medicine, New York Professor & Chair, Department of
Editorial Board Gregory L. Henry, MD, FACEP
Hospital Queens, Flushing, NY Emergency Medicine, University of Medicine Ospedale Gradenigo,
William J. Brady, MD Clinical Professor, Department of Oklahoma School of Community Torino, Italy
Professor of Emergency Medicine Emergency Medicine, University Ali S. Raja, MD, MBA, MPH Medicine, Tulsa, OK Amin Antoine Kazzi, MD, FAAEM
and Medicine, Chair, Medical of Michigan Medical School; CEO, Director of Network Operations and Associate Professor and Vice Chair,
Emergency Response Committee, Medical Practice Risk Assessment, Business Development, Department Ron M. Walls, MD Department of Emergency Medicine,
Inc., Ann Arbor, MI of Emergency Medicine, Brigham Professor and Chair, Department of
Medical Director, Emergency University of California, Irvine;
and Women’s Hospital; Assistant Emergency Medicine, Brigham and
Management, University of Virginia John M. Howell, MD, FACEP American University, Beirut, Lebanon
Professor, Harvard Medical School, Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical
Medical Center, Charlottesville, VA Clinical Professor of Emergency
Boston, MA School, Boston, MA Hugo Peralta, MD
Peter DeBlieux, MD Medicine, George Washington Chair of Emergency Services,
University, Washington, DC; Director Robert L. Rogers, MD, FACEP, Scott D. Weingart, MD, FCCM
Professor of Clinical Medicine, Hospital Italiano, Buenos Aires,
of Academic Affairs, Best Practices, FAAEM, FACP Associate Professor of Emergency
Interim Public Hospital Director Argentina
Inc, Inova Fairfax Hospital, Falls Assistant Professor of Emergency Medicine, Director, Division of
of Emergency Medicine Services,
Church, VA Medicine, The University of ED Critical Care, Icahn School of Dhanadol Rojanasarntikul, MD
Louisiana State University Health
Maryland School of Medicine, Medicine at Mount Sinai, New Attending Physician, Emergency
Science Center, New Orleans, LA Shkelzen Hoxhaj, MD, MPH, MBA
Baltimore, MD York, NY Medicine, King Chulalongkorn
Francis M. Fesmire, MD, FACEP Chief of Emergency Medicine, Baylor Memorial Hospital, Thai Red Cross,
Professor and Director of Clinical College of Medicine, Houston, TX Alfred Sacchetti, MD, FACEP Senior Research Editors Thailand; Faculty of Medicine,
Research, Department of Emergency Eric Legome, MD Assistant Clinical Professor, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand
Department of Emergency Medicine, James Damilini, PharmD, BCPS
Medicine, UT College of Medicine, Chief of Emergency Medicine,
Thomas Jefferson University, Clinical Pharmacist, Emergency Suzanne Peeters, MD
Chattanooga; Director of Chest Pain King’s County Hospital; Professor of
Philadelphia, PA Room, St. Joseph’s Hospital and Emergency Medicine Residency
Center, Erlanger Medical Center, Clinical Emergency Medicine, SUNY Medical Center, Phoenix, AZ Director, Haga Hospital, The Hague,
Chattanooga, TN Downstate College of Medicine, Robert Schiller, MD The Netherlands
Brooklyn, NY Chair, Department of Family Joseph D. Toscano, MD
Nicholas Genes, MD, PhD Chairman, Department of Emergency
Medicine, Beth Israel Medical
Assistant Professor, Department of Keith A. Marill, MD Medicine, San Ramon Regional
Center; Senior Faculty, Family
Emergency Medicine, Icahn School Assistant Professor, Harvard Medical Medical Center, San Ramon, CA
Medicine and Community Health,
School; Emergency Department
Case Presentations often leads to inconsistent and suboptimal recogni-
tion and management of female patients.
It’s a typically busy morning in your community ED. This issue of Emergency Medicine Practice pres-
The average wait time to be seen is 1 hour when a ents a systematic review of the latest evidence
66-year-old man with hypertension and high cholesterol regarding the pathophysiology, diagnosis, and
states that he has been unable to urinate for a few days treatment of AUR, with a focus on controversies and
and now has suprapubic pain and constipation. He denies advances in care.
fever and chills. He also notes that, in the past, he was
diagnosed with benign prostatic hypertrophy and has re- Critical Appraisal Of The Literature
quired Foley placement. It seems simple enough, and you
anticipate he will be out as soon as the Foley and leg bag An initial search utilizing the PubMed® database
are in place. You wonder if a rectal exam is needed and from 1960 to 2013 was performed using the search
how fast his bladder can be emptied... term management of acute urinary retention, with
It’s 2:00 PM and you are about to finally grab some a total of 385 results produced. Full texts for 122
lunch, but in comes a 72-year-old man with a history of articles were reviewed, of which 69 are cited in this
large cell lymphoma for the past 15 years. He complains of review. Two Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
dribbling urinary frequency, which has worsened over 1 guideline appendices studying the treatment of
day after being prescribed an antibiotic by his doctor for a AUR in airplane flight as well as a website on flight
UTI. The nurse asks him to walk to another stretcher, and safety were also reviewed. In addition, the Cochrane
as he gets up, he stumbles and catches himself with his Database of Systematic Reviews was searched with
hands. As you prepare to do the bladder ultrasound, you regard to the treatment of AUR. In 1994, A BPH
wonder why he stumbled... guidelines panel published recommendations for
It’s finally 6:30 PM, with just 30 minutes until relief the diagnosis and treatment of BPH, and in 2004 the
arrives. You are spending the last half hour of your shift American Urological Association published more
tying up the loose ends with your current patients when up-to-date guidelines in light of new evidence-based
a 46-year-old febrile woman with a history of active intra- clinical trials.6 A thorough literature review revealed
venous drug abuse and HIV comes in. She is in excruciat- that the major focus of AUR research involves the
ing discomfort and tells you that she has not urinated in 2 treatment of BPH. With the exception of general
days. You wonder if that is possible, and why... review articles and case reports, there is little pub-
lished original research that focuses specifically on
Introduction the treatment of AUR in women, and this remains
an area in need of further research.
Acute urinary retention (AUR) is commonly seen in
the emergency department (ED), most often in older Epidemiology
men with benign prostatic hypertrophy (BPH).1
AUR is defined as the inability to pass urine volun- A cohort study of 2115 men aged 40 to 79 years
tarily, and the distended bladder causes extreme reported the incidence of AUR to be between 2.2 and
discomfort, often requiring immediate attention and 6.8 per 1000 men per year (95% confidence inter-
intervention. There are many concerning and poten- val [CI], 5.2-8.9),7,8 with a 10-year cumulative risk
tially dangerous causes of AUR, and the onus is on of 4% to 73% (meaning that the risk is cumulative
the emergency clinician to consider these etiologies and increases with advancing age).8 A man’s risk
and eliminate them before assuming that it is caused of urinary retention is directly correlated to his age,
by a benign process. Urgent treatment in the ED is urinary symptom severity, prostate volume, and
of utmost importance for acute pain management, urinary flow rate.8 It is estimated that 1 in 10 men
to prevent insult to the kidneys, and to address the aged in their 70s will experience an episode of AUR,
underlying causes of AUR (such as cauda equina increasing to 1 in 3 men aged in their 80s. There is
syndrome, stroke, tumors, etc). a 20% recurrence rate within 6 months after an epi-
In women, the most common causes of AUR sode of urinary retention in patients with AUR due
are bladder masses, gynecologic surgery, and pelvic to BPH and 4% recurrence in those with AUR due to
prolapse.2,3 Unlike the abundance of clinical studies other causes.9 Female AUR is relatively uncommon,
on older men with BPH-related AUR, women have with much variation regarding incidence and little
typically been excluded from AUR studies, and little published data addressing occurrence rates. AUR
published data are found in the literature addressing in women is estimated to account for only 3 out of
women with this condition. An article by Preminger 100,000 cases of AUR each year,2 with an incidence
et al in 1983 emphasized the importance of assessing estimated at around 0.07 per 1000 females.10
for organic illness for women with AUR.4 The rela- In certain populations, AUR may be an indicator
tively low incidence of women with AUR in the ED of potential morbidity and mortality. One systematic
combined with the paucity of published evidence review of 176,046 men aged > 45 years with a first
Afferent impulses from stretch receptors Pontine micturition center Pontine storage centers
Parasympathetic activity
➞
Sympathetic activity
➞
Key:
Gray boxes: bladder
White boxes: spinal cord
Black boxes: brain Inhibits
Solid lines/arrows: nerves promoting urination Micturition
Dashed lines: nerves inhibiting urination
MARIEB, ELAINE N.; HOEHN, KATJA, HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY, 8th, © 2010. Printed and Electronically reproduced by permission of
Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
Drug brand names examples are from the Medline Plus® website, www.MedlinePlus.gov.
Adapted from Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America, Volume 19, Issue 3. Liesl A. Curtis, Teresa Sullivan Dolan, R. Duane Cespedes, Acute
Urinary Retention and Urinary Incontinence. Pages 591-620, Copyright 2001, with permission from Elsevier.
Foley Placement
Two important aspects in Foley placement are
patient reassurance and patient comfort during the
procedure. In female patients, this is especially im- Distended bladder
portant, given the common propensity to tense the
muscles, especially if the patient has had prior expe-
riences with painful Foley insertion. In a prospective
study of 50 patients, Allardice et al examined the
importance of adequate analgesia, preparation, and
correct technique. It was found that by using these
methods, 50 consecutive male patients with a diag-
nosis of AUR were successfully catheterized by 12
different house persons.43 Often, adequate explana-
tion regarding the procedure and having the patient
exhale deeply during insertion helps greatly.
When inserting a Foley catheter, the small- Bladder wall
Abbreviation: AUR, acute urinary retention.
Complications Of Catheterization
Hematuria, hypotension, and postobstructive diure-
sis are all potential complications of rapid bladder
Table 7. Procedure For Placement Of A
decompression in patients with AUR. Nyman et
Suprapubic Catheter
al performed a review of the literature on urinary
decompression published from 1966 to 1996 and
1. Identify location 2 finger-breadths above the pubic symphysis
found that, although evidence showed that a sudden
and anesthetize with 1% lidocaine with epinephrine.
reduction in bladder wall tension reflexively pro-
2. Insert a 22-gauge spinal needle into the midline and aimed
duces vasodilatation with a concomitant decrease in
caudally.
blood pressure, this occurs with no serious clinical 3. Advance until urine is aspirated (return of air suggests bowel
consequences when a patient already has a healthy penetration; movement cephalad with the needle is recom-
cardiovascular system. Patients without a healthy mended); then place a wire through the needle and remove the
cardiovascular system may be at risk for prolonged needle.
hypotension following rapid bladder decompres- 4. After aspiration, make a 1-cm skin incision deep through the
sion.22 In the past, to avoid the aforementioned subcutaneous fat.
sequelae, it was recommended to only gradually 5. Incise the fascia, ensuring a wide enough incision to allow trocar
decompress the bladder in treating patients with placement
6. Inspect the trocar to make sure it can be easily removed from the
AUR. Nyman's review cast doubt on this common
sheath.
practice, finding no evidence that gradual bladder
7. Insert the trocar, with sheath, into the bladder using a “cork-
decompression decreased the likelihood of causing
screw” motion until urine flashback is seen; advance 1 cm further
these complications, and complete and rapid empty- to ensure safe placement within the bladder.
ing of the bladder was recommended.22 8. Remove the trocar from the sheath and place the catheter down
Other complications of catheterization include the lumen of the sheath into the bladder.
a risk of urethritis, cystitis, prostatitis, bactere- 9. Remove the tear-off strip from the sheath and remove the
mia, and sepsis. These risks are most prominent sheath.
in elderly patients and patients with preexisting 10. Inflate the balloon.
indwelling catheters. 11. Suture in place.
Table 8. Pharmacologic Therapies Used For Spontaneous Acute Urinary Retention In The
Emergency Department
Class of Drug Generic Name/ Dosing Mechanism of Action Indications Side Effects*
Alpha blockers • Tamsulosin: 0.4-0.8 mg daily Alpha 1 adrenergic Patients with spontaneous Postural hypotension,
• Alfuzosin: 10 mg PO once daily blockade, thus increasing AUR regardless of prior headache, dizziness,
• Doxazosin: 1-8 mg PO once daily urinary flow rate history of usage (unless fatigue, nausea, constipa-
• Terazosin: 1-10 mg PO once daily contraindicated*) tion
• Silodosin: 8 mg PO once daily;
decrease to 4 mg PO once daily if
CrCl is < 50 mL/min
• Prazosin: 1-2 mg PO twice daily†
5-alpha reductase • Finasteride: 5-mg tablets Decreases the formation Patients with spontaneous Impotence, decreased
inhibitors • Dutasteride: 0.5-mg capsules of testosterone into dihy- AUR who are currently libido, decreased ejacula-
drotestosterone, reducing on or have previously tory volume, testicular
prostate growth taken 5-alpha reductase pain, rash, pruritus
inhibitors for BPH (unless
contraindicated*)
*For full list of side effects and contraindications please visit www.FDA.gov/Drugs/
†
Not approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration for this use.
Abbreviation: AUR, acute urinary retention; BPH, benign prostatic hypertrophy; CrCl, creatinine clearance; PO, per os (by mouth).
Sources: www.FDA.gov, www.merckmanuals.com
Distended bladder
Reassess ability to void NO Assess other causes Admit
present?
NO YES
YES
Is there presence of 1 or
more?:
• Severe infection Order urinalysis, consider Urology consult service
• Significant comorbidity ordering BUN, creatinine, YES Successful? NO
present?
• Impaired renal function and CBC
• Neurological deficits NO YES
• Catheter complication
YES
Distended bladder?
Admit
YES NO
This clinical pathway is intended to supplement, rather than substitute for, professional judgment and may be changed depending upon a patient’s individual
needs. Failure to comply with this pathway does not represent a breach of the standard of care.
Copyright © 2014 EB Medicine. 1-800-249-5770. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any format without written consent of EB Medicine.
1. “My female patient was having difficulty 7. “I did a CT scan on a patient with abdominal
urinating, so I assumed that it was a UTI and pain. It showed a markedly full, distended
omitted the pelvic exam.” bladder. Maybe I should have done an ultra-
A thorough pelvic examination is important sound first.”
in ruling out uterine prolapse or other organ A thorough history and physical examination
obstruction as a cause of AUR in women. is needed to differentiate AUR as a cause of
abdominal distension and pain, and bedside
2. “I treated this patient in the ED for AUR and ultrasound may be used to confirm the diagnosis
removed his Foley prior to his discharge, but instead of other costly diagnostic modalities.
he is back again today!”
Up to 70% of men with AUR due to BPH will 8. “The patient seemed reliable, and I assumed
have recurrence if the bladder is drained only he would follow up at the urology clinic. Little
during the ED visit and the catheter is removed did I know that they didn’t have any appoint-
prior to discharge. ments for 3 months!”
Remember the importance of prompt
3. “I went to place a suprapubic catheter in my urological follow-up and the complications of
patient and aspirated air.” chronic catheter usage. It is essential to ensure
Remember the potential bad outcomes involved that the patient does actually have follow-up
with a misplaced suprapubic catheter and prior to discharge.
the importance of using ultrasound during
placement and for confirmation of successful 9. “I removed the fluid from the Foley balloon,
Foley, Coude, and suprapubic catheter insertion. and now it will not come out.”
There is a risk of balloon cuffing when fluid is
4. “The nurse kept telling me that the patient had removed too quickly from the catheter balloon.
severe low back pain. It was busy in the ED, so Consider instilling 0.5 to 1 mL of water into the
I gave him 2 Percocets and 4 mg of IV mor- balloon to smooth the already-formed cuffs.
phine before I assessed him. It turned out all
that he needed was bladder decompression.” 10. “I sent home an elderly patient with tamsulo-
Urgent bladder decompression is the definitive sin and an indwelling catheter, but she came
treatment for AUR, and it treats pain and saves back after passing out at home.”
money on unnecessary testing. Also, treating the Though prescribing alpha blockers is
patient’s pain acts to improve his ED experience. recommended, orthostatic hypotension is a
common side effect in patients taking these
5. “The resuscitation was busy, and I couldn’t medications. Adequate instruction on the side
find saline, so I injected air into the Foley bal- effects of all medications prescribed must be
loon. Now it doesn’t work.” given to the patient and family. Tamsulosin
Injecting air into the Foley balloon may cause may be taken at night to reduce the impact of
it to sit inappropriately within the bladder, side effects.
interfering with its function.
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