Journal of the American Institute for Conservation

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Historical tintype plates: analysis of supports,

japanning layers, and verso varnishes

Corina E. Rogge

To cite this article: Corina E. Rogge (2018): Historical tintype plates: analysis of supports,
japanning layers, and verso varnishes, Journal of the American Institute for Conservation, DOI:
10.1080/01971360.2018.1515390

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/01971360.2018.1515390

Published online: 25 Sep 2018.

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JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE FOR CONSERVATION
https://doi.org/10.1080/01971360.2018.1515390

Historical tintype plates: analysis of supports, japanning layers, and verso

varnishes
a,b
Corina E. Rogge
a
The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, TX, USA; bThe Menil Collection, Houston, TX, USA

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
The tintype, a wet collodion photograph on a japanned metal support, was a popular type of Tintype; ferrotype; X-ray
photographic image in mid-nineteenth-century United States. Tintype plates consisting of a metal fluorescence spectroscopy;
sheet with a protective varnish on the verso and a dark colored japanning layer on the recto were gas chromatography mass
spectroscopy; photography;
commercially available in different colors and surface textures. Although millions of plates were
japanning; varnish; oxidation
produced, there is little information regarding the materials used to create them. To address this
lacuna, the metal supports, japanning layers, and protective verso varnishes of 226 historic tintypes
were analyzed to identify the support metal, binders, and pigments. The predominant component
of the japanning layers is drying oil, or drying oil with Pinaceae resin; shellac, sandarac, and
camphor also occur. The verso varnishes are primarily drying oil and Pinaceae resin, and the
presence of these two materials permits comparison of relative extent of oxidation and illustrates
that factors other than age impact these metrics. Carbonaceous blacks and iron oxide pigments
are common japanning layer pigments, but asphaltum was minimally used. Cross-sections reveal
that some japanning layers are a single layer, while others contain multiple coats indicating a
complex manufacturing process. The materials used and manner of coating applications differ
from the contemporaneous literature and may be manufacturer dependent.

RÉSUMÉ
Le ferrotype, une photographie au collodion humide sur un support en métal laqué, était un type
d’image photographique populaire aux États-Unis du milieu du dix-neuvième siècle. Les ferrotypes,
consistant en une plaque de métal avec un vernis protecteur au verso et une laque colorée foncée
au recto, étaient disponibles dans le commerce en différentes couleurs et textures de surface. Bien
que des millions de plaques aient été produites, il existe peu d’informations concernant les
matériaux employés pour les fabriquer. Pour remédier à ce manque, les supports en métal, les
couches de laque et les vernis protecteurs du verso de 226 ferrotypes historiques ont été analysés
pour identifier le support en métal, les liants et les pigments. L’élément prédominant des couches
de laque est l’huile siccative, ou l’huile siccative avec de la résine de Pinacée ; de la gomme-laque,
de la sandaraque et du camphre ont aussi été trouvés. Les vernis du verso sont principalement
composés d’huile siccative et de résine de Pinacée, et la présence de ces deux matériaux permet
la comparaison de l’étendue relative de leur oxydation, et illustre le fait que des facteurs autres
que l’âge influent sur ces mesures. Les pigments noirs carbonés et d’oxyde de fer sont des
pigments courants pour la couche de laque, tandis que l’asphalte était peu utilisé. Les coupes
stratigraphiques révèlent que certaines laques sont faites d’une seule couche, tandis que d’autres
comprennent de multiples strates, indiquant un processus de manufacture complexe. Les
matériaux utilisés et les méthodes d’application des couches diffèrent de la littérature
contemporaine et pourraient dépendre du fabricant. Traduit par : Elsa Thyss.

RESUMO
O ferrótipo, fotografia de colódio úmido sobre um suporte de metal com laca japonesa, era um tipo
popular de imagem fotográfica na metade do século XIX. Placas de ferrótipo consistindo de uma
lâmina de metal com um verniz protetor no verso e uma camada de envernizamento colorido
escura na frente eram disponíveis comercialmente em diferentes cores e texturas de superfície.
Apesar de milhões de placas terem sido produzidas, existe pouca informação com relação aos
materiais usados na sua criação. Para preencher essa lacuna, os suportes em metal, camadas de
envernizamento e o verniz do verso de 226 ferrótipos históricos foram analisados para identificar o
suporte de metal, aglutinantes e pigmentos. O componente predominante das camadas de
envernizamento é óleo secante, ou óleo secante com resina Pinaceae; goma-laca, resina sandaraca
e cânfora também aparecem. Os vernizes do verso são principalmente óleo secante e resina
Pinacea, e a presença desses dois materiais permite a comparação de extensão relativa de
oxidação e ilustra que outros fatores além da idade impactam essas métricas. Carbonáceos pretos
e pigmentos de óxido de ferro são pigmentos comuns nas camadas; mas asfalto era usado

CONTACT Corina E. Rogge crogge@mfah.org The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, TX, USA
© American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works 2018
2 C. E. ROGGE

minimamente. Cortes transversais revelam que algumas camadas envernizadas são apenas camadas
únicas, enquanto outros contém múltiplas camadas indicando um modo de produção complexo. O
material usado e a maneira de aplicar o recobrimento difere da literatura contemporânea e pode
depender do fabricante. Traduzido por Sandra Baruki, revisado pelo Beatriz Haspo.

RESUMEN
La tintipia, una fotografía de colodión húmedo sobre un soporte de metal con japanning (laca
japonesa), era un tipo de imagen fotográfica popular en los Estados Unidos de mediados del S XIX.
Las placas de tintipia, que consisten de una lámina de metal con un barniz protector en el verso y
una capa de japanning de color oscuro en el anverso, estaban disponibles comercialmente en
diferentes colores y texturas. Aunque se produjeron millones de placas, hay poca información
acerca de los materiales utilizados para crearlas. Para abordar este vacío, los soportes metálicos,
capas de japanning y barnices protectores del verso de 226 tintipias históricas fueron analizados
para identificar el metal del soporte, los aglutinantes y los pigmentos. El componente
predominante de las capas de japanning es aceite secante o aceite secante con resina de
pináceas; goma laca, sandáraca y alcanfor también ocurren. Los barnices del verso son
principalmente aceite secante y resina de pináceas, y la presencia de estos dos materiales permite
la comparación del grado de oxidación relativo e indica qué otros factores además de la edad
afectan estas métricas. Negro de carbón y pigmentos de óxido de hierro son pigmentos comunes
de las capas de japanning, pero el asfalto/bitumen se usó mínimamente. Cortes transversales,
revelan que algunas capas de japanning son una capa simple, mientras que otras contienen
múltiples capas lo cual indica un proceso de fabricación complejo. Los materiales utilizados y la
forma de aplicación de las capas difieren de la literatura contemporánea y pueden depender del
fabricante. Traducción por Andrea Venoso; revisión: Amparo Rueda.

1. Introduction assignee on the patent (Smith 1856; Schimmelman

The tintype, also known as a melainotype or ferrotype,
consisting of a wet collodion image on a dark varnished
metal support was patented by Hamilton Lanphere
Smith of Kenyon College in 1856 (Smith 1856). The
durability of the metal support was an attractive asset
relative to the more breakable glass used in ambrotypes,
but production of the dark varnished or “japanned”
metal surface was a complicated and laborious process
that could not be easily undertaken by an individual
photographer in their studio. Smith’s plate manufacture
patent specifies linseed oil as the binder for the japan-
ning layer and asphaltum, umber, and/or lamp-black
as pigments, and notes that copal, mastic or lac and
“other coloring matter” could also be used. The ingredi-
ents were to be boiled until thick and the mixture
applied to the iron plate with a brush, allowed to flow
to a smooth surface, and then baked in a drying oven
“until the surface will bear the finger to be drawn over
it without bringing off the japan.” Further coats should
then be applied as necessary and the surface polished
with rotten-stone and oil. Another contemporary
source described how the tintype plate “had to pass
through the hands of the japanner (after having been
previously cut to the proper size) three times, and
receive three bakings before it was ready for packing.”
(Estabrooke 1872, 81).
The complicated and time-intensive tintype plate man-
ufacturing process created an economic niche that could
be filled by commercial manufacturers, the first of
which was Peter Neff, Jr., a colleague of Smith’s and an
2007). Neff’s first commercial plates, marketed under
the name “Melainotype,” appeared in 1856 and consisted
of No. 36 Taggers sheet iron imported from Britain coated
with a japanning layer, presumably based upon the recipe
in the 1856 patent (Schimmelman 2007). In 1857 the first
of Neff’s competitors, Victor M. Griswold, began selling
plates under the trade name “Ferrotype” and the commer-
cial race was on (Griswold 1856; Schimmelman 2007).
Historical advertisements (Figure 1) and an essay by Gris-
wold identify 10 manufacturers (Table 1), some of whom
marketed plates under several brand names. To entice
consumers, Griswold introduced “eggshell” finished plates
in 1864, which were reportedly manufactured by the same
process as the glossy finish plates, but used rougher iron
supports (Estabrooke 1872) (Figure 2(A,B)). In 1870 Hor-
ace M. Hedden patented the use of India red (red ochre)
as a japanning layer colorant and sold them as “chocolate”
plates (Figure 2(C,D)) saying that:
The flesh-like appearance given to the color of the plate
by the use of India red renders the picture taken thereon
more life-like and natural than pictures taken on black
plates. There is a delicate shading, both to the draper
and to the outlines of the picture, which is not produced
when the black plate is used. (1870)
The chocolate plates reportedly came in light, medium
and dark tints, with the medium tint being favored and
quickly “becoming all the rage” as the lighter colored
plates were seen as too red and the dark chocolate
plate was hard to distinguish from normal black plates
(Estabrooke 1872, 97–98).
 JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE FOR CONSERVATION 3

Figure 1. Advertisement for Sun plates from The Photographic Times, 1872, volume 2, issue 13 (January), page 13. Courtesy of the
George Eastman Museum.

Table 1. Historical tintype plate manufacturers. Unless otherwise noted the information assembled in the table comes from Estabrooke
(1872), Rinhart, Rinhart, and Wagner (1999), and Schimmelman (2007).
Manufacturer Plate name Dates produced Colorsa Advertised finishes
E. & H. T. Anthony Centennial c. 1885–1904
E. & H. T. Anthonyb (attributed) Eureka 1880–? Black, chocolate Eggshell
E. & H. T. Anthonyb Union c. 1880–1904 Black, chocolate Eggshell
Bowden, Pierson & McLorinan Eureka 1862–1870 Black (?) Glossy and eggshell
Wm. Campbell Vernis 1860–65 Black (?)
Dean & Emersonc Adamantean c. 1863–90 Black, chocolate Glossy and eggshell
Victor M. Griswold Ferrotype 1856–67 Black Glossy and eggshell
H. Hedden Chapman’s O. K. Plate 1862–67 Black (?) Glossy and eggshell
H. Hedden Helion 1862–67 Black (?)
H. Hedden Phenix 1872–1904 Black, chocolate Glossy and eggshell
H. Hedden Phoenix 1862–1863 Black (?)
H. Hedden Phoenix 1870–1872 chocolate
Wm. B. Holmesd Star 1863–69 Black Glossy and eggshell
Peter Neff Jr. Excelsior 1861–64 Black (?)
Peter Neff Jr. Melainotype 1856–64 Black
Peter Neff Jr. Eureka c.1862 Black (?)
Peter Neff Jr. National c. 1862 Black (?)
Peter Neff Jr. Egg Shells c. 1862 Black (?)
Peter Neff Jr. Morocco c. 1862 Black (?)
M. Roche Columbia 1862–72 (?) Black (?)
e
Scovill Mfg. Co. Champion c. 1874–1904 Black or chocolatee Glossy and eggshell
Scovill Mfg. Co. Sun 1870–1872 Black or chocolate Glossy and eggshell
Unknown Columbia ?–1886(?) Black (?)
Unknown Diamond 1860s Black (?)
Unknown Special c. 1904
a
If noted with a (?) the colors are based the manufacturers’ dates, as chocolate plates were first patented and produced by Hedden in 1870. If no (?) is present,
historical advertisements list the indicated color(s) or in the case of Neff and Griswold plates, CIE L*a*b* analyses of the study collection plates indicate they are
black.
b
Estabrooke (1888).
c
The Photographic News (1878).
d
Wilson (1870).
e
The Photographic Times (1873).
4 C. E. ROGGE
Figure 2. Normal light images of tintypes with differently colored and textured japanning layers. A – photomacrograph of “glossy”
texture; B – photomacrograph of “eggshell” texture; C – black japanning layer; and D – chocolate japanning layer. Images C and D
were taken by Krista Lough.
In addition to “aesthetic” alterations to the japanning
layer, manufacturers sought to improve the quality of pro-
duct, reduce costs, and improve efficiency of manufacture.
Although Neff reportedly continued to use heavy gauge
iron, Griswold and other manufacturers utilized thinner
iron sheets, which were less expensive and lighter and,
although more flexible, still retained the stability of a
metal support compared to glass or paper (Schimmelman
2007). As iron is prone to oxidation, and rust can con-
taminate silver baths and impact image quality, Neff
and Griswold began to varnish the verso of the plates in
1857 or 1858 (Schimmelman 2007) and other manufac-
turers followed suit. Griswold, in one of the few contem-
poraneous accounts of how plates were manufactured,
indicated that he simplified the japanning process so
that only a single baking was required, giving a consider-
able savings in time, and possibly allowing him to under-
cut Neff’s prices (Estabrooke 1872).
Identifying the plate manufacturer of an historic tin-
type could be useful for dating purposes. Given that
some of the manufacturers had previous experience in
the japanning of tinware or production of patent leather
(Estabrooke 1872), it is possible that the materials used
for the japanning layer and verso varnishes and their
method of application may have varied sufficiently to
distinguish between manufacturers. Plates by Neff and
Griswold were stamped at manufacture, permitting
easy identification (Schimmelman 2007), but this prac-
tice was not adopted by other manufacturers. Fortu-
nately, some publications, such as “The Ferrotype and
How to Make it” had manufacturer’s tintypes tipped
in as advertisements (Estabrooke 1872) providing
other sources of plates of known manufacture. How-
ever, the number of different manufacturers was lim-
ited, and analysis may be able to associate groups of
plates that contain the same materials and therefore
identify “signatures” of different manufacturers’
materials. To this end, the japanning layer, support,
and verso varnish of two Neff plates, two Griswold
plates, one Dean & Co. Adamantean plate, one Phenix

Figure 3. Cross section of a complete tintype showing the iron
support, manufacturer applied verso varnish and japanning
layer, and the artist-applied collodion image layer and recto
varnish.
plate and 220 plates of unknown manufacture were
analyzed by pyrolysis gas chromatography mass spec-
troscopy (py GC–MS) and X-ray fluorescence spec-
troscopy (XRF) to determine the materials present.
The japanning layer of a subset of the plates was
sampled, embedded in resin and polished to reveal
the stratigraphy, which was visualized by optical
microscopy and scanning electron microscopy coupled
with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM–
EDX). The results provide the most in-depth analysis
of the material nature of tintype plates and show that
the tintype plates fall into groups based upon their
materials, that individual manufacturers’ plates contain
distinct materials, and that these can clearly be differen-
tiated. The layered structure of a tintype (Figure 3), with
multiple organic layers containing the same materials,
especially drying oil and Pinaceae resin, also provides
an opportunity to compare relative extents of oxidation
of the layers and better assess the relative merits of oxi-
dation metrics.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Tintypes
A study collection of 225 tintypes, varying in size from
gems (19 × 27 mm) to 1/6 plates (64 × 89 mm), deriving
mostly from the Midwestern and Eastern United States,
and dating from the 1860s to early 1900s based upon
the style of garments worn by the sitters was purchased
from local and online vendors. The collection includes
two Neff plates, identified by the embossed “MELAINO-
TYPE PLATE FOR NEFF’S PATENT” and “MELAINO-
TYPE PLATE FOR NEFF’S PATENT 19 FEB 56,” two
Griswold plates identified by the embossed “GRISWOLD”
and “GRISWOLD PATENTED OCT,” and a Dean & Co.
Adamantean Chocolate plate tipped into a copy of the
second edition of “The Ferrotype and How to Make It”
by E.M. Estabrooke. In addition a black, glossy Phenix
plate was kindly loaned by Mark Osterman.
JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE FOR CONSERVATION 5
The very large number of tintypes produced in the
1800s and 1900s by many different manufacturers
(Estabrooke 1872) means that many samples must be
analyzed to acquire statistically significant data that
might enable plates to be assigned to specific manufac-
turers. By working with a study collection rather than
acquisitioned objects, this study provides both proof of
concept and the necessary framework of information
that will allow more historically or artistically significant
objects to be analyzed and interpreted.
2.2. Py-GC–MS analysis
2.2.1. Sampling
A highlight region of each image was chosen for
sampling to ensure that the artist-applied varnish was
not co-sampled with the japanning layer. Under a micro-
scope, the artist-applied varnish and collodion layer were
scraped away with a #15 scalpel blade until only the
japanning layer remained. Surface debris was blown off
using compressed air and the japanning layer sample
was taken with a #15 scalpel blade. Samples of the back-
ing varnishes were also taken using a #15 scalpel blade
and sampling regions were chosen so as to not include
adhesive or remnants of paper card backings.
This sampling is destructive, but if conducted care-
fully under a stereomicroscope, a sufficient sample can
be gained from a 1 mm × 1 mm area. As many tintypes
are displayed in paper or brass mats, a carefully chosen
sample site will be hidden from an average observer; if
chosen carefully the same region can be used for GC–
MS, XRF and plate thickness measurements (vide infra).
2.2.2. Pyrolysis instrumentation and method
3–5 μg samples were placed into a 50 µL stainless steel
Eco-cup (Frontier Laboratories) and 3 µL of a 25% metha-
nolic solution of tetramethylammonium hydroxide
(TMAH) was introduced for derivatization (Heginbo-
tham and Schilling 2011). After 3 min, an Eco-stick
(Frontier Laboratories) was fitted into the cup, and the
cup was placed into the pyrolysis interface of a Frontier
Lab Py-2020D double-shot pyrolyzer where it was purged
with He for 3 min. Samples were pyrolyzed using a single-
shot method at 550°C for 6 s and then passed to the GC–
MS through an interface maintained at 320°C.
2.2.3. GC–MS instrumentation and analytical
method
The pyrolyzer was interfaced to an Agilent Technologies
7820A gas chromatograph coupled to a 5975 mass spec-
trometer via a Frontier Vent Free GC/MS adapter. An
Agilent HP-5 ms capillary column (30 m × 0.25 mm ×
0.25 µm) was used for the separation with He carrier
6 C. E. ROGGE

gas at 1 mL per minute. The split injector was set to 320°

C with a split ratio of 50:1 and no solvent delay was used
(Heginbotham and Schilling 2011). The GC oven temp-
erature program was 40°C for 2 min, ramped to 320°C at
20°C per minute, followed by a 9 min isothermal period.
The MS transfer line was at 320°C, the source at 230°C,
and the MS quadropole at 150°C. The mass spectrometer
was scanned from 33 to 600 amu at a rate of 2.59 scans
per second. The electron multiplier was set to the auto-
tune value.

2.2.4. Data analysis

Sample identification was aided by searching the
National Institute of Standards and Technology
(NIST) MS library, and by comparison to pyrograms
and mass spectra of reference materials (Kremer Pig-
mente) and published literature. Specific marker
compounds searched for included the hydroxydehy-
droabietic acid (DHA) series in Pinaceae resins
such as Canada Balsam and colophony (van den
Berg et al. 1996; van den Berg et al. 2000); aleuritic,
butolic, jalaric and shellolic acids present in shellac
(Wang et al. 1999; Colombini, Bonaduce, and Gautier Figure 4. Oxidation pathway of abietic acid. Image after van den
Berg et al. (2000).
2003); larixol and larixyl acetate in Venice turpentine
(Mills and White 1994; van den Berg et al. 2000);
totarol and ferruginol in sandarac (Mills and White 2.2.5. Pinaceae resin Index of Oxidation (IDOX)
1994); dammaranes, ursanes, oleananes, and ocotil- Abietic acid is a diterpenoid compound found in the resins
lones in dammar (van der Doelen, van den Berg, of Pinacea species including colophony and Canada Bal-
and Boon 1998; Watts and de la Rie 2002); moronic sam (van den Berg et al. 1996; van den Berg et al. 2000).
acid in mastic (Mills and White 1994); α- and β- It is unstable and prone to oxidation, undergoing aromati-
amyrin in elemi (Chiavari, Montalbani, and Otero zation to initially form dehydroabietic acid (DHA) and
2008); cinnamic acid present in benzoin (Stevanato then further oxidation through incorporation of oxygen
et al. 1997); agathic acid in Manila copal (Scalarone, to form DHA, 7-oxodehydroabietic acid (7-oxo-DHA),
Lazzari, and Chiantore 2003); sandaracopimarol in and 15-hydroxy-7-oxodehydroabietic acid (15-OH-7 -
Kauri copal (van den Berg, Ossebaar, and van Keulen oxo-DHA) (Figure 4) (van den Berg et al. 1996; Pastorova
2002); enantio-biformene in Congo copal (van den et al. 1997; van den Berg et al. 2000). van den Berg et al.
Berg, van der Horst, and Boon 1999); ricinoleic proposed that the relative ratios of abietic acid, DHA, 7-
acid and its degradation product, 9,12-dihydroxyoc- oxo-DHA and 15-OH-7-oxo-DHA may provide a useful
tadecanoic acid in castor oil (Copley et al. 2005); assessment of the relative degree of oxidation of the resin
and steranes, hopanes, alkylbenzothiophenes, and (2000). They defined the IDOX as:

⎛

1 2
[DHA]) + [7 − oxo − DHA] + (1[15 − OH − 7 − oxo − DHA])
⎜ 3 3
⎜
IDOX = ⎝ (1)
[abietic acid] + [DHA] + [7 − oxo − DHA] + [15 − OH − 7 − oxo − DHA],

alkyldibenzylthiophenes in asphalt and bitumen
(Languri 2004; Languri and Boon 2005). Each of
these specific marker compounds was readily detect-
able in unaged control samples of the indicated resins
at the expected positions and masses.
where the values in brackets are the integrated peak areas
obtained from GC–MS data. IDOX values range from 0 to
1, and if only DHA is present the IDOX value is 0.33. It
should be noted that other oxidized species such as 15-
hydroxdehydroabietic acid do not appear in Eq. (1) and

so the IDOX value may underrepresent the actual oxi-
dation level of a resin if significant amounts of these
other non-canonical compounds are present.
2.3. XRF analysis
X-ray fluorescence spectra were collected using a Bruker
Artax 400 energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer system
equipped with a Peltier cooled XFlash silicon drift detec-
tor (SDD) with a resolution of 146.4 eV. The excitation
source was a Rhodium (Rh) target X-ray tube, operated
at 20 kV and 400 μA current. The X-ray beam was
directed at the artifact through a polycapillary tube
with a spot size of approximately 70 μm and data were
collection for 180 s (live time). Spectral interpretation
was performed using the Artax Spectra v. 7.4.0. The
bare plate was analyzed in the same location utilized to
obtain thickness measurements (vide infra) and the
japanning layer was analyzed in the same area used to
obtain the japanning layer sample for py-GC–MS (vide
supra).
2.4. Microscopy
Dispersed samples from the japanning layers of 21 plates,
including the plates from known manufacturers and a
random selection of chocolate and black plates from
unknown manufacturers, were sandwiched between a
glass slide and coverslip and dispersed in Cargille Melt-
mount, n = 1.662. Twenty four plates were chosen for
cross-section analysis to further interrogate the layer
structure of the applied japanning. Plates analyzed
included those from known manufacturers and a ran-
dom selection of chocolate and black plates from
unknown manufacturers. Cross-section samples were
embedded in Bio-Plastic resin (Ward’s Scientific), coarse
ground using Micro Mesh MX sheets (120 and 150 grit)
(Scientific Instrument Services) and fine polished using
Micro Mesh sheets (1500–12000 grit) (Scientific Instru-
ment Services). Images of the samples under both nor-
mal oblique and UV illumination using a B-2A filter
cube were obtained using a Zeiss AxioCam MRc5 cam-
era controlled by Zeiss Axiovision AC software release
4.5 and mounted onto a Nikon Labophot-Pol optical
microscope equipped with a 20× or 40× objective.
Scale bars were created in Adobe Photoshop using
images of a micrometer scale taken using the same
objective.
2.5. SEM–EDX analysis
In order to better understand the elemental components
of the japanning layers, four of the cross-section samples
JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE FOR CONSERVATION 7
including a Griswold plate, a black plate from an
unknown manufacturer and two chocolate plates from
unknown manufacturers were selected for SEM–EDX
analysis. Backscatter electron images of the uncoated
cross-section samples were taken with a JEOL JSM-
IT100 SEM running under low vacuum mode with a
pressure of 50–55 Pa and a probe current of 40–50.
EDX analysis using the integrated detector was per-
formed under the same pressure conditions, but with
higher probe currents (65–75) to increase the counts.
2.6. Thickness measurements
The surface coatings (japanning layer, collodion, and
artist-applied recto varnish) and verso varnish were
removed from a small area of the tintype using a #15
scalpel blade. The thickness of the bare plate was then
measured three times using a digital micrometer and
the average and standard deviations calculated. The
thickness of the plate plus surface coatings was measured
the same way. The thickness of the surface layers was cal-
culated by subtracting the thickness of the bare plate
from the thickness of the plate plus surface coatings.
2.7. CIE L*a*b* measurements from normal light
images
2.7.1. Digital imaging using normal illumination
Illumination was provided by two Cole Palmer single
light guide fiber optic lamps, EKZ 30 W/10.8 V/3100 K
(MR-16) and a Leica twin light guide fiber optic EJA
150 W/21 V/3400 K (MR-16) and the irradiance at the
object was 133 footcandles. The tintypes were photo-
graphed using a Nikon D700 camera (36 × 23.9 mm
CMOS sensor) with a Nikon AF-S VR Micro-NIKKOR
105 mm 1:2.8 D lens. The camera settings were: ISO
200; aperture f/8; shutter speed 1/10 s; exposure adjust-
ment – 0.2. The RAW (NEF) file was modified in
Adobe Camera Raw to have a consistent tint of 0 and a
temperature of 2850 in order to adjust the Neutral 8
patch of the AIC PhotoDocumentation Target to
200 RGB ±5. The adjusted image was saved in NEF
and TIFF formats.
2.7.2. CIE L*a*b* analysis
TIFF images were opened in Adobe Photoshop®. A 3 mm
selection circle was used to select and copy three areas of
the darkest darks of the images to a new layer. The blur
tool, set at 100% strength and a size of 6 pixels, was used
to homogenize the selected swatches by sweeping the
brush in a circular fashion from the center of the swatch
outward. The color sampling tool set to a 5 × 5 pixel
sample size was then used to take three readings from
8 C. E. ROGGE
each swatch, and the CIE L*a*b* values were recorded
(Rogge and Lough 2016).
3. Results
3.1. Metal support
XRF analysis confirms that the support plates are all pri-
marily iron, although 21% of the supports also contained
small amounts of manganese. The manganese likely
derives from the iron ores utilized by the foundries.
The Bessemer process, the first economical means of
producing steel, was patented in 1856 and requires the
use of manganese-rich ores to sustain temperatures
sufficient to remove impurities during the initial “blow-
ing” step (Mushet 1883; Öberg and Jones 1918). This
may have led to the increased use of manganese-rich
ores in all facets of iron production.
The thickness of the plates is variable but clusters
around an average of 0.2 mm (Figure 5). The significant
outlier, with a thickness of 0.35 mm, is one of the Neff
plates; the other Neff plate lies within the main histo-
gram peak with a thickness of 0.18 mm. Early sheet
metal was sold by weight, not by thickness, and historical
standards are hard to identify, but a report from 1897
indicates that a box of 36 gauge tin-plated Taggers iron
from Britain containing 112 14 × 20′′ sheets weighed
61.24 pounds, while a box of lighter 38 gauge iron
weighed 54.44 pounds (The Iron Age 1897). Using the
density of elemental iron (7.874 g/cm3), the Nos. 36
and 38 gauge iron sheets would have been approximately
0.174 and 0.155 mm thick, respectively (these calculated
values are slight underestimates due to the presence of
tin), and similar to modern US 36 and 38 gauges, at
0.178 and 0.159 mm, respectively. The average thickness
Figure 5. Frequency distribution plot of the thickness of tintype
iron plates showing a histogram fit. The distribution centers
around 0.21 mm.
of the tintype support plates is very close to that of 36
gauge plates, while the thick Neff plate would be
classified as a 29 gauge sheet under modern standards.
The predominance of the 36 gauge thickness in the
study collection calls into question the assertion by Gris-
wold that Neff originally used “heavy” 36 gauge plate and
later shifted, along with other manufacturers, to using a
lighter 38 gauge plate (Estabrooke 1872). It seems unli-
kely that the gauge standards altered between 1856 and
1897, so Griswold may have simply mis-remembered
the gauge numbers.
3.2. Verso varnish
Py-GC–MS analysis of the verso varnishes found evi-
dence for only six organic materials in the samples:
asphaltum, camphor, drying oil, Pinaceae resin, sandarac
and shellac. Figure 6 shows the distribution of these
materials. The largest group of plates contains only dry-
ing oil and Pinaceae resin, and includes the Dean & Co.
Adamantean plate, the Phenix plate and one Neff plate.
The two Griswold plates contain drying oil, Pinacea,
and shellac, as do 14 other plates. The second (thinner)
Neff plate contains drying oil, Pinaceae and camphor.
The drying oils in the verso varnish have average palmi-
tic acid (P) to stearic acid (S) ratios of 1.5±0.5, consistent
with the use of linseed oil as indicated in the Smith, Gris-
wold and Heddon patents (Griswold 1856; Smith 1856;
Hedden 1870; Mills and White 1994) (Table 2). No mar-
kers for other oils such as castor or tung were detected.
The suberic acid (Sub) to azelaic acid (Az) ratio has an
average of 0.6±0.1, which suggests that the oils in the var-
nish have been subject to heat (Mills and White 1982; Kat-
sibiri and Boon 2004), either through the baking process or
through pre-polymerization as indicated in the Smith
patent (1856). The azelaic acid to palmitic acid ratio,
which is a measure of the extent of oxidation of the oil,
is considerably more variable (1±1), but the values are con-
sistent with aged drying oils, which have values >1
(Colombini, Modugno, and Ribechini 2009). The variation
in the observed values suggests that the verso varnishes
have been subject to different environments through
time and thus have aged differently.
The presence of Pinaceae resin in the verso varnish
offers another means to assess the level of oxidation.
The index of degree of oxidation, or IDOX value, is
based upon the well characterized oxidation pathway
of DHA, a marker compound for Pinaceae resin (van
den Berg et al. 2000). IDOX values range from 0 to 1;
smaller values reflect less oxidation. The average IDOX
value of the verso varnish is 0.37±0.05, indicating a mod-
erate degree of oxidation, although as the histogram in
Figure 7 shows, the distribution is multimodal. Many
 JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE FOR CONSERVATION 9

Figure 6. The number of occurrences of combinations of organic materials found in the verso varnishes of the tintypes. A checkmark in
a box indicates that a given constituent is present in that group of plates, while a blank box indicates its absence.

samples exhibit a value of 0.33, indicating that of the through other processes. Recent work has shown that
species used in the IDOX calculation only DHA was the aging characteristics of linseed oil and Pinaceae
detected, while varnishes with higher IDOX values also resin mixtures depend upon the relative percentages of
contain the more oxidized 7-oxo-DHA and 7-oxo-15- materials present (Lattuati-Derieux et al. 2014). Mixtures
hydroxy-DHA. The canonically computed 0.33 IDOX rich in Pinaceae resin show greater oxidation of the Pina-
value does underestimate the oxidation level of some of ceae resin and less oxidation of the linseed oil than mix-
these varnishes; of the 76 samples having an IDOX tures rich in linseed oil. Therefore, the composition of
value of 0.33, 50 contain oxidized species such as 7- the verso varnish may influence the IDOX value.
methoxydehydroabietic acid or 7-,15-dimethoxyhydroa- Comparison of the Az/P ratio vs. the IDOX value (Figure
bietic acid that are not included in the IDOX calculation. 8) shows that there is little correlation between the levels
The other 26 samples contain no other DHA-derived of oxidation of the Pinaceae resin and the drying oil.
species, suggesting that for these varnishes there has Therefore, although both materials oxidize with
either been a lack of further oxidation of DHA, or the exposure to oxygen over time, the lack of correlation
oxidation products of DHA have been consumed indicates that the level of oxygen and diffusion of that
gas to the varnished surface are not the sole determining
factors in rate or extent of oxidation.
Table 2. Summary of py-GC–MS results for the verso varnish and
japanning layer.
Verso varnish Japanning layer 3.3. Japanning layer
P/S 1.5 ± 0.5 1.3 ± 0.3
Az/P 1±1 0.42 ± 0.20 3.3.1. Py-GC–MS results
Sub/Az 0.6 ± 0.1 0.6 ± 0.1 The japanning layers contain mixtures of the same six
IDOX 0.37 ± 0.05 0.39 ± 0.06
materials found in the verso varnish: asphaltum,
10 C. E. ROGGE

Figure 7. Distribution of IDOX values of the verso varnish. The x-axis numbers are the upper limit on each histogram bin.

Figure 8. IDOX value of the verso varnish versus the azelaic acid to palmitic acid ratio.

camphor, drying oil, Pinaceae resin, sandarac and shel-
lac. However, as seen in Figure 9, whereas the majority
of the verso varnishes contain drying oil and Pinaceae,
the majority of the japanning layers fall into two groups:
those with drying oil alone, and those with drying oil and
Pinaceae resin. Approximately one third of the collection
has more complicated mixtures containing asphaltum,
sandarac, and/or shellac. Shellac, found in less than 4%
of the plates, was mentioned by Smith as a possible addi-
tive to the japanning layer, but the more popular san-
darac, which is present in 14% of the plates, was not.
Only 22 tintypes, 10% of the collection, contain detect-
able levels of asphaltum, a colorant mentioned in both
the Smith and Griswold patents (Griswold 1856; Smith

Figure 9. The number of occurrences of combinations of organic materials found in the japanning layers of the tintypes. A checkmark in
a box indicates that a given constituent is present in that group of plates, while a blank box indicates its absence.
1856). This strongly implies that plate manufacturers
avoided the use of this material as a pigment, likely
due to the slow drying of asphaltum/drying oil mixtures,
which would have impacted baking time and slowed the
production process. Camphor, present in 27 of the
plates, was more common than asphaltum, and is also
present in a small fraction of the verso varnishes. Cam-
phor is not mentioned in the three patents, but it was
recommended for use in varnishes for tintypes, ambro-
types, wet plate negatives, patent leather, and other
metal objects (Standage 1900; Brown 1901; Rogge
2014), likely for its ability to act as plasticizer and to
help create a smooth, glossy finish.
The P/S ratio of the drying oil (1.3±0.3) is consistent
with linseed oil, and no markers for tung or castor oil
were seen, as with the verso varnish (Mills and White
1994). The Sub/Az ratio (0.6±0.1) indicates heat-proces-
sing of the oil, and interestingly is the same average value
observed for the verso varnish. Figure 10 shows that
there is a weak correlation (R 2 = 0.25) between the values
suggesting that the baking(s) received by the plates may
have impacted the ratios of both the japanning layer and
JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE FOR CONSERVATION 11
verso varnish. The linear best fit line indicates that the
japanning layer experienced more or longer heating, per-
haps due to pre-thickening of the japanning layer
material as described in the Smith, Griswold, and Hed-
den patents (Griswold 1856; Smith 1856; Hedden
1870). The Az/P ratio of the japanning layers is 0.4 ±
0.2, lower than pure drying oils but consistent with mix-
tures of Pinacea and drying oils (0.5–1) (Lattuati-
Derieux et al. 2014). There is no correlation between
the Az/P ratios of the japanning layer and verso varnish
(data not shown), perhaps due to the protective artist-
applied varnish that is present on the recto of the tin-
types (Rogge 2014). This material will affect oxygen
diffusion to the japanning layer and therefore its levels
of oxidation. Another possible explanation is that the
different pigments present in the japanning layer have
impacted oxidation pathways of the oil (Mills and
White 1994).
The average IDOX value of the subset of plates that
contain Pinaceae resin is 0.39 ± 0.6, similar to the average
of the verso varnish. Similar to the verso varnish, the his-
togram shows a multimodal distribution (Figure 10) with
12 C. E. ROGGE
Figure 10. Comparison of the suberic to azeleic acid ratios of the japanning layer and the verso varnishes. The dotted line represents a
linear fit (y = 0.45x + 0.3787, R 2 = 0.25)
70 plates having an IDOX value of 0.33 and the remain-
ing plates having higher IDOX values. Of the 70 plates
with an IDOX value of 0.33, only 13 contain non-cano-
nical oxidized species such as 7-methoxydehydroabietic
acid or 7,15-dimethoxydehydroabietic acid, while no
other oxidized species were found in the other 57
samples. Relative to the verso varnish, the japanning
layer has a significantly higher fraction of samples that
contain only DHA. This could suggest that the presence
of the artist-applied varnish on the recto offered some
protection against oxidation, but inspection of the distri-
bution histogram in Figure 11 shows that many japan-
ning layer samples have highly oxidized Pinaceae resin.
Therefore, the presence of different pigments in the
japanning layers and relative compositions of the japan-
ning varnishes may have altered the oxidation pathways
of DHA, perhaps both during the original heating to
thicken and bake the japanning varnish and during the
subsequent lifetime of the object (van den Berg et al.
1996; Lattuati-Derieux et al. 2014).
There is no correlation between the IDOX value and
the Az/P ratio of the japanning layers (data not
shown), suggesting that while both drying oils and Pina-
cea resin oxidize with age, they do so through mechan-
isms that involve more factors than oxygen
concentration. Comparison of the IDOX values of the
japanning and verso varnish show no correlation (data
not shown), similar to the lack of correlation between
the Az/P ratios of these layers. This again may be due
to the presence of a protective artist-applied recto var-
nish creating different aging environments or to the pres-
ence of pigments.
While the oxidation levels of the japanning layers and
verso varnishes are largely uncorrelated, the japanning
layers and artist-applied recto varnishes, both present
on the same side, do show some correlation of IDOX
values (Figure 12). The IDOX values of the subgroup
of japanning layer samples with the higher IDOX values
show a weak correlation (R 2 = 0.32) with the IDOX
values of the artist-applied recto varnish (Rogge 2014),
suggesting that the two layers, present on the same side
of the plate, experience a similar oxidizing environment.
The positive y-intercept suggests the Pinaceae in the
artist-applied varnish is more oxidized than that of the
japanning layer, consistent with its greater exposure to
the atmosphere (and light) over time. The multimodal
distribution of IDOX values for Pinaceae resin in the
verso varnish and japanning layers described here was
not seen in the artist-applied recto varnish (Rogge
2014), suggesting that the materials present in, or the
methods of manufacture of, the japanning layer and
verso varnish may give rise to the observed multimodal
distribution of IDOX values.
3.3.2. Microscopy
Initial investigation into pigments present in the japan-
ning layer using dispersed sample microscopy suggested
that some black plates contained multiple layers with
 JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE FOR CONSERVATION 13

Figure 11. Distribution of IDOX values of the japanning layers. The x-axis numbers are the upper limit on each histogram bin.

Figure 12. Comparison of the IDOX values of the japanning layer with the artist-applied recto varnish. The IDOX values of the subgroup
of japanning layer samples with the higher IDOX values (●) show a weak correlation (R 2 = 0.32) with the IDOX values of the artist-
applied recto varnish.

different levels of pigmentation (Rogge 2018). Cross-
section samples taken from the japanning layers of plates
of known manufacture revealed that the Neff plates con-
tained three or five layers, and the Griswold plates two
layers, the bottom-most layer in all cases being a highly
pigmented with carbonaceous blacks (Rogge 2018).
This is likely the black “face coat” described by Griswold
in his essay:
First, the back had to be put on and baked, the black
‘face coat,’ as it was called, had to be similarly treated,
and finally a finishing coat over the black face, made
14 C. E. ROGGE

of a clear, hard, enduring varnish, had to be put on and
baked as a finish. (Estabrooke 1872, 81)
SEM–EDX analysis of the Griswold Ferrotype plate
shown in Figure 13(A) confirmed that the carbonaceous
pigments present in the lowest layer were the pigmenting
material. However, not all black plates contain multiple
layers, as can be seen in Figure 13(B), where the single
layer present is very dark with small, evenly scattered
carbonaceous pigments.
Samples taken from plates with a brown cast, includ-
ing the Dean & Co. Adamantean plate, appear to contain
only a single japanning layer, with the pigment dispersed
throughout the medium, although some settling of larger
particles to the bottom of the layer appears to have
occurred, as can be seen in Figure 13(C). Dispersed
microscopy suggests that the pigment in these plates is
iron based, and SEM–EDX confirms this identification
(Figure 13(D)).
The single layer present in all chocolate plates ana-
lyzed to date could be an indication of their relatively
late date of introduction, well after Griswold presumably
reduced the number of “bakings” and perhaps also the
number of layers. However, a high-quality single layer
structure may have been more readily achieved using
ochre pigments, the heavier particles of which naturally
settle in the liquid medium before polymerization. This
would leave the surface of the layer relatively unpigmen-
ted and easier to hand polish. Another factor in how the
manufacturers chose to apply materials may be relative
reactivity of the pigmenting materials to the sensitizing

Figure 13. Cross-section samples taken from different tintype plates; A–C optical microscopy images taken using UV illumination and a
B-2A filter cube. (A) Griswold plate with a japanning layer contains two layers: the bottom-most “black face coat” layer, a more lightly
pigmented layer on top of which are the collodion layer with silver image particles and the artist-applied varnish. (B) A black glossy
tintype from an unknown manufacturer. The japanning layer consists of a single dark lightly pigmented layer on top of which are the
collodion layer with silver image particles and the artist-applied varnish. (C) A chocolate plate from an unknown manufacturer with iron
oxide particles dispersed unevenly through the layer on top of which are the collodion layer with silver image particles and the artist-
applied varnish. (D) SEM–EDX map of the sample in panel C, iron is shown in red and silver in blue.

and developing chemicals used by photographers. This
was evidently an issue as A. K. P. Trask, author of Trask’s
Practical Ferrotyper wrote,
We have been troubled with ferrotype plates for several
years. Sometimes they come all covered with dirt and
dust, and are hardly fit for use; but the principal trouble
with me is the appearance of a black spot or comet, that
appears frequently, and sometimes so numerous that the
picture is entirely defaced. This is very annoying and
causes frequent resittings. I have tried to discover their
cause, but as yet have failed to do so. It is beyond a
doubt in my mind some substance in the varnished
coating of the plate … . (Trask 1872, 36–37)
Different manufacturers felt the need to respond criti-
cisms of quality, so Griswold advertised his plates as
“being free from any deleterious chemical agents … ”
(Humphrey 1859, 11) and the Vernis plates were suppo-
sedly free “from all Impurities calculated to affect injur-
iously the working of the chemicals” (Towler 1865, 163).
And in a probable case of paid sponsorship, two photogra-
phers wrote under the heading of “Phenix plates trium-
phant!” that “ … we desire to testify to the excellent
quality of the Plates, by stating as fact that of the five hun-
dred plates coated and exposed, not one plate was lost
from defective surface” (Bacon and Heighway 1872, 192).
Figure 14. XRF spectra of the bare support plate (gray) and support plate, jappaning layer and recto varnish (black) for a black plate and
a chocolate plate. The spectra are normalized to the Kβ values in order to more clearly show the attenuation of the Kα peak.
JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE FOR CONSERVATION 15
3.3.3. XRF analysis
The ability to positively identify chocolate plates pig-
mented with iron oxide species could help narrow the
manufacture date of an object and would potentially be
of use to institutions and collectors. The usual appli-
cation of XRF to identify iron oxide non-destructively
and non-invasively fails here because the tintype iron
support will always contribute an iron signal to XRF
spectra, which interferes with the identification of iron
in the japanning layer. Iron displays two XRF peaks:
Kα and Kβ; the lower energy Kα peak is more readily atte-
nuated by overlying layers, and so the Kα/Kβ ratio can
sometimes be used as a probe to determine whether
the signal derives from surface or subsurface layers and
even to measure the thickness of overlapping layers
(Cesareo et al. 2009). If iron is present as a pigment in
the japanning layer, the signals will derive from both
the underlying plate and the less attenuated region closer
to the surface, and therefore may display a larger Kα/Kβ
ratio than a plate that lacks iron in the japanning layer
(Figure 14). To control for variations in attenuation
due to differences in the support plates, the spectrum
of an area free of surface coatings was also measured
and the difference between the Kα/Kβ ratios calculated
16 C. E. ROGGE

via. b* values, a measure of the “yellowness,” will also be

Ka (bare plate) Ka (plate + surface coatings)
− ,
Kb (bare plate) Kb (plate + surface coatings)
Chocolate plates have brown to reddish-brown japan-
ning layers, and therefore should have positive CIE a*
values, which are a measure of the “redness” of the
plate. Black plates will have a* values close to zero. CIE
positive, but were not chosen for analysis as they will
be influenced by the presence of the artist-applied
(2)
recto varnish. The CIE a* values were obtained in Photo-
shop© for the darkest darks of the plates (Rogge and
Lough 2016), and plotted versus the value of Equation
(2); however, as shown in Figure 15(A), no correlation
was seen suggesting that this methodology cannot
reliably distinguish between iron pigmented and carbon

Figure 15. (A) CIE a* shows no correlation with the extent of the iron Kα peak attenuation as calculated by Equation (1). (B) The thick-
ness of the surface layers correlates weakly with the extent of attenuation. The dotted line represents a linear fit through the origin (y =
0.2267x, R 2 = 0.294).
 JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE FOR CONSERVATION 17

pigmented japanning layers. Instead, as shown in Figure
15(B), there is a much closer correlation between the
thickness of the surface coatings and the value of
Equation (1), indicating that the relative amount of
iron in the chocolate japanning layers is insufficient to
significantly impact the observed attenuation.
3.4. Manufacturers’ signatures
Py-GC–MS analysis of the japanning layer and verso var-
nish clearly showed that the tintypes fell into distinct
groups containing different materials. This could be
related to distinct “recipes” used by the plate manufac-
turers. When the information from the two layers is com-
bined (Figure 16), it is clear that the majority of the plates
fall into two groups: those with both drying oil and Pina-
ceae resin in the japanning layer and verso varnish, and
those with only drying oil in the japanning layer but
both drying oil and Pinaceae resin in the verso varnish.
Other, smaller groups with more complicated mixtures
also occur. Figure 15 also indicates the groups into
which the plates from known manufacturers fall. The
two Griswold plates form their own category, with asphal-
tum, drying oil, Pinaceae resin, and shellac in the japan-
ning layer, and drying oil, Pinaceae resin, and shellac in
the verso varnish. One Neff plate falls into a group with
7 others, with asphaltum, drying oil, and Pinaceae resin
in the japanning layer, and drying oil and Pinaceae resin
in the verso varnish. The second Neff plate was unique
in that it also contained camphor in the verso varnish,
suggesting that Neff may have changed his verso varnish
slightly over time. The Dean & Co. Adamantean plate
falls into a group of three, and contains drying oil, Pina-
ceae resin, and shellac in the japanning layer, and drying
oil and Pinaceae resin in the verso varnish. The Phenix
plate falls into the second largest group, with drying oil

Figure 16. Summary of py-GC–MS analysis for the japanning layer and verso varnish. A checkmark in a box indicates that a given con-
stituent is present in that group of plates, while a blank box indicates its absence. The groups containing named plates are indicated in
gray, with the manufacturer’s name indicated and the number of their plates that fall into that group given in parentheses.
18 C. E. ROGGE
in the japanning layer but both drying oil and Pinaceae
resin in the verso varnish. This strongly suggests that
material profiles could be created to link specific plates
to specific manufacturers, thus provided dating infor-
mation and perhaps geographic information.
4. Conclusions
Tintype plates are complex, multilayered objects with
minimal contemporary accounts describing their
materials and manufacture. The limited materials
found in the japanning layer (drying oil, shellac, san-
darac, camphor, Pinaceae resin, asphaltum) largely
confirm to the patent literature, but the use of asphaltum,
a material mentioned in two of the three patents, was not
commonly found. The verso varnish, which was never
contemporaneously described, contains similar materials
to the japanning layer. The co-occurrence of drying oils
and Pinaceae resin in japanning layers and verso
varnishes permits an assessment of the extent of oxi-
dation of the two materials in the different layers, and
the lack of correlation between oxidation of the oil and
Pinaceae resin offers a warning that factors other than
age can impact oxidation of these materials.
The pigmenting materials of the japanning layer
appear to be divided into two families: the black plates
containing carbonaceous materials sometimes applied
in multiple layers, and iron-based pigments that seem to
have usually been applied in a single layer. Non-destruc-
tive analysis with XRF cannot distinguish between the two
classes of pigments due to the thinness of the japanning
layer and the presence of the iron support, and evaluation
by eye, colorimetry, or spectrophotometry remain the
best means to assess if a plate is chocolate or black.
The identification of a plate as chocolate provides
some dating information as these plates were not widely
available until after Hedden’s patent in 1870. The differ-
ent materials found in the japanning layers and verso
varnishes of black Neff, Griswold, and Phenix plates
offer preliminary evidence that analysis may help to
link plates to specific manufacturers. For instance, a
black plate with drying oil in the japanning layer and
drying oil and Pinaceae resin in the verso varnish may
be tentatively hypothesized to be a Phenix plate, and
therefore date from 1872 to 1904. The small number of
securely identified plates analyzed in this study does
limit the reliability of the assignment, but offers proof
of concept of the ability of scientific study to link plates
to specific manufacturers and therefore dates.
Acknowledgements
The py-GC–MS data were collected when CER was the
Andrew W. Mellon Assistant Professor in Conservation
Science at Buffalo State College. Normal light digital images
for CIE L*a*b* analysis were taken by Krista Lough. Many
thanks to Mark Osterman for allowing analysis of his Phenix
plate; to Michael Schilling, Henk van Keulen, Klaas Jan van
den Berg and Patrick Dietemann for sharing their GC–MS
expertise, to Kevin R. MacKenzie for reading of manuscript,
to Lauren Lean and Digital Assets team at the George Eastman
Museum for imaging the advertisement for the Sun plate
(Figure 1), and to the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation for sup-
porting conservation science.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes on contributor
Corina E. Rogge is the Andrew W. Mellon Research Scientist at
the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston and the Menil Collection.
She earned a B.A. in chemistry from Bryn Mawr College, a
Ph.D. in Chemistry from Yale University and held postdoc-
toral positions at the University of Wisconsin–Madison and
the University of Texas Health Sciences Center (Houston).
Before joining the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, she held
positions as the Weiss Instructor of Chemistry at Rice Univer-
sity, and the Andrew W. Mellon Assistant Professor in Conser-
vation Science in the Department of Art Conservation at State
University of New York Buffalo State College. She is a Pro-
fessional Associate of the American Institute for Conservation.
Mailing address: The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, P.O. Box
6826, Houston, Texas 77265-6826.
ORCID
Corina E. Rogge http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8154-922X
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