MTM Lab Report

MTM LAB REPORT
Submitted To: Sir Waqas Rafiq
Submitted By: Hamza Faiz

2014-ME-133
Contents
LAB SESSION 1 ........................................................................................................................................ 1
LAB SESSION 2 ........................................................................................................................................ 2
LATHE MACHINE ................................................................................................................................. 2
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 2
SPECIFICATIONS OF LATHE .............................................................................................................. 2
PARTS OF LATHE MACHINE ............................................................................................................. 3
EXPERIMENT PERFORMED ................................................................................................................. 6
EXPERIMENT: 1 ................................................................................................................................ 6
EXPERIMENT: 2 ................................................................................................................................ 7
EXPERIMENT: 3 ................................................................................................................................ 8
LAB SESSION 3 ...................................................................................................................................... 13
EXPERIMENTS PERFORMED ............................................................................................................. 13
EXPERIMENT: 4 .............................................................................................................................. 13
EXPERIMENT: 5 .............................................................................................................................. 17
EXPERIMENT: 6 .............................................................................................................................. 19
EXPERIMENT: 7 .............................................................................................................................. 20
LAB SESSION 4 ...................................................................................................................................... 22
EXPERIMENT: 8 .............................................................................................................................. 22
LAB SESSION 5 ...................................................................................................................................... 27
EXPERIMENT: 9 .............................................................................................................................. 27
EXPERIMENT: 10 ............................................................................................................................ 31
LAB SESSION 6 ...................................................................................................................................... 35
EXPERIMENT: 11 ............................................................................................................................ 35
EXPERIMENT: 12 ............................................................................................................................ 38
LAB SESSION 7 ...................................................................................................................................... 43
EXPERIMENT: 13 ............................................................................................................................ 43
WORKING ...................................................................................................................................... 43
EXPERIMENT: 14 ............................................................................................................................ 46
LAB SESSION 7 ...................................................................................................................................... 49
EXPERIMENT: 15 ............................................................................................................................ 49
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EXPERIMENT: 16 ............................................................................................................................ 51
LAB SESSION 8 ...................................................................................................................................... 56
EXPERIMENT: 17 ............................................................................................................................ 56
EXPERIMENT: 18 ............................................................................................................................ 58
EXPERIMENT: 19 ............................................................................................................................ 62
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List of Figures
Figure 1: Lathe Specifications ................................................................................................................. 2
Figure 2: Lathe Machine ......................................................................................................................... 5
Figure 3: Facing ....................................................................................................................................... 6
Figure 4: Turning ..................................................................................................................................... 7
Figure 5: Taper Turning ........................................................................................................................... 8
Figure 6: Nomenclature ........................................................................................................................ 10
Figure 7: Cutting Tool Geometry........................................................................................................... 11
Figure 8: Drilling on Lathe ..................................................................................................................... 13
Figure 9: Nomenclature ........................................................................................................................ 16
Figure 10: Drill Related Operations ....................................................................................................... 17
Figure 11: Boring ................................................................................................................................... 18
Figure 12: Knurling ................................................................................................................................ 19
Figure 13: Parting .................................................................................................................................. 20
Figure 14: Threading ............................................................................................................................. 22
Figure 15: Tapping................................................................................................................................. 23
Figure 16: Single Point Threading ......................................................................................................... 24
Figure 17: Centre-type Thread Grinding ............................................................................................... 24
Figure 18: Thread Nomenclature .......................................................................................................... 26
Figure 19: Shaper .................................................................................................................................. 27
Figure 20: Quick Return Mechanism..................................................................................................... 28
Figure 21: Parts of Shaper Machine ...................................................................................................... 30
Figure 22: Simple Planer ....................................................................................................................... 31
Figure 23: Planer Parts .......................................................................................................................... 33
Figure 24: Cylindrical Grinding .............................................................................................................. 35
Figure 25: Grinder Parts ........................................................................................................................ 36
Figure 26: Grinding Wheels................................................................................................................... 37
Figure 27: CNC Grinder ......................................................................................................................... 38
Figure 28 Grinding wheel balancer ....................................................................................................... 40
Figure 29: Wheel Numbering ................................................................................................................ 41
Figure 30: Wire EDM Working .............................................................................................................. 43
Figure 31: EDM Wire-Cutting Machine ................................................................................................. 44
Figure 32: Parts of Milling Machines .................................................................................................... 47
Figure 33: CNC Machine........................................................................................................................ 49
Figure 34: Vertical Drilling ..................................................................................................................... 51
Figure 35: Drill Press Parts .................................................................................................................... 53
Figure 36: Drilling Operations ............................................................................................................... 54
Figure 37: EDM Die Sinking ................................................................................................................... 57
Figure 38: Die Sinking Working ............................................................................................................. 57
Figure 39: Nomenclature ...................................................................................................................... 59
Figure 40: Cutting Tool Nomenclature.................................................................................................. 60
Figure 41: SPCT Grinding ....................................................................................................................... 61
Figure 42: Water Jet Cutting ................................................................................................................. 62
Figure 43: Water Jet Cutting Machine .................................................................................................. 63
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LAB SESSION 1
LAB LAYOUT
1. Shaper Machine
2. Shaper Machine
3. Vertical Milling Machine
4. Horizontal Milling Machine
5. Horizontal Milling Machine
6. Simple Lathe Machine
7. Turret Lathe Machine
8. Universal Lathe Machine
9. Tool Room Lathe Machine
10. Universal Cylindrical Grinding Machine
11. Cylindrical Grinding Machine
12. NC Surface Grinder
13. Surface Grinder
14. Tool Cutter and Grinder
15. Power Hacksaw
16. Spinning Machine
17. Electric Furnace (900 °C)
18. Manual Hydraulic Press (150 Ton)
19. Electric Furnace (1100 °C)
20. Vertical Drill Machine
21. Vertical Drill Machine
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LAB SESSION 2
LATHE MACHINE
INTRODUCTION
Lathe is one of the most important machine tools in the metal working industry. A
lathe operates on the principle of a rotating work piece and a fixed cutting tool. The cutting
tool is feed into the work piece, which rotates about its own axis, causing the work piece to
be formed to the desired shape. Lathe machine is also known as “The mother/father of the
entire tool family”.
Though a lathe is used to produce cylindrical work, yet it may also be used for many
other purposes such as drilling, threading, grinding, boring, turning, facing, reaming, knurling,
etc. in addition to it with the help of some special attachments operations like key-way
cutting, cam and gear cutting, etc. can also be achieved.
SPECIFICATIONS OF LATHE
A certain lathe machine is selected according to the following parameters:
 Rotate the largest work diameter that can be rotated over the lathe bed.
 The shape of bed ways and horse power of the driving motor sometimes taken into
specifications.
 Distance between head stock and tail stock centre.
 Some manufacturers designate the lathes by the swing and length of the bed.
Figure 1: Lathe Specifications
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PARTS OF LATHE MACHINE
A simple lathe machine consists of following parts;
 Bed
Bed is mounted on the legs of the lathe which are bolted to the floor. It forms the base
of the machine. It is made of cast iron and its top surface is machined accurately and
precisely. The top of the bed has flat or ‘V’ shaped guide-ways. The tailstock and the
carriage slides on these guide-ways. Inverted ‘V’ shaped guide-ways are useful in
better guide and accurate alignment of saddle and tailstock.
 Headstock
Headstock is mounted permanently on the inner guide-ways at the left hand side of
the leg bed. The headstock houses a hollow spindle and the mechanism for driving the
spindle at multiple speeds. The headstock will have stepped cone pulley drive, back
gear drive or all gear drive for providing different speeds.
 Spindle
The spindle rotates on two large bearings housed on the headstock casting. A hole
extends through the spindle so that a long bar stock may be passed through the hole.
The front end of the spindle is threaded on which chucks, faceplate, driving plate and
catch plate are screwed. The front end of the hole is tapered to receive live centre
which supports the work. On the other side of the spindle, a gear known as a spindle
gear is fitted. Through this gear, tumbler gears and a main gear train, the power is
transmitted to the gear on the lead-screw.
 Tailstock
Tailstock is located on the inner guide-ways at the right side of the bed opposite to
the headstock. The body of the tailstock is bored and houses the tailstock spindle or
ram. The spindle moves front and back inside the hole. The spindle has a taper hole to
receive the dead centre or shanks of tools like drill or reamer. To remove the dead
centre or any other tool from the spindle, the hand-wheel is rotated in anticlockwise
direction further. The movement of the spindle inside the hole may be locked by
operating the spindle clamp located on top of the tailstock. In order to hold work-
pieces of different lengths, the tailstock can be locked at any desired position on the
lathe bed. Tailstock clamping bolts and clamping pates are used for this purpose.
 Carriage
Carriage is located between the headstock and tailstock on the lathe bed guide-ways.
It can be moved along the bed either towards or away from the headstock. It has
several parts to support, move and control the cutting tool.
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 Saddle
It is an “H” shaped casting. It connects the pair of bed guide-ways like a bridge. It fits
over the bed and slides along the bed between headstock and tailstock. The saddle or
the entire carriage can be moved by providing hand feed or automatic feed.
 Apron
The vertical, often flat and rectangular plate fastened to the front of the saddle and hanging
down in front of bed is known as the "Apron" and carries a selection of gears and controls that
allow the carriage to be driven (by hand or power) up and down the bed. The mechanism
inside can also engage the screw-cutting feed and various powered tool feeds, should they be
fitted. The lead-screw, and sometimes a power shaft as well, are often arranged to pass
through the apron and provide it with a drive for the various functions.
 Cross slide
Cross-slide is situated on the saddle and slides on the dovetail guide-ways at right
angles to the bed guide-ways. It carries compound rest, compound slide and tool post.
Cross slide hand-wheel is rotated to move it at right angles to the lathe axis. It can also
be power driven. The cross slide hand wheel is graduated on its rim to enable to give
known amount of feed as accurate as 0.05mm.
 Compound rest
Compound rest is a part which connects cross slide and compound slide. It is mounted
on the cross-slide by tongue and groove joint. It has a circular base on which angular
graduations are marked. The compound rest can be swiveled to the required angle
while turning tapers. A top slide known as compound slide is attached to the
compound rest by dove tail joint. The tool post is situated on the compound slide.
 Tool post:
This is located on top of the compound slide. It is used to hold the tools rigidly. Tools
are selected according to the type of operation and mounted on the tool post and
adjusted to a convenient working position. There are different types of tool posts and
they are:
– Single screw tool post
– Four bolt tool post
– Four way tool post
– Open side tool post
 Lead Screw
The lead-screw is a long threaded shaft used as master screw. It is brought into
operation during thread cutting to move the carriage to a calculated distance. The
lead-screw is held by two bearings on the face of the bed. A gear is attached to the
lead screw and it is called as gear on lead-screw. A half nut lever is provided in the
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apron to engage half nuts with the lead-screw. Lead-screw is used to move the
carriage towards and away from the headstock during thread cutting.
 Feed Rod
Feed rod is placed parallel to the lead-screw on the front side of the bed. It is a long
shaft which has a keyway along its length. The power is transmitted from the spindle
to the feed rod through tumbler gears and a gear train. It is useful in providing feed
movement to the carriage except for thread cutting and to move cross-slide. A worm
mounted on the feed rod enables the power feed movements.
 Dead centre
A dead centre (one that does not turn freely, i.e., dead) may be used to support the
work-piece at either the fixed or rotating end of the machine. When used in the fixed
position, a dead centre produces friction between the work-piece and centre, due to
the rotation of the work-piece. Lubrication is therefore required between the centre
and work-piece to prevent friction welding from occurring.
Figure 2: Lathe Machine
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EXPERIMENT PERFORMED
In this lab session we performed three different operations on the lathe i.e. Facing,
Turning and Tapper Turning. Their brief explanation along with procedures are explained as
follow;
EXPERIMENT: 1
Facing
Facing is the metal removal operation towards the end of a work-piece parallel to
the movement of the cross-slide. We create a flat surface with the help of a single point
cutting tool. It is a basic operation and is very easy to perform. The following figure shows
the basic facing operation being performed. This operation basically reduces the length of a
work-piece.
Figure 3: Facing
PROCEDURE
Following are the steps involved during facing operation on a lathe machine;
1. First the work piece of mild steel is clamped between the jaws of the chuck and
checked by rotating the chuck.
2. Then a single-point cutting tool is mounted on the tool post and adjusted according to
the work-piece.
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3. If the tip of the tool doesn’t coincide with the centre of the work then some packing
material is used to adjust its height.
4. To reduce the work to the desired length, the tool post is moved longitudinally along
it to some length (mm) while to remove the material the tool is moved in the crosswise
direction.
5. Note that the tool must be set at angle to the work-piece so that chips can flow easily.
6. This is how facing is done on a lathe machine using a single point cutting tool.
EXPERIMENT: 2
Turning
Turning is the operation performed mainly to reduce the diameter of the work-piece
to some precise measure. It also uses a single point cutting tool like facing for its operation.
We can reduce the diameter of the whole cylindrical rod or we can also have steps in the rod
by having different diameters at different parts. Following figure shows the turning of a
cylindrical work-piece;
Figure 4: Turning
PROCEDURE
Following are the steps involved in turning of a work-piece;
1. A single point cutting tool is mounted on the tool post and the centres are matched.
2. The tool is the moved crosswise to give the depth of cut while moved along the axis
of rotation for turning i.e. material removal.
3. First a rough cut is given so that most of the material is removed in this step. After that
the finishing turning is performed in which a very small depth of cut is given.
4. The tool used is always kept at right angle to the cut for better surface finish.
5. This is how simple turning operation is performed in lab.
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EXPERIMENT: 3
Taper Turning
The work in which the diameter gradually decreases from one end to the other is
known to be tapered. Tapers are introduced both internally and externally according to the
need such as sleeves have internal taper while sockets have external. The three basic methods
of turning a taper require the operator to use either a compound rest, offset the tailstock, or
use the taper attachment. With any of these methods, the cutting tool must be set exactly on
centre with the axis of the work-piece or the work-piece will not be truly conical, and the rate
of taper will vary with each cut.
Methods for Taper Turning:

Following is the brief description of the three methods for taper turning;
 Taper turning Attachment

This method involves using a taper turning attachment which is attached to the
cross slide which then moves the tool laterally as the longitudinal movement also
takes place. His method can be used for long tapers and is easy to use.
 Compound Rest
This method involves the setting of compound rest at an angle. This method
can produce high accuracy but is limited due to the lack of an automatic feed and
length of taper being limited to the movement of slide.
 Offsetting Tailstock
In this method the tailstock is moved at an angle so that the work-piece is at
angle to the tool. This method is used when taper attachment is not available. It
provides good finish due to automatic feed but cannot give internal taper.
The following figure shows taper turning done by compound-rest offset;
Figure 5: Taper Turning
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PROCEDURE
The steps involved in taper turning are as follow;
1. It is similar to turning operation, the only difference is providing a taper to it.
2. We use the compound rest method for this purpose.
3. The compound rest is tilted to the desired angle and then the same feed and cutting
mechanism is followed using a hand-wheel which is rotated smoothly or
automatically.
SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL

Single point cutting tool is the most basic tool used in lathe operations. It is usually
made of high speed steel and can be used for turning taper turning facing and other
operations. A single point cutting tool can also have a shank of low quality material and a hard
tip. Its nomenclature is as follows;
Nomenclature
 The base is the bottom surface of the tool shank.
 The cutting edge is the leading edge of the cutting tool that does the cutting.
 The face is the surface against which the chip bears as it is separated from the work.
 The flank is the surface of the tool adjacent to and below the cutting edge.
 The nose is the tip of the cutting tool formed by the junction of the cutting edge and
the front face.
 The nose radius is the radius to which the nose is ground. The size of the radius will
affect the finish. For rough turning, a small nose radius [about .015 in. (0.38 mm)] is
used. A larger radius [about .060 to .125 in. (1.5 to 3 mm)] is used for finish cuts.
 The point is the end of the tool that has been ground for cutting purposes.
 The shank is the body of the cutting tool or the part held in the tool-holder.
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Figure 6: Nomenclature
Angles and Clearances:

 The side cutting edge angle is the angle the cutting edge forms with the side of the
tool shank. Side cutting angles for a general-purpose lathe cutting tool may vary from
10° to 20°, depending on the material cut. If this angle is too large (over 30°), the tool
will tend to chatter.
 The end cutting edge angle is the angle formed by the end cutting edge and a line at
right angles to the centre-line of the cutting tool. This angle may vary from 5° to 30°,
depending on the type of cut and finish desired. An angle of 5° to 15° is satisfactory
for roughing cuts; angles between 15° and 30° are used for general-purpose turning
tools. The larger angle permits the cutting tool to be swivelled to the left for taking
light cuts close to the dog or chuck, or when turning to a shoulder.
 The side relief (clearance) angle is the angle ground on the flank of the tool below the
cutting edge. This angle is generally 6° to 10°. The side clearance on a cutting tool
permits the cutting tool to advance lengthwise into the rotating work and prevents
the flank from rubbing against the work-piece. Following is the geometry mostly used;
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Figure 7: Cutting Tool Geometry
 The end relief (clearance) angle is the angle ground below the nose of the cutting tool,
which permits the cutting tool to be fed into the work. It is generally 10° to 15° for
general-purpose tools. This angle must be measured when the cutting tool is held in
the tool holder. The end relief angle varies with the hardness and type of material and
the type of cut. The end relief angle is smaller for harder materials, providing support
under the cutting edge.
 The side rake angle is the angle at which the face is ground away from the cutting
edge. For general-purpose cutting tools, the side rake is generally 14°.
 The angle of keenness is the included angle produced by grinding side rake and side
clearance on a cutting tool. This angle may be altered, depending on the type of
material machined, and will be greater (closer to 90°) for harder materials.
 The back (top) rake angle is the backward slope of the tool face away from the nose.
The back rake angle is generally about 20° and is provided for in the tool-holder.
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EXPERIMENT SPECIFICATIONS
Following table shows the material used, speed and all other specifications in the
three experiments explained above.
Operation Material Speed(RPM) Cutting Depth

Facing MS-1045 590 1mm rough
0.5mm fine
Turning MS-1045 590 1mm rough
0.5mm fine
Taper Turning MS-1045 590 1mm rough
0.5mm fine
QUALITY CHECK
Following factors have to be considered for quality control:
 Varying the Rpm, the depth of cut and material of tool we can change the quality of
work-piece produced.
 Fine chips indicate a good procedure and big chips a bad procedure.
 Overheating of tip indicates that the depth of cut is too much.
DRAWBACKS
 The tip can break easily if the material is not good or the angle is not correct.
 A good machining operation requires a lot of time and a very high rpm.
 For turning and taper turning, the diameter is checked again and again so it is time
consuming.
IMPROVEMENTS
 The procedure can be improved if the automated system is used like a CNC machine
instead of manual controls.
 Good quality materials like carbide tips can also have a great impact on the finish.
CONCLUSION
These experiments can be used in real life for the formation of a wide variety of objects.
Much of the industry is based on these operations but instead of manual operations most
of the operations are automate.
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LAB SESSION 3
EXPERIMENTS PERFORMED
In this lad session we performed three other basic operations used in a machining job
i.e. drilling, boring and knurling. Their brief description and methods of performing are given
below.
EXPERIMENT: 4
DRILLING
Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut a hole of circular cross section in
solid materials. The drill bit is either placed in the tail-stock or used some attachment
while the work-piece is held in the chuck while working on a lathe. A drill bit is usually a
rotary cutting tool, often multi-pointed. The bit is pressed against the work-piece and
rotated at rates from hundreds to thousands of revolutions per minute. Drilling, along
with forming holes in solid materials, can also be used to form internal threads and form
holes by a process called boring etc.
PROCEDURE
Following is the procedure for the formation of a drilled hole in the solid;
1. First step is to choose the drill bit required for the procedure to be done on the work-
piece. Our required hole is of 16mm diameter.
2. We have to use a socket to hold the drill in place.
3. For exactly centred holes, the headstock and tailstock should be perfectly aligned.
4. The drill used is a tapered shank drill because it is of a size greater than 13mm.
5. In this procedure the work-piece is rotated and the drill is kept still. The drill goes into
the rotating work-piece to create the hole.
6. We give the specified rpm and the hole is formed.
Figure 8: Drilling on Lathe
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NOMENCLATURE OF TOOL USED
A drill may be divided into three main parts: shank, body, and point. They have been
described as follows;
 Axis
The imaginary straight line which forms the longitudinal centre line of the drill
 Body
The portion of the drill extending from the shank or neck to the outer corners
of the cutting lips
 Body Diameter Clearance
That portion of the land that has been cut away so it will not rub against the
walls of the hole
 Chisel Edge
The edge at the end of the web that connects the cutting lips
 Chisel Edge Angle
The angle included between the chisel edge and the cutting lip, as viewed from
the end of the drill
 Clearance
The space provided to eliminate undesirable contact between the drill and the
work-piece
 Clearance Diameter
The diameter over the cut away portion of the drill lands
 Drift
A flat tapered bar for forcing a taper shank out of its socket
 Drift Slot
A slot through a socket at the small end of the tapered hole to receive a drift
for forcing a taper shank out of its socket
 Drill Diameter
The diameter over the margins of the drill measured at the point
 Flute
Helical or straight grooves cut or formed in the body of the drill to provide
cutting lips, to permit removal of chips, and to allow cutting fluid to reach the
cutting lips
 Flute Length
The length from the outer corners of the cutting lips to the extreme back end
of the flutes; it includes the sweep of the tool used to generate the flutes and,
therefore, does not indicate the usable length of the flutes
 Helix Angle
The angle made by the leading edge of the land with a plane containing the
axis of the drill
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 Land
The peripheral portion of the body between adjacent flutes
 Land Width
The distance between the leading edge and the heel of the land measured at
a right angle to the leading edge
 Lead
The axial advance of a leading edge of the land in one turn around the
circumference
 Lips
The cutting edges of a two flute drill extending from the chisel edge to the
periphery
 Lip Relief
The axial relief on the drill point
 Margin
The cylindrical portion of the land which is not cut away to provide clearance
 Neck
The section of reduced diameter between the body and the shank of a drill Oil
Grooves: Longitudinal straight or helical grooves in the shank, or grooves in the
lands of a drill to carry cutting fluid to the cutting lips oil
 Overall Length
The length from the extreme end of the shank to the outer corners of the
cutting lips; it does not include the conical shank end often used on straight shank
drills, nor does it include the conical cutting point used on both straight and taper
shank drills
 Pilot
A cylindrical portion of the drill body preceding the cutting lips; it may be solid,
grooved, or fluted
 Point
The cutting end of a drill, made up of the ends of the lands and the web; in
form it resembles a cone, but departs from a true cone to furnish clearance behind
the cutting lips
 Point Angle
The angle included between the cutting lips projected upon a plane parallel to
the drill axis and parallel to the two cutting lips
 Relief
The result of the removal of tool material behind or adjacent to the cutting lip
and leading edge of the land to provide clearance and prevent rubbing (heel drag)
 Shank
The part of the drill by which it is held and driven
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 Sleeve
A tapered shell designed to fit into a specified socket and to receive a taper
shank smaller than the socket
 Socket
The tapered hole in a spindle, adaptor, or sleeve, designed to receive, hold and
drive a tapered shank
 Straight Flutes
Flutes which form lands lying in an axial plane
 Tang
The flattened end of a taper shank, intended to fit into a driving slot in a socket
 Taper Square Shank
A taper shank whose cross section is square
 Web
The central portion of the body that joins the lands; the extreme end of the
web forms the chisel edge on a two-flute drill.
RELATED OPERATIONS
While drilling operation is one of its kind but there are many operations which are very
much similar to the drilling operation. Some of them are shown in the following diagram.
Counter Boring is used to make space for screw heads. Tapping forms internal threads.
Counter sinking forms space for conical heads. Boring is used for widening the already
drilled holes through normal drilling. Reaming is used for finishing the hole surface.
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Figure 10: Drill Related Operations
DRILLING SPEED AND FEED

Drilling speed and feed are very important parameters in drilling operations as they
decide whether the drilled work-piece will be smooth or rough etc. Drill speed also decides
the tool life. The feed rate is given in in inches per revolutions or similar units. The
selection of drilling speed and drilling feed for various materials to be machined often
starts with recommendations in the form of application tables from manufacturers or by
consulting reference books.
EXPERIMENT: 5
BORING
Boring is the process of enlarging a hole that has already been drilled (or cast), by
means of a single-point cutting tool (or of a boring head containing several such tools), for
example as in boring a gun barrel or an engine cylinder. This operation is not used for
massive cutting; it is used to small removal of material. Boring, also called internal turning,
is used to increase the inside diameter of a hole. It is also done by a single point cutting
tool which is held parallel to the spindle. The following image shows the boring operation
being done on a lathe machine;
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Figure 11: Boring
PROCEDURE
Following is the procedure involved in the boring process of a hole;
1. First a hole is made with the help of a drill. This hole can be drilled rough because it is
not of the final diameter.
2. The tool is inserted in the hole with the spindle parallel to the axis of the work-piece.
3. A small feed is given at a constant rat.
4. The cutting tool should be centred within the hole properly otherwise an improper
shape will be formed instead of a circular hole.
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EXPERIMENT: 6
KNURLING
Knurling is a manufacturing process, which is used to form a pattern on a surface for
better gripping. It is typically conducted on a lathe, whereby a pattern of straight, angled
or crossed lines is cut or rolled into the material. Diamond shaped patterns are most
common ones to be imprinted. In this process no cutting of material or material removal
takes place instead only the impression is formed with the help of a case hardened tool
by creating depressions on the work surface. Following is the image showing how knurling
is done;
Figure 12: Knurling
PROCEDURE
Following steps are involved in the knurling operation;
1. The work-piece is held in the lathe machine in a straight position.
2. The knurling tool is moved towards the work-piece with the help of a knurl holder.
3. The tool moves forward and comes in contact with the work-piece and creates
impression on it.
4. A small rpm can also work very well for this operation.
5. The work-piece doesn’t need to be centred for this operation.
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EXPERIMENT: 7
PARTING
Parting uses a blade-like cutting tool plunged directly into the work-piece to cut off the
work-piece at a specific length. It is normally used to remove the finished end of a work-piece
from the bar stock that is clamped in the chuck. Other uses include things such as cutting the
head off a bolt.
Figure 13: Parting
PROCEDURE
The parting operation which we performed in the lab consisted of following steps;
1. This operation can be performed by holding the work-piece in the chuck and rotating
it at a speed half to that in turning.
2. The parting tool acts in a direction perpendicular to the lathe axis as we give feed from
the manual screw.
3. The carriage and the tool must be both locked in their places properly so that there
are no vibrations in the procedure.
4. The tool feed rate must be very slow to avoid chattering.
5. The cuts are made in multiple steps for a very large diameter work. The tool is inserted
to a certain depth then withdrawn and then again fed at different position until the
material is cut.
EXPERIMENT SPECIFICATIONS:
Operation Material Speed (RPM) Cutting Depth
Drilling MS-1024 375 1st 10mm hole, 2nd
16mm hole
Boring MS-1024 375 1mm diameter
Knurling MS-1024 38 No cutting just
impression
Parting MS-1024 375 Radius of the
workpiece
20
QUALITY CHECK
The quality check procedure depends on the following factors;
 The conditions in which experiments are performed. The cutting depth and
cutting speed used.
 The material used for cutting and the material of work-piece.
DRAWBACKS
 For the processes of parting, boring and drilling process, the centring of work-piece is
a must. Otherwise, the process will not be uniform.
 For boring, we first have to drill a small hole so we can call boring a finishing process.
 The cuts in the parting process must be made from sideways otherwise, the tool walls
might get in contact with the work-piece and wear
CONCLUSION
All these experiments are of high practical importance due to their use in industry. The way
of machining might change but the basic principle remains the same e.g. the manual
machining process can be changed to a CNC one but the principle is same.
21
LAB SESSION 4
In this lab session we performed one of the most important machining operation i.e.
threading. Its description and methods of performing are given below.
EXPERIMENT: 8
THREADING
A thread may be defined as a helical ridge of uniform section formed on the inside or
outside of a cylinder. Threads are used extensively in the world for many purposes i.e. to
fasten devices such as screws, bolts, studs, and nuts, to provide accurate measurement, as in
a micrometre and to transmit motion; the threaded lead screw on the lathe causes the
carriage to move along when threading and also to increase force; heavy work can be raised
with a screw jack.
Figure 14: Threading
THREADING OPERATION
There are various methods for generating screw threads. Threads of metal fasteners
are usually created on a thread rolling machine. They may also be cut with a lathe, tap or die.
Rolled threads are stronger than cut threads, with increases of 10% to 20% in tensile strength
and possibly more in fatigue resistance and wear resistance.
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PROCEDURE
We follow the following procedure to form threads on a cylinder in our experiment;
1. First of all the cutting tool and the axis of the work are aligned for precise threading.
2. Now set the proper lathe speed. Set the quick-change gearbox for the required pitch
in threads per inch or in millimetres.
3. Engage the lead screw. Secure a thread cutting tool and check the angle using a thread
centre gage.
4. Set the compound rest at proper angle to the right for right-handed thread. Set the
cutting tool at right angles to the work using a thread centre gage.
5. We will give gradual cuts. The depth of cut usually varies from 0.05 to 0.2mm.
6. Half nut is engaged and the first cut starts. After tool reaches the end of work-piece
the half nut is disengaged and the tool withdrawn.
7. The tool is brought to the start to give a fresh cut.
8. Remove the burrs using file or chamfering tool. Check the threads and take further
cuts if necessary.
THREADING TECHNIQUES
There are many different methods to conduct the threading operation. Some of them
are discussed below
 Taps and Dies

A common method of threading is cutting with taps and dies. Unlike drill bits,
hand taps do not automatically remove the chips they create. A hand tap cannot cut
its threads in a single rotation because it creates long chips which quickly jam the tap
possibly breaking it.
Figure 15: Tapping
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 Single-Point Threading
Single-point threading is an operation that uses a single-point tool to produce
a thread form on a cylinder or cone. The tool moves linearly while the precise rotation
of the work-piece determines the lead of the thread. The process can be done to
create external or internal threads (male or female). In external thread cutting, the
piece can either be held in a chuck or mounted between two centres. With internal
thread cutting, the piece is held in a chuck. All threading could feasibly be done using
a single-point tool.
Figure 16: Single Point Threading
 Thread Grinding
Thread grinding is done on a grinding machine using specially dressed grinding
wheels matching the shape of the threads. The process is usually used to produce
accurate thread or threads in hard materials; a common application is ball screw
mechanisms.
Figure 17: Centre-type Thread Grinding
THREAD NOMENCLATURE
Following are some of the important definitions regarding threads;
 An external thread is cut on an external surface or cone, such as on a cap screw or a

wood screw.
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 An internal thread is produced on the inside of a cylinder or cone, such as the thread
on the inside of a nut.
 The major diameter is the largest diameter of an external or internal thread.
 The minor diameter is the smallest diameter of an external or internal thread. This is
formerly known as the root diameter.
 The pitch diameter is the diameter of an imaginary cylinder that passes through the
thread at a point where the groove and thread widths are equal. The pitch diameter
is equal to the major diameter minus a single depth of thread. The diameter of the
blank is always equal to the pitch diameter of the thread to be rolled.
 Thread rolling is a displacement operation and the amount of metal displaced is
forced up to form the thread above the pitch line.
 The number of threads per inch is the number of crests or roots per inch of threaded
section. This term does not apply to metric threads.
 The pitch is the distance from a point on one thread to a corresponding point on the
next thread, measured parallel to the axis. Pitch is expressed in millimetres for metric
threads.
 Lead is the distance a screw thread advances axially in one revolution. On a single-
start thread, the lead and the pitch are equal.
 Root is the bottom surface joining the sides of two adjacent threads. The root of an
external thread is on its minor diameter. The root of an internal thread is on its major
diameter.
 Crest is the top surface joining two sides of a thread. The crest of an external thread
is on the major diameter, while the crest of an internal thread is on the minor
diameter.
 A flank (side) is a thread surface that connects the crest with the root.
 The depth of thread is the distance between the crest and root measured
perpendicular to the axis.
 The angle of thread is the included angle between the sides of a thread measured in
an axial plane.
 The helix angle (lead angle) is the angle that the thread makes with a plane
perpendicular to the thread axis.
 A right-hand thread is a helical ridge of uniform cross section onto which a nut is
threaded in a clockwise direction, a left-hand thread is a helical ridge of uniform cross
section onto which a nut is threaded in a counter clockwise direction.
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Figure 18: Thread Nomenclature
Following were the specifications considered while performing threading in the lab;
Operation Material Speed (RPM) Thread Type

Threading MS-1024 95 V-Threads
12 threads/in
DRAWBACKS
 If while producing the threads, the starting point of the second cut does not match
with the first one, the whole threads will be damaged.
 The number of thread produced on lathe depends on the gear train of the lathe so
specific types of thread are produced.
CONCLUSIONS
Threads are temporary joints and are very useful. So, this operation has a very high
significance. Threading is very critical when it comes to selection of correct threads per inch.
Otherwise the process is automatic so there is no need to worry if lathe settings are correct.
26
LAB SESSION 5
In this lab session we were briefed about two major machines used in machining labs
i.e. Shaper and Planer. Their details and working are given as follow.
EXPERIMENT: 9
SHAPER
The shaper is a machine used to machine flat surfaces by performing successive
reciprocating (alternating forward and backward) cuts over the work-piece. The horizontal
shaper, with ram movement in the horizontal plane, is the type most commonly used.
It offers speed and flexibility of setup in performing many kinds of work. The shaper is
invaluable in the tool-room, in the die shop, and in small manufacturing operations. With it
we can do work that is difficult or impractical to perform on other machines.
Figure 19: Shaper
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WORKING PRINCIPLE
A Shaper is used to form flat surfaces out of a rough surface. A single point cutting tool
is used to provide feed to the work. The movement of the tool is basically controlled by the
help of quick-return mechanism which is described as follow;
 Shaper cuts only in one stroke (forward stroke). Other stroke is idle.
 Cutting stroke is slower than the idle (return) stroke.
 Angle covered by the crank is more in cutting stroke. Hence more time for cutting.
Typical values are: Cutting stroke – 2200 & Return stroke – 1400
 Bull gear rotates at uniform speed but ram speed is varying.
 By changing the length of crank, ram stroke can be changed.
Figure 20: Quick Return Mechanism
TYPES OF SHAPER
Types of a shaper machine are given according to the ram feed. Following are listed
some of its types;
 Horizontal Shaper: Ram is Horizontal

 Vertical shaper: Ram is vertical, machine is similar to a slotter
 Mechanical Shaper: Ram drive is Mechanical
 Hydraulic Shaper: Ram drive is hydraulic
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PARTS OF SHAPER
A shaper machine consists of the following basic parts that come in handy during its
normal working;
 Base
The base rests directly on the shop floor or on the bench, if we speak of a
bench-type machine. The base is a casting which serves as a foundation or platform
for the machine. Certain surfaces of the base are machined to fit parts that are
fastened to the base. A rim on base forms a trough to retain the oil that drips.
 Column
The column, or frame, is mounted on the base. It is a hollow casting shaped
like a box with openings at the top and bottom. It encloses the mechanism which
drives the ram and houses the automatic feed. The ram ways at the top of the column
form a guide for the ram. The vertical face on the front of the column has been
precision machined at right angles to the ram ways on the top of the column. The
cross-rail moves on this front face.
 Cross-rail
The cross-rail, is a long casting located across the front of the column. It allows
vertical and horizontal movement of the table which slides upon it. An elevating screw
controls the up-and-down (vertical) movement of the cross-rail. A cross-feed screw,
called a lead screw, is mounted horizontally in the cross-rail. The lead screw controls
sidewise movement of both the saddle and the table.
 Saddle
The saddle, or apron, is a flat casting located on the cross-rail. This unit of the
shaper supports the table.
 Ram
It is the main part of the shaper machine. It holds the tool and provides the
reciprocating motion to it. It is made by cast iron and move over ways on column. It is
attached by the rocker arm which provide it motion in crank driven machine and if the
machine is hydraulic driven it is attached by hydraulic housing.
 Clapper Box
The clapper box, or tool block, as it is sometimes called, is an important part of
the tool head. When the ram is moving forward on the cutting stroke, the tool block
is forced back against the base of the clapper box. It is thus properly supported. The
clapper or tool- block is hinged to swing outward. This allows the tool to lift slightly
and swing clear of the work on the return stroke. In this manner the cutting edge of
the tool does not drag (except for its own weight) over the surface of the work on the
return stroke of the ram. The clapper box is attached to the tool slide with a pivot
screw and clamping nut. The clapper box may be swivelled through a small arc in
either direction, clockwise or counter-clockwise.
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 Tool Head
The tool head, is clamped to the forward end of the ram. It consists of the parts which
hold the cutting tool and those parts which guide the tool vertically and adjust it for the
desired cut. The head has a lead screw and a handle that permits feeding the clapper box and
tool up and down by hand. An adjustable micro-meter collar, graduated in thousandths of an
inch, tells the distance the tool is raised or lowered when the down-feed screw is turned.
 Table
The table is a boxlike casting with openings top and bottom. The rear face of
the table is clamped to the front face of the saddle. The front face of the table, on
many shapers, is used as a clamping surface for a table support. The top and two sides
of the table are used to locate and hold the work directly, or to locate and hold a vice
or fixture which in turn secures the work-piece. The surfaces on the top and two sides
have T-slots to accommodate the bolts that clamp the work.
 Stroke adjuster
It is attached below the table. It is used to control the stroke length which
further controls the ram movement.
Figure 21: Parts of Shaper Machine
PROCEDURE
The procedure for using a shaper machine is as follows
1. First the work-piece is fixed in its pace by using a vice or a fixture.
2. The tool is mounted on the tool-post.
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3. The motor is started which causes the quick return mechanism to start.
4. Now the tool starts cutting the unwanted material from the work by rubbing against
it.
5. Note that the tool cuts only in the forward stroke. In the return stroke the clapper
provides a clearance between the tool and the work-piece.
6. If the tool cuts in return stroke too, the surface finish will be very poor.
TOOL USED
The tool used is a single point cutting tool which allows for a high surface finish. The
shaping machine is a versatile machine able to produce flat surfaces, grooves, T-Slots,
dovetails, and may be used to produce curved surfaces. The size of components that may be
machined is normally limited by the length of the stroke of the shaping machine which can
vary up to a maximum of about 1500mm. (750mm is normally the maximum stroke). The
shaping machine is not generally used as a production tool because of its slow cutting speed
and the unproductive return stroke.
EXPERIMENT: 10
PLANER
The planer is a machine tool designed to produce plane and flat surface on a work-
piece which is too large or too heavy. The work-piece is securely fixed on a table called platen,
and it reciprocates horizontally against a single edged cutting tool. The surface machined may
be h6orizontal, vertical or at an angle.
Figure 22: Simple Planer
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WORKING
Working of a planer is similar to that of a shaper. It also uses the same mechanism the
only difference is that in a planer the work-piece is moved instead of the tool. It is used for
heavy-duty cutting and finishing operations.
TYPES OF PLANER
There are many different kinds of planers used but the following two are most
commonly practiced;
1. Open Side Planer

These have just one vertical column on which cross rail is mounted. Column
and cross rail take only one or two tool heads in that order. This kind of machine allows
machining of extensive work-pieces.
2. Double Housing Planer
It is the most important type which consists of a massive bed on which the
table responds and two vertical columns or housings, one on each side, are located.
Every column head carries a tool head that can be moved up and down according to
the working. Cross rails could carry one or two tool heads on the column.
PARTS OF A PLANER
Following are listed some of the important parts of a planer;
 Bed and Table

The bed is a long heavy base and table made of cast iron. Its top surface is flat
and machined accurately. The flat top surface has slots in which the work-piece can
be securely clamped. The work-piece needs rigid fixing so that it does not shift out of
its position. The standard clamping devices used on planer machine are: Heavy duty
vice, T-holders and clamps, angle plate, planer jack, step blocks and stop. The table
movement may be actuated by a variable speed drive through a rack and pinion
arrangement, or a hydraulic system.
 Housings
The housings are the rigid and upright column like castings. These are located
near the centre on each side of the base.
 Cross rail
The cross rail is a horizontal member supported on the machined ways of the
upright columns. Guide ways are provided on vertical face of each column and that
enables up and vertical movement of the cross rail. The vertical movement of the cross
rail allows to accommodate work-piece of different heights. Since the cross rail is
supported at both the ends, this type of planer machine is rigid in construction.
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 Tool Heads
Generally, two tool heads are mounted in the horizontal cross rail and one on
each of the vertical housing. Tool heads may be swivelled so that angular cuts can be
made.
 Driving and Feed Mechanism
The tool heads may be fed either by hand or by power in crosswise or vertical
direction. The motor drive is usually at one side of the planer near the centre and drive
mechanism is located under the table.
Figure 23: Planer Parts
PROCEDURE
Following are the steps involved while performing machining on a planer;
1. First the work-piece is fixed in its pace by using a vice or a fixture. The work-piece
needs proper fixing so that it does not move out of its place.
2. The tool is mounted on the tool-post. Generally, tool heads are mounted in the
horizontal cross rail and one on each of the vertical housing.
3. Tool heads may be swivelled so that angular cuts can be made.
4. The table movement may be actuated by a variable speed drive through a rack and
pinion arrangement, or a hydraulic system. The tool starts cutting the unwanted
material from the work by rubbing against it.
5. The tool heads may be fed either by hand or by power in crosswise or vertical
direction.
33
Operation Work Tool Tool Feed Table Feed
Material Material
Shaping MS-1024 HSS 0.3mm -
Planing MS-1024 HSS - 0.3mm
QUALITY CHECK
The quality of the product from these processes depends on the relative speed of the
cutting tool and the work-piece. The quality of work-piece is usually low in case of a shaper
due to the single cutting stroke used. Grinding after the shaping process can highly increase
the finish.
DRAWBACKS
 Shaping process and planning are now obsolete because of the low finish they
produce. Now, they have been replaced with other automated processes.
 The shaping process was used in the early days of machine tools. Shaping machines
are not widely used now. Shaping produces flat surfaces by moving a single point
cutting tool in a reciprocating motion. The forward stroke is the cutting stroke the
backward movement is completed at a faster velocity and includes the sideways feed
motion.
 The size of components that may be machined is normally limited by the length of the
stroke of the shaping machine which can vary up to a maximum of about 1500mm.
(750mm is normally the maximum stroke).
CONCLUSIONS
Shaping and planing machines are useful but now other processes have replaced
them. We can install automatic feeds to obtain higher accuracy. These machines can also
be a cause of some accidents due to tooling used so safety precautions must be fulfilled.
34
LAB SESSION 6
In this lab session we worked on grinding operations using Cylindrical Grinding
Machine and NC Grinding Machine. Their working and description is given below separately.
EXPERIMENT: 11
CYLINDRICAL GRINDING
Grinding is an abrasive machining process that uses a grinding wheel as the cutting
tool. A wide variety of machines are used for grinding: Hand-cranked knife-sharpening stones
(grindstones) Handheld power tools such as angle grinders and die grinders.
Figure 24: Cylindrical Grinding
GRINDING MACHINE
A grinding machine, often shortened to grinder, is any of various power or machine
tools used for this, which is a type of machining using an abrasive wheel as the cutting tool.
Each grain of abrasive on the wheel's surface cuts a small chip from the work-piece via shear
deformation. Grinding is used to finish work-pieces that must show high surface quality (e.g.
low surface roughness) and high accuracy of shape and dimension. As the accuracy in
dimensions in grinding is on the order of 0.000025 mm, in most applications it tends to be a
finishing operation and removes comparatively little metal, about 0.25 to 0.50 mm depth.
35
PARTS OF GRINDING MACHINE
Major Parts of the Universal Centre-Type Cylindrical Grinder Major parts of the
machine include the bed, slide, swivel table, headstock, footstock, and wheel head. Their
detail is as follow;
 Bed
The bed is the main structural component and is responsible for the rigidity of
the machine tool. The bed supports the slide, which in turn supports the swivel table.
 Slide and Swivel Table
The slide carries the swivel table and provides the traverse motion to carry the
work-piece past the wheel. The swivel table is mounted on the slide and supports the
headstock and footstock. The swivel table has graduations for establishing taper
angles.
 Headstock
The headstock mounts on the swivel table and is used to support one end of
the work-piece. Headstock also provides the rotating motion for the work-piece. The
headstock spindle is typically designed to accept a chuck or face plate. The headstock
centre is used when work-pieces are mounted between centres. Variable headstock-
spindle speed selection is also available.
 Footstock
The footstock is also mounted on the swivel table and supports the opposite end of a
work-piece mounted between centres.
 Wheel Head
The wheel head, located at the back of the machine, contains the spindle,
bearings, drive, and main motor.
Figure 25: Grinder Parts
36
PROCEDURE
Following are the steps involved during cylindrical grinding operation;
1. Remove all burrs and dirt from the work-piece and the face of the magnetic chuck.
2. Mount the work on the chuck, placing a piece of paper between the chuck and the
work-piece.
3. Check to see that the work is held firmly.
4. Set the table reverse dogs so that the centre of the grinding wheel clears each end of
the work by approximately 1 in. (25 mm).
5. The machine is started and the grinding wheel is moved towards the, already rotating,
work-piece.
6. Lubricant is added to reduce the amount of heat generated.
TOOL USED
A grinding wheel is a wheel composed of an abrasive compound and used for various
grinding and abrasive machining operations. Such wheels are used in grinding machines. The
wheels are generally made from a composite material consisting of coarse-particle aggregate
pressed and bonded together by a cementing matrix (called the bond in grinding wheel
terminology) to form a solid, circular shape.
Figure 26: Grinding Wheels
37
EXPERIMENT: 12
NC GRINDING
A programmer or an operator feeds the NC machine’s computer with commands
required to carry out a particular task. The machine then uses these commands to move parts
such as the grinding head onto the work piece. At this point, it is important to note that there
are various ways of removing material from a work piece. Work in which precise machining is
necessary, an NC grinder is used for grinding.
CNC GRINDER
The term CNC stands for computer numerical control. Therefore, CNC machines
typically come with computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) and computer-aided design (CAD)
programs. The grinding machine consists of a power-driven wheel that spins at a speed set by
the operator or programmer. However, other factors such as the diameter of the wheel and
the manufacturer’s rating also determine the spin speed. Additionally, these machines have
beds with fixtures or clamps to hold and guide work pieces during the grinding process.
Another important feature of CNC machines is the grinding head. There are two ways of
manipulating this head. Firstly, an operator can control it to move across a work piece during
grinding. Secondly, the operator can move a work piece while the grinding head remains
stationary.
Figure 27: CNC Grinder
G&M CODES
These codes are the very basics of CNC machining. They operate the grinding wheel and
move the grinding head on 5 axes of operation. The codes are pre-installed into the machine
and we just select our desired operation to be performed and the rest is computer’s job.
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 G-CODES
G-code is a language in which people tell computerized machine tools how to
make something. The "how" is defined by instructions on where to move, how fast to
move, and what path to move.
 M-CODES
M codes are similar to the G codes and are used in our CNC machines.
PROCEDURE
Following steps are followed while machining with a CNC Grinder;
1. First of all the work is clamped on table with the help of a compressor.
2. Next the tool and operation to be done is selected.
3. Next step is to adjust the origin of the cutting tool which is done manually with the
help of a controller.
4. Then some coding is done according to the operation and parameters such as feed,
wheel speed, number of cuts, area to be grinded, etc. are provided with the help of a
computer.
5. After all this, the machine is turned on and the operation start accordingly. It can also
be stopped at any time. This is how grinding is done on a CNC machine.
PRODUCTION OF GRINDING WHEEL

Most grinding wheels used for machine shop operations are manufactured with
vitrified bonds; therefore, the manufacture of only this type of wheel will be discussed. The
main operations in the manufacture of vitrified grinding wheels are as follows;
 Mixing
The correct proportions of abrasive grain and bond are carefully weighed and
thoroughly mixed in a rotary power mixing machine. A certain percentage of water is
added to moisten the mix.
 Molding
The proper amount of this mixture is placed in a steel mold of the desired
wheel shape and compressed in a hydraulic press to form a wheel slightly larger than
the finished size. The amount of pressure used varies with the size of the wheel and
the structure required.
 Shaving
Although the majority of wheels are molded to shape and size, some machines
require special wheel shapes and recesses. These are shaped or shaved to size in the
green, or unburned, state on a shaving machine, which resembles a potter’s wheel.
 Firing
The green wheels are carefully stacked on cars and are moved slowly through
a long kiln 250 to 300 ft. (76 to 90 m) long. The temperature of the kiln is held at 2300°F
39
(1260°C). This operation, which takes about five days, causes the bond to melt and
form a glassy case around each grain; the product is a hard wheel.
 Truing
The cured wheels are mounted in a special lathe and turned to the required
size and shape by hardened-steel conical cutters, diamond tools, or special grinding
wheels.
 Bushing
The arbour hole in a grinding wheel is fitted with a lead or plastic-type bushing
to fit a specific spindle size. The edges of the bushing are then trimmed to the
thickness of the wheel.
 Speed Testing
Wheels are rotated in a heavy, enclosed case and revolved at speeds at least
50% above normal operating speeds. This ensures that the wheel will not break under
normal operating speeds and conditions.
BALANCING OF GRINDING WHEEL

Proper balance of a mounted grinding wheel is very important, since improper balance
will greatly affect the surface finish and accuracy of the work. Excessive imbalance creates
vibration, which will damage the spindle bearings. There are two methods of balancing a
wheel
 Static Balancing
On some grinders, the wheel is balanced off the machine with the use of a
balancing stand and arbour. Counterweights in the wheel flange must be correctly
positioned in order to balance the grinding wheel.
 Dynamic Balancing
Most new grinding machines are equipped with ball-bearing balancing devices,
which automatically balance a wheel in a matter of seconds while it is revolving on the
grinder.
Figure 28 Grinding wheel balancer
40
GRINDING WHEEL NOMENCLATURE
Following is the diagram which shows the code of a grinding wheel and its numbers
indicating different characteristics;
Figure 29: Wheel Numbering
QUALITY INSPECTION
The following factors affect the surface finish
1. Soft material, such as brass and aluminium, will not permit as high a finish a harder
ferrous material. A much finer finish can be produced on hardened-steel work-pieces
than can be produced on soft steel or cast iron.
2. If a large amount of material is to be removed, a coarse-grit, open structure wheel
should be used. This will not produce as fine a finish as a fine-grit, dense wheel.
3. A wheel containing abrasive grains that are friable (fracture easily) will produce a
better finish than a wheel made up of tough grains. A fine-grit, dense-structure wheel
produces a smoother surface than a coarse-grit, open wheel. A grinding wheel that is
too soft releases the abrasive grains too easily, causing them to roll between the wheel
and the work, creating deep scratches in the work.
4. An improperly dressed wheel will leave a pattern of scratches on the work. Care
should be taken when finish-dressing the wheel to move the diamond slowly across
the wheel face.
5. A light machine or one with loose spindle bearings will not produce the accuracy and
fine surface finish possible in a rigid machine with properly adjusted spindle bearings.
Also, to ensure optimum accuracy and surface finish, the machine should be kept
clean.
41
6. Coarse feeds tend to produce a rough finish. If “feed lines” persist when a fine feed is
used, the wheel edges should be rounded slightly with an abrasive stick.
Operation Depth of Cut Speed of Wheel
(RPM)
Cylindrical Grinding 0.05mm: Roughing 5000
0.01mm: Finishing
NC Grinding 0.05mm: Roughing 5000
0.01mm: Finishing
DRAWBACKS:
 The grinding wheel cannot be used to grind plastic or glass or other soft materials
otherwise, the wheel becomes soft.
 The hard grinding wheel used on hard material and soft on soft material can cause
damage to the grinding wheel.
 Due to the pressure being applied on the grinding wheel, the wheel might break and
the shrapnel can cause serious damage.
 A lot of maintenance is required for the grinding wheel.
CONCLUSION:
Grinding wheel is a very useful tool for obtaining high surface finish but should be used
with extreme care. CNC grinders are a lot more precise than a normal one but they are very
slow in operation. When doing manual grinding, centring of the work-piece is very important.
42
LAB SESSION 7
In this lab session we learned about a non-conventional machining process i.e. EDM
Wire-Cutting and the basics of Milling operation.
EXPERIMENT: 13
EDM WIRE-CUTTING
Wire EDM machining (Electrical Discharge Machining) is an electro thermal production
process in which a thin single-strand metal wire in conjunction with de-ionized water (used
to conduct electricity) allows the wire to cut through metal by the use of heat from electrical
sparks. Due to the inherent properties of the process, wire EDM can easily machine complex
parts and precision components out of hard conductive materials, one of its advantages.
WORKING
Wire EDM machining (also known as "spark EDM") works by creating an electrical
discharge between the wire or electrode, & the work-piece. As the spark jumps across the
gap, material is removed from both the work-piece & the electrode.
Figure 30: Wire EDM Working
To stop the sparking process from shorting out, a non-conductive fluid or dielectric is
applied. The waste material is removed by the dielectric, and the process continues.
MACHINE
A thin single-strand metal wire, usually brass, is fed through the work-piece,
submerged in a tank of dielectric fluid, typically deionized water. Wire-cut EDM is typically
43
used to cut plates as thick as 300mm and to make punches, tools, and dies from hard metals
that are difficult to machine with other methods. The wire, which is constantly fed from a
spool, is held between upper and lower diamond guides. The guides, usually CNC-controlled,
move in the x–y plane. On most machines, the upper guide can also move independently in
the z–u–v axis, giving rise to the ability to cut tapered and transitioning shapes (circle on the
bottom, square at the top for example). This allows the wire-cut EDM to be programmed to
cut very intricate and delicate shapes. Following are the main parts;
 Wire usually of brass

 Water tank
 Electrodes
 Spool
 Wire guides
 Control panel
Following figure shows the EDM wire cutting machine. The computer is the source off all
data input. There is no manual operation in it.
Figure 31: EDM Wire-Cutting Machine
44
PROCEDURE
Following is the procedure for the EDM wire cutting
1. We will give the pattern for the cutting to the computer through the computer or the
control panel.
2. A thin single-strand metal wire is fed through the work-piece, submerged in a tank of
dielectric fluid, typically deionized water.
3. The diamond guides guide the wire through the material according to the pattern.
4. The spark generated causes a small portion to melt which is carried away by the water.
5. The wire-cut process uses water as its dielectric fluid, controlling its resistivity and
other electrical properties with filters and de-ionizer units. The water flushes the cut
debris away from the cutting zone.
Operation Spark Wire On Time Off Time
Temperature Diameter
EDM Wire- 12,000 F 0.25mm 3μs 25μs
Cut
DRAWBACKS
Though it is a very precise cutting technique and also gives fine finish but there are
also some negatives which are listed as follow;
 Wire breaks frequently due to its small diameter

 Low feed/cutting rates
 It is time consuming which adds to its cost
 Power consumption is very high, increasing the cost again
 Overt-cuts are formed which do not give accurate measures at times
 Potential fire hazard associated with the use of oil as a lubricant sometimes
QUALITY CONTROL:
 The quality of the work piece produced is very high.
 The diameter of wire and its material decides how much precision we obtain.
 Adding zeolite to water increases its insulation.
CONCLUSION
Complex shapes that would otherwise be difficult to produce with conventional
cutting tools. Extremely hard material to very close tolerances. Very small work pieces where
45
conventional cutting tools may damage the part from excess cutting tool pressure. There is
no direct contact between tool and work piece. Therefore, delicate sections and weak
materials can be machined without perceivable distortion. A good surface finish can be
obtained; a very good surface may be obtained by redundant finishing paths. Very fine holes
can be attained due to the small diameters of wires being used.
EXPERIMENT: 14
MILLING
In the milling operation, flat surface is produced on work piece with high material
removal rate. There is no reciprocating movement in milling. Milling is done only in a single
forward stroke that is slow and cutter movement is inward the work piece, while return stroke
is idle and cutter moves outward the work piece. In this operation, work piece is held securely
on table of machine or in a holding device clamped to work table.
MILLING TYPES
There are various types of milling processes, some of which are given below;
 Plain Milling
It is known as stab milling, it is categorized into face milling and peripheral
milling. In face or end milling, surface of work-piece and spindle of cutter are
perpendicular to each other. In peripheral milling, surface of work-piece and
spindle of cutter are parallel to each other
 Peripheral Milling
It may be up milling or down milling. In up milling or conventional milling, the
direction of work-piece and tool are opposite, more material removal and less
tool life. In down milling, work-piece and tool have same direction, less material
removal and more tool life. A number of cutters are available on single spindle
with similar or varying diameter in gang milling.
 Profile Milling
It is used for casting die and cam milling is for cam profiles.
 Helical Milling
It is used for producing helical flutes and grooves.
46
MILLING MACHINE
Following are the main parts of milling machine;
 Base
The base gives support and rigidity to the machine and also acts as a reservoir
for the cutting fluids.
 Column
The column face is a precision machined and scraped section used to support
and guide the knee when it is moved vertically.
 Knee
The knee is attached to the column face and may be moved vertically on the
column face either manually or automatically. It houses the feed mechanism.
 Table
The table rests on guide-ways in the saddle and travels longitudinally in a
horizontal plane. It supports the vice and the work.
 Overarm
The overarm provides for correct alignment and support of the arbour and
various attachments. It can be adjusted and locked in various positions, depending on
the length of the arbour and the position of the cutter.
 Spindle
The spindle provides the drive for arbores, cutters and attachments used on a
milling machine.
Figure 32: Parts of Milling Machines
47
PROCEDURE
Following steps are involved in milling operation;
1. Clamp the work-piece on table according to the requirement.
2. Adjust the work piece under milling cutter. Turn the machine on.
3. Take successive cuts of about 0.125 to 0.150 in. (3 to 4 mm), or until the cut is about
0.030 in. (0.8 mm) above the layout line.
4. Check to see that the cut and the layout line are parallel
5. Once adjusted, keep on doing the same until you get the desired work output.
TOOLS USED
Various milling cutters are used for milling. End milling cutters are like drills, used for
production of slots and have bottom cutting edge. Saw milling cutters are used for slicing a
portion and splitting saw is used as tool.
Operation Speed (RPM) Feed Depth
Milling 335 265 1.5 mm
QUALITY CONTROL
 Any material put through the cutting area of the milling machine gets regular intervals.
 The side cutters have got regular ridges on them.
 The distance between the ridges depends on the feed rate, the diameter of the cutter
and the quantity of cutting surfaces. These can be the significant variations in the
height of the surfaces.
DRAWBACKS:
 Milling machines produce good finish on the work-piece but they are limited in their
sizes as they cannot create very long cuts as in the case of a planer or a shaper
machine.
CONCLUSION:
Milling machines are very versatile in their operation and can be used in many
assemblies like gang milling in which a lot of tools are used at the same time. They are widely
used for a number of operations like slotting and notching.
48
LAB SESSION 7
In this lab session we were briefed about CNC Machines and how it is operated along
with the working of a vertical drilling machine.
EXPERIMENT: 15
CNC MACHINING
CNC Machining is a process used in the manufacturing sector that involves the use of
computers to control machine tools. Tools that can be controlled in this manner include
lathes, mills, routers and grinders. On the surface, it may look like a normal PC controls the
machines, but the computer's unique software and control console are what really sets the
system apart for use in CNC machining.
First a CAD drawing is created (either 2D or 3D), and then a code is created that the
CNC machine will understand. The program is loaded and finally an operator runs a test of the
program to ensure there are no problems. This trial run is referred to as "cutting air" and it is
an important step because any mistake with speed and tool position could result in a scraped
part or a damaged machine.
Figure 33: CNC Machine
49
POSITION CONTROLLING SYSTEM
In NC system the position of the tool is defined by the part program of instruction that
store by the machine control unit (MCU). Two type of positioning control system are used in
the NC system are as follow;
 Open Loop Control System

This system operates without verifying that actual position achieved by the
worktable. After the executing the program by MCU, it does not use any feedback so
it known as the open loop system.
 Closed Loop Control System
A closed loop control system uses feedback measurements to confirm that the
final position of the worktable is the location specified in the program.
CNC MACHINE VARSATILITY

A CNC machine is not confined to any one operation but to a number of operations
which makes it even more valuable for machining jobs. Some of the operations carried out on
it are as following;
 Drills
 EDMs
 Lathes
 Milling
 Canned cycle
 Sheet metal works (Turret punch)
 Wire bending machines
 Hot-wire foam cutters
 Laser cutting
 Surface grinders
 Cylindrical grinder
 3D Printing
 Knife cutting
TOOL USED
In CNC machines, we can use a number of tools. We can use grinding wheels, EDM
wires, cutters, end mills, lasers and many other tools. The type of tools used depends upon
the operation to be performed.
QUALITY CONTROL
 The CNC machines produce a very high quality of products.
 CNC machines can be very precise in their operation therefore they are mostly used
in aircraft industry etc.
50
 Filtering of the hydraulic and pneumatic can increase the quality very much.
DRAWBACKS
Apart from being that versatile and being user friendly CNC machines also have some
drawbacks. Some of them are as follow;
 CNC machines are very slow in operation

 They are very expensive
 They have a very high maintenance requirement
 They need specialized operators to perform operations on them.
CONCLUSION
CNC machining is the need of today. With the advancement of technology these
machines became necessary for highly precise products. The only drawback is the low
production rate otherwise they are the future of the machining.
EXPERIMENT: 16
VERTICAL DRILLING
Vertical drilling or simple drilling is the process of forming holes in a work-piece.
Drilling is not only limited to creating holes but some other operations are also performed
such as boring, reaming, counter-sinking, etc. which will be discussed later. Drilling can also
be performed on lathe as discussed earlier in the report.
Figure 34: Vertical Drilling
51
DRILL PRESS
A wide variety of drill presses are available, ranging from the simple sensitive drill to
highly complex automatic and numerically controlled machines. The size of a drill press may
be designated in different ways by different companies. Some companies state the size as the
distance from the centre of the spindle to the column of the machine. Others specify the size
by the diameter of the largest circular piece that can be drilled in the centre. Some of the
common drill press parts are listed below,
 Base
The base, usually made of cast iron, provides stability for the machine and rigid
mounting for the column. The base is usually provided with holes so that it may be bolted to
a table or bench. The slots or ribs in the base allow the work holding device or the work-piece
to be fastened to the base.
 Column
The column is an accurate cylindrical post that fits into the base. The table,
which is fitted to the column, may be adjusted to any point between the base and
head. The drill press head is mounted near the top of the column.
 Table
The table, either round or rectangular in shape, is used to support the work-
piece to be machined. The table, whose surface is at 90° to the column, may be raised,
lowered, and moved around the column. On some models, it is possible to tilt the
table in either direction for drilling holes on an angle. Slots are provided in most tables
to allow jigs, fixtures, or large work-pieces to be clamped directly to the table.
 Drilling Head
The head, mounted close to the top of the column, contains the mechanism
used to revolve the cutting tool and advance it into the work-piece. The spindle, which
is a round shaft that holds and drives the cutting tool, is housed in the spindle sleeve,
or quill. The spindle sleeve does not revolve but slides up and down inside the head to
provide a down-feed for the cutting tool.
 Hand Feed Lever
The hand feed lever is used to control the vertical movement of the spindle
sleeve and the cutting tool. A depth stop attached to the spindle sleeve can be set to
control the depth that a cutting tool enters the work-piece.
 Radial Arm
The arm is attached to the column of a radial drilling machine and may be
raised and lowered by means of a power-driven elevating screw. The arm may also be
swung about the column and may be clamped in any desired position. It also supports
the drive motor and drilling head.
52
Figure 35: Drill Press Parts
RELATED OPERTIONS
Following are some of the operations performed on a vertical drilling press;
 Drilling
It may be defined as the operation of producing a hole by removing metal from a
solid mass using a cutting tool called a twist drill. > Countersinking (Fig. 38-1b) is the
operation of producing a tapered or cone-shaped enlargement to the end of a hole.
 Reaming
It is the operation of sizing and producing a smooth, round hole from a previously
drilled or bored hole with the use of a cutting tool having several cutting edges.
 Boring
It is the operation of truing and enlarging a hole by means of a single-point cutting
tool, which is usually held in a boring bar.
 Spot-facing
It is the operation of smoothing and squaring the surface around a hole to provide a
seat for the head of a cap screw or a nut. A boring bar, with a pilot section on the
end to fit into the existing hole, is generally fitted with a double-edged cutting tool.
For the spot-facing operation, the work being machined should be securely clamped
and the machine set to approximately one-quarter of the drilling speed.
 Tapping
It is the operation of cutting internal threads in a hole with a cutting tool called a tap.
Special machine or gun taps are used with a tapping attachment when this operation
is performed by power in a machine.
53
 Counter-boring
It is the operation of enlarging the top of a previously drilled hole to a given
depth to provide a square shoulder for the head of a bolt or cap-screw.
Figure 36: Drilling Operations
PROCEDURE
Drilling is done according to the following steps on a drill-press;
1. Spot the hole location with a centre drill.
2. Mount the correct-size drill in the drill chuck.
3. Set the drill press to the proper speed for the size of drill and the type of material to
be drilled.
4. Fasten a clamp or stop on the left side of the table.
5. Mount the work on parallels in a drill vice and tighten it securely.
6. With the vice against the table stop, locate the spotted hole under the centre of the
drill.
7. Start the drill press spindle and begin to drill the hole.
8. For holes up to 1⁄2 in. (13 mm) in diameter, hold the vice against the table or stop by
hand.
9. Lightly clamp the vice to the table with a clamp. Drill until the full drill point is into
the work.
10. With the drill revolving, keep the drill point in the work and tighten the clamp
holding the vice securely.
54
TOOL USED
Twist drills are end-cutting tools used to produce holes in most types of material. On
standard drills, two helical grooves, or flutes, are cut lengthwise around the body of the drill.
They provide cutting edges and space for the cuttings to escape during the drilling process.
Most twist drills used in machine shop work today are made of high-speed steel. But they are
also carbide tipped to achieve high rotational speeds during the operation.
QUALITY CONTROL
The drill bit usually does not produce a very high surface finish. Therefore, we have to
use a thread lapping procedure to produce better quality. Reamer can be used to finish the
already produced holes.
DRAWBACKS
 The drill machines used in the lab are for smaller work-pieces and for larger work-
pieces we have to revert to other methods.
 These drill bits break easily against a hard material.
 The holes produced have to be of a size as that of drill bit. That is, we cannot use these
machine for large holes. For that we have to do boring operation.
CONCLUSION
The drilling machine, or drill press, is essential in any metalworking shop. They are
very useful due to their versatility and almost all industries use these press.
55
LAB SESSION 8
In this lab session we were briefed about EDM Die-Sinking, Water Jet Cutting and how
grind a single point cutting tool on a grinding machine.
EXPERIMENT: 17
EDM DIE SINKING
Electric Discharge Machining (EDM) Die Sinking is one of the most widely used non-
traditional processes. The shape of the finished work surface is produced by a formed
electrode tool. The sparks occur across a small gap between tool and work surface. The EDM
process must take place in the presence of a dielectric fluid, which creates a path for each
discharge as the fluid becomes ionized in the gap. The discharges are generated by a pulsating
direct current power supply connected to the work and the tool.
PARTS OF MACHINE
Following are the main parts of an EDM die sinker;
 Power Source
This power source is responsible for the electric discharge produced
and movement of the tool with respect to the work-piece.
 Machining Axes
These axes are responsible for guiding the tool
 Elevating Water Tank
The water tank contains the water which acts as the insulator to stop
the flow of current in the whole machine.
 Electrode
The electrode can be of tungsten or copper.
 Control Panel
This panel is the main source of our input to the machine.
56
Figure 37: EDM Die Sinking
WORKING
Two metal parts submerged in an insulating liquid are connected to a source of current
which is switched on and off automatically depending on the parameters set on the
controller. When the current is switched on, an electric tension is created between the two
metal parts. If the two parts are brought together to within a fraction of an inch, the electrical
tension is discharged and a spark jumps across. Where it strikes, the metal is heated up so
much that it melts. Innumerable such sparks spray, one after the other (never simultaneously)
and gradually shape the desired form in the piece of metal, according to the shape of the
electrode. Several hundred thousand sparks must fly per second before erosion takes place.
Figure 38: Die Sinking Working
57
QUALITY CONTROL
The EDM is a very high precision and high accuracy device. The products formed have
a very high quality and hence these operations are used in aviation industry. If the electrode
is changed then it can largely affect the product formed. Amount of electric current used also
determines the quality of the work-piece.
DRAWBACKS
 This is a very slow process and the rate of production usually is the biggest
demerit of this device.
 These devices are very expensive and have to be cost justified for their usage.
 They have to have specialized operators.
CONCLUSION
EDM machining is the need of today. With the advancement of technology these
machines became necessary for highly precise products. The only main drawback is the low
production rate otherwise they are the future of the machining.
EXPERIMENT: 18
SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL

Single point cutting tool is the most basic tool used in lathe operations. It is usually
made of high speed steel and can be used for turning taper turning facing and other
operations. A single point cutting tool can also have a shank of low quality material and a hard
tip. Its nomenclature is as follows;
Nomenclature
 The base is the bottom surface of the tool shank.
 The cutting edge is the leading edge of the cutting tool that does the cutting.
 The face is the surface against which the chip bears as it is separated from the work.
 The flank is the surface of the tool adjacent to and below the cutting edge.
 The nose is the tip of the cutting tool formed by the junction of the cutting edge and
the front face.
 The nose radius is the radius to which the nose is ground. The size of the radius will
affect the finish. For rough turning, a small nose radius [about .015 in. (0.38 mm)] is
used. A larger radius [about .060 to .125 in. (1.5 to 3 mm)] is used for finish cuts.
58
 The point is the end of the tool that has been ground for cutting purposes.
 The shank is the body of the cutting tool or the part held in the tool-holder.
Angles and Clearances:

 The side cutting edge angle is the angle the cutting edge forms with the side of the
tool shank. Side cutting angles for a general-purpose lathe cutting tool may vary from
10° to 20°, depending on the material cut. If this angle is too large (over 30°), the tool
will tend to chatter.
 The end cutting edge angle is the angle formed by the end cutting edge and a line at
right angles to the centre-line of the cutting tool. This angle may vary from 5° to 30°,
depending on the type of cut and finish desired. An angle of 5° to 15° is satisfactory
for roughing cuts; angles between 15° and 30° are used for general-purpose turning
tools. The larger angle permits the cutting tool to be swivelled to the left for taking
light cuts close to the dog or chuck, or when turning to a shoulder.
 The side relief (clearance) angle is the angle ground on the flank of the tool below the
cutting edge. This angle is generally 6° to 10°. The side clearance on a cutting tool
permits the cutting tool to advance lengthwise into the rotating work and prevents
the flank from rubbing against the work-piece. Following is the geometry mostly used;
59
Figure 40: Cutting Tool Nomenclature
 The end relief (clearance) angle is the angle ground below the nose of the cutting tool,
which permits the cutting tool to be fed into the work. It is generally 10° to 15° for
general-purpose tools. This angle must be measured when the cutting tool is held in
the tool holder. The end relief angle varies with the hardness and type of material and
the type of cut. The end relief angle is smaller for harder materials, providing support
under the cutting edge.
 The side rake angle is the angle at which the face is ground away from the cutting
edge. For general-purpose cutting tools, the side rake is generally 14°.
 The angle of keenness is the included angle produced by grinding side rake and side
clearance on a cutting tool. This angle may be altered, depending on the type of
material machined, and will be greater (closer to 90°) for harder materials.
 The back (top) rake angle is the backward slope of the tool face away from the nose.
The back rake angle is generally about 20° and is provided for in the tool-holder.
GRINDING OF THE TOOL

A single point cutting tool is one of the most important part of most of the machining
processes. To achieve a good finish on work the cutting point of the tool should be sharp and
properly shaped but with the passage of time and as the process continues it wears out mainly
due to friction and heat. To avoid any coarse finish the single point cutting tool is grinded on
a grinding wheel most often.
For grinding the single point cutting tool, we use a simple grinding wheel. A tool and
cutter grinder is used to sharpen milling cutters and tool bits along with a host of other cutting
60
tools. It is an extremely versatile machine used to perform a variety of grinding operations:
surface, cylindrical, or complex shapes. The image shows a manually operated setup, however
highly automated Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machines are becoming increasingly
common due to the complexities involved in the process.
Figure 41: SPCT Grinding
PROCEDURE
Following steps are involved in grinding of a single point cutting tool;
1. Turn on the grinding wheel and give the specific rpm to it.
2. If it is being done manually, adjust the tool such that the cutting side is at the correct
angle to be machined.
3. If it is automated with CNC grinder, clap the tool in the post and give the programme
to it accordingly.
4. While grinding retract the tool to see if the grinding is being done in the correct
direction.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Following precautions should be taken while grinding a single point cutting tool;
 Always wear safety glasses

 Wear a lab coat to avoid getting chips in contact
 Make sure the wheel is balanced properly
 There should always be a covering on the grinding wheel
61
CONCLUSION
It is a normal practice to grind a single point cutting tool for sharpening the tip so these
grinders are of paramount amount in a machining lab.
EXPERIMENT: 19
WATER JET CUTTING
A water jet cutter, also known as a water jet, is an industrial tool capable of cutting a
wide variety of materials using a very high-pressure jet of water, or a mixture of water and an
abrasive substance.
Figure 42: Water Jet Cutting
WATER JET CUTTER

It is a device which can cut almost everything with the help of a water-jet. The water-
jet is compressed to a very high pressure and the work-piece is subjected to this high pressure
stream of water. Following are some of the characteristics of the machine used for this
operation;
 The machine is operated by G & M coding.

 It can operate in 5 axes
 Uses a high velocity stream of Ultra High Pressure Water 30,000– 90,000 psi (210–
620MPa) which is produced by an intensifier pump with possible abrasive particles
suspended in the stream
 Is used for machining a large array of materials, including heat-sensitive, delicate or
very hard materials
 Produces no heat damage to work-piece surface or edges. Nozzles are typically made
of sintered boride
62
 Produces a taper of less than 1 degree on most cuts, which can be reduced or
eliminated entirely by slowing down the cut process or tilting the jet
 Distance of nozzle from work-piece affects the size of the kerf and the removal rate of
material. Typical distance is .125 in (3.2 mm)
Figure 43: Water Jet Cutting Machine
OPERATION
All water-jets follow the same principle of using high pressure water focused into a
beam by a nozzle. Most machines accomplish this by first running the water through a high
pressure pump. There are two types of pumps used to create this high pressure;
 Intensifier pump
 A direct drive or crankshaft pump
A direct drive pump works much like a car engine, forcing water through high pressure
tubing using plungers attached to a crankshaft. An intensifier pump creates pressure by using
hydraulic oil to move a piston forcing the water through a tiny hole. The water then travels
along the high pressure tubing to the nozzle of the water-jet. In the nozzle, the water is
focused into a thin beam by a jewel orifice. This beam of water is ejected from the nozzle,
cutting through the material by spraying it with the jet of high-speed water.
TYPES OF WATERJET CUTTERS

There are two basic types of water jet cutters described as follow;
 Pure Water Jet Cutter

The pure water jet cutter uses pure water for its operation. It is operated at
high pressures and can be used for cutting softer materials.
63
 Abrasive Water Jet Cutter
It is similar in operation to the pure water jet cutter apart from the fact that it
uses a stream of water in which the abrasive particles are also mixed. This cutter can
operate at lower pressures and can cut through hard materials.
VARIATION OF PRESSURE
The pressure range for a water jet is from 30,000 psi to 90,000 psi. the low pressures
can be used for cutting of softer materials like wood, plastic or glass. The high pressures are
used when very hard materials are to be cut like carbides or diamonds.
PROCEDURE
Following steps are involved in this operation;
1. First of all, we clamp the work-piece in its place
2. The instructions and path for the cutting is given from the controller. The pressure is
also entered from it.
3. Compressor receives the command for the pressure and sends the water jet to the
nozzle
4. Before the nozzle, a mixer is present where the water and abrasives are mixed
together
5. The water is released from the nozzle to cut through the material.
QUALITY CONTROL
 This process does not produce stresses in the work-piece
 No pollution is produced
 No overcut is produced
 Very high precision
 No rubbing so no heat produced
 No vibrations because no gear assembly is used.
DRAWBACKS
In addition to all those advantages there are also some negatives to this process listed below;
 In this process, due to very high pressures, the water pipes can rupture and hence the
maintenance cost is high
 Leakage can cause a lot of trouble for the operator
CONCLUSIONS
These kinds of processes are the need of today because in critical conditions like
aircraft industry, where a small stress in a part can cause failure, we have to have a very high
level of precision, accuracy and finish.
64

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MTM LAB REPORT

Submitted To: Sir Waqas Rafiq

Submitted By: Hamza Faiz

Figure 1: Lathe Specifications

Figure 2: Lathe Machine

Methods for Taper Turning:

 Taper turning Attachment

Figure 5: Taper Turning

SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL

Angles and Clearances:

Operation Material Speed(RPM) Cutting Depth

Figure 8: Drilling on Lathe

DRILLING SPEED AND FEED

Figure 12: Knurling

Figure 13: Parting

Figure 14: Threading

 Taps and Dies

Figure 15: Tapping

Figure 16: Single Point Threading

Figure 17: Centre-type Thread Grinding

 An external thread is cut on an external surface or cone, such as on a cap screw or a

Operation Material Speed (RPM) Thread Type

Figure 19: Shaper

Figure 20: Quick Return Mechanism

 Horizontal Shaper: Ram is Horizontal

Figure 21: Parts of Shaper Machine

Figure 22: Simple Planer

1. Open Side Planer

 Bed and Table

Figure 23: Planer Parts

Figure 24: Cylindrical Grinding

Figure 25: Grinder Parts

Figure 26: Grinding Wheels

Figure 27: CNC Grinder

PRODUCTION OF GRINDING WHEEL

BALANCING OF GRINDING WHEEL

Figure 28 Grinding wheel balancer

Figure 29: Wheel Numbering

Figure 30: Wire EDM Working

 Wire usually of brass

Figure 31: EDM Wire-Cutting Machine

 Wire breaks frequently due to its small diameter

Figure 32: Parts of Milling Machines

Figure 33: CNC Machine

 Open Loop Control System

CNC MACHINE VARSATILITY

 CNC machines are very slow in operation

Figure 34: Vertical Drilling

Figure 36: Drilling Operations

Figure 38: Die Sinking Working

SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL

Figure 39: Nomenclature

Angles and Clearances:

GRINDING OF THE TOOL

Figure 41: SPCT Grinding

 Always wear safety glasses

Figure 42: Water Jet Cutting

WATER JET CUTTER

 The machine is operated by G & M coding.

Figure 43: Water Jet Cutting Machine

TYPES OF WATERJET CUTTERS

 Pure Water Jet Cutter

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