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BLADING VIBRATION AND FAILURES IN GAS TURBINES

PART C: DETECTION AND TROUBLESHOOTING

Cyrus B. Meher-Homji
Boyce Engineering International, Inc.
10555 Rockley Road,
Houston, Texas.
111111111111,1)(1111111111

ABSTRACT troubleshooters. Several case studies pertaining to blade failures

Blade failures account for as many as 42% of failures in gas
turbines. This paper covers approaches to detect and avoid blade
failures by direct and indirect measurement techniques. Direct
measurements involve the use of special sensors or methods that
measure blading vibration or condition. Indirect techniques do
not quantitatively measure blade conditions but provide
qualitative information that help in avoiding blade problems.
Metallurgical tests of hot section blades to determine
microstructure changes are also covered. A blade failure
troubleshooting chart is furnished to assist users in diagnosing
common failure modes.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
With blades accounting for as many as 42% of failures in gas
turbines (Allianz, 1978), there is a need for a unified treatment of
their causes, failure modes and practical troubleshooting. While
some pertinent publications exist, they tend, with a few
exceptions, to emphasize a singular aspect of the problem such as
metallurgy, vibration dynamics, design or stress analysis, and fail
to emphasize the multidisciplinary nature of failure investigation.
This paper, and associated papers (Meher-Homji, 1995 &BD)
focuses on providing a practical treatment of this area taking into
account the complex nature of blading problems influenced by the
operating environment, design factors and maintenance practices.
In this paper, the focus is on detection and troubleshooting of
blading problems.
The avoidance of blade problems requires two conditions to be
complied with. First, and most important, the basic design has to
be sound, with adequate factors of safety being incorporated.
Design reviews (Ehmdas, 1988) help in ensuring a safe design.
Second, the operating environment and design envelope must be
maintained during gas turbine operation. Monitoring techniques
can be of help in detecting and avoiding operating regimes that
promote blading distress. Some practical aspects of blading
dynamics and design considerations have been addressed in
Meher-Homji (1995 AB). This paper covers monitoring
techniques, details the troubleshooting process and provides a
blading failure and troubleshooting chart to assist
are presented in Meher-Homji (1995 0).
2.0 BLADE MONITORING TECHNIQUES
The measurement of blade behavior and underlying
operational conditions is valuable from a perspective of both
safety and reliability. As delineated ahead, the condition
monitoring of blading behavior can be classified into two
categories:
1. Dinaledinjoes, - These techniques entail the use of
special sensors or approaches to directly measure blading
vibration or other blade behavior. Included in this group are
optical methods, Doppler techniques (both acoustic and
laser), strain gauge measurements, tip clearance
measurement methods, and the use of optical pyrometers.
Destructive metallurgical examination of hot section blades
to determine microstructure] changes of may also be
considered a direct technique.
2. bdirert Techniques, - Indirect techniques encompass the
use of vibration analysis, dynamic pressure analysis,
performance analysis and exhaust temperature spread
analysis techniques to ensure that flow conditions are not
conducive to blading distress. These techniques do not
provide a direct quantitative feel for blade vibration or
properties but furnishes a degree of qualitative insight as to
the underlying operating environment. The use of
Performance and Vibration analysis pertaining to airfoil
failures has been detailed in Meher-Homji and Focke
(1983).
The salient points of key direct and indirect techniques are
described below.
2.1.2sammanssalaaltsuin&
Because several blade failures have, as their underlying cause,
aerodynamic phenomena such as flow distortion, stalls,

Presented at the International

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 surge,etc., a program of performance monitoring' and trending of
data is of considerable value. Performance analysis can help in
uncovering several of the underlying causes of gas turbine
blading problems such as fouling, off schedule IGVs, icing,
distortion, nozzle deposits, and uneven combustion and other
forms of deterioration. Performance monitoring involves the
acquisition of pertinent data (temperature, pressure and speed) at
stations along the gas turbine train , the computation of air mass
flow rate, turbine inlet temperature and compressor and turbine
efficiencies. Computational techniques are available for
calculation of key cycle parameters such as the turbine inlet
temperature and air mass flow rate. The use of performance
analysis has been detailed by Dundas (1982), Dimclas et
al,(1992), and Meher-Homji and Boyce(1983). The application
of transient analysis of performance and startup data can also be
used to provide valuable insight into operating problems (Meher-
Homji and Bhargava, 1992). Performance maps can be generated
by obtaining performance data from new and clean machines
(Meher-Homji, et. al, 1993) and several techniques are available
to model performance deterioration (Lakshminarsimha et al,
1994).
2.111undiurandldaniarathifera This is
an exceedingly important area and can provide warning of
conditions such as reduction of surge margin, compressor and
turbine deterioration or increase in exhaust gas temperature
spread, which may promote blade problems. Trending techniques
should correct and normalize data and discriminate between
changes in parameters due to deterioration as opposed to "off-
design" operation.
Ila - 11,•I kJ I I III I •
Temperature (EGT) Profile, The clogging of fuel nozzles can
cause severe flow distortion which result in vibratory excitation
of turbine airfoils. Monitoring the exhaust spread and the
average temperature and relating this to the load and ambient
conditions provides a good measure of combustor status'. E,GT
monitoring has been most effective in avoiding turbine section
high cycle fatigue failures. Wisch (1993) and Knowles (1994)
have addressed approaches of EGT monitoring. Studies
conducted by the Royal Navy (Walker and Sommerfield, 1987)
have concluded that spread monitoring is amongst the most
effective condition monitoring tools for gas turbines. These
studies have shown that vibratory stresses on the blades can
increase up to five times with serious nozzle blockage. A case
study showing the criticality of EGT analysis in averting blade
failure is presented in Meher-Homji, 1995D).
I 'lilt %I. bill II C •
filafliDatakinia
In practical field troubleshooting situations, difficult value
judgments regarding machine operability have frequently to be
made with incomplete data In such cases, data from
accelerometers or dynamic pressure sensors can prove
invaluable. The vibration signatures derived from gas turbines
are complex with the spectrum containing several peaks
corresponding to the different number of blades, blade passing
frequencies (BPF) and its harmonics in addition to other forcing
functions pertaining to gears, bearings and other components. By
knowing the number of blades present on a certain disk or stage
it is possible to detect problems by observing relational changes
in the blade passing frequency amplitude levels. Dynamic
'The analysis can be done either on or off line with varying degrees of
sophistication.
,,•2 It is interesting to note that despite this fact, several aeroderavative and
older vintage heavy duty machines have thermocouple harness arrangements
that do not permit individual access to thermocouples and just provide an
averaged reading used for control purposes.
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2
pressure measurements are also of value in detecting incipient
surge conditions and other flow instabilities.
Vibration and dynamic pressure amplitudes are strongly
dependent on pressure ratio of the compressor. stator blade
angles and flow rate. Consequently, if meaningful vibration
trending is to be accomplished, these factors must be taken into
account. It is difficult to pass judgments on the absolute
amplitudes of vibration that the blades are experiencing but
qualitative judgments can be made.
Mitchell (1975) describes work done to determine if changes
in the Blade Passing Frequency (BPF) can be used to detect blade
problems. In the author's experience, relational changes in the
BPF and its harmonics provide useful information. Blade
Passing Frequencies amplitudes seem to increase at both low
flow (near surge) and at high (approaching choke) conditions.
Figure 1 shows a cascade plot of dynamic discharge pressure
taken on a large axial flow compressor that had a problem with
varying tip clearance. The 1,000 Hz component was related to a
flow instability and possible blacling problems. A considerable
amount of experimental work still needs to be done to correlate
blade problems with signatures, but there is little doubt that
useful information does exist in signature analysis. Additional
work in the area of the use of vibration analysis for the detection
of blade problems is provided by Parge(1989), Parge et al(1990)
and Simmons (1986, 1987). An examination of casing vibration
with respect to the surge map and correlations with dynamic
pressure are made by Mathioudakis et al, (1989). Loukis et al
(1991a and b) has provided a procedure for fault identification
based on spectral analysis and dynamic pressure using
transducers located on the axial compressor casing.
2,, Acoustic Rub Detection,
Historically, gas turbine operators have detected turbine rubs
by the use of stethoscopes during a startup or shutdown of a
turbine. A simple device that permits operators to audibly detect
rubs that occur during startup and shutdown transients uses a
microphone located on a 2" pipe fixed to the inlet plenum of the
gas turbine. An isolation valve is provided which disengages the
microphone at a certain speed. Operators can hear the sound
during startup or shutdown or utilize a strip chart recorder.
2.4...111r-gfa,
7.4.1 1 -noir Donnfrr Anemometry (11,DA) 1 Originally
developed for the measurement of fluid velocity, the WA
technique has been 'applied to blade vibration. Because a laser
has a coherent wave structure, any motion of a surface normal to
the coherent wave front adds a Doppler shift to the frequency of
the scattered light which can then be related to surface velocity.
WA systems are now commercially available. This technique is
not being applied as a condition monitoring tool, but it holds
promise and may be used in the future. As with several other
techniques, judicious selection of an optical window on the
machine casing would be required. Details may be found in
Kadambi et al., (1989). A laser based system applied to hot
section blading is described by Kawashirna et al (1992).
242Assaistis—Raultraldhed. The Acoustic Doppler
Method has been under development and refinement for several
years as applied to high aspect ratio 1_2 turbine blades and is now
commercially available and Trainor, 1990). It was first
developed to address the serious problems that occurred with LP
blade failures in utility steam turbines. In this method, non
intrusive acoustic sensors are fixed to the casing, downstream of
the blade row to detect sounds radiated by the vibrating blades.
Two sensors are required for each monitored blade row. This
technique provides a warning when a resonance conditions occur.
' Dimensional changes occur between the rotor and casing change dosing
transients. These changes may be partimlady high darning fast sleets and
emergency trips.
 IIIIIIIII
As cracks occur in blading, the natural frequency decreases.
Thus, a cracked blade may experience resonance conditions even
when operating at, say, 3,600 rpm (60Hz). With the acoustic a
Doppler technique, these occurrences can be monitored and a C
historical record maintained. tAt

BL ADE TEM PERM

Strain gauge testing of blades has been used predominantly in
test stand situations. The serviceability of strain gauges in the
field is a serious problem. Typically, one or several strain
gauges are attached to the blade surface. The use of strain
gauges on rotating components is problematic in the long run
because of the complicated telemetry system that is required. It
is, however, a tool utilized by manufacturers in resolving
compressor blading problems and to verify blading stresses.
Testing techniques are provided in Scrub (1974).
s us I !ill I I
tO IS
2.6 .131razAlLidthetestian. ntAtre no
Cartwright and Fisher (1991) and Fisher (1988) have described
an engine debris monitoring system developed for the Ministry Figure 2. Pyrometer Trace (Meher-Homji, et al, 1993)
of Defence in the UK. In this technique, sensors mounted in the
gas path monitor the electrostatic charge. Experimental data has
shown that the electrostatic charge grows with blade or seal rubs
or other faults in the gas path.
2,7 Blade Tip Clearance Monitoring,
Several blade tip clearance measurement systems are available
and are used mainly by as turbine manufacturers in test
applications. Sheard and Kt11=(1994) describe a capacitance
based probe that is located in the casing and advanced towards
the blade tip by a stepper motor.

2.8_1/EL.W.Infcaresilbnrathaisaranramrs
Measurement of Hot Section Bladlne,
The use of infrared pyrometery is an increasingly popular tool
for condition monitoring and has been applied to a wide range of
gas turbines. Some high performance military jet engines have,
for several years, used pyrometers for control purposes. In the
industrial turbine market, pyrometers are becoming increasingly
popular as a condition monitoring tool that can provide valuable
insight to hot section blading problems Kirby et al (1986).
Further details are provided by Barber(1969), Kirby (1986),
Beynon(1981) and Schulenerg and Bals(1978).
Figure 2 (Meher-Homji, et al, 1993) depicts a pyrometer trace
from the 1st stage of a 160 MW GE Frame 7F gas turbine.
Pyrometers were installed under an EPRI Durability Study
Program (Ondryas, et al, 1992). The pyrometer had the
capability of measuring approximately 40 points per rotating
blade as the blades rotated at 3,600 RPM.
Pyrotnetry enables the detection and pinpointing of blades
which run hotter than others and is a valuable condition
monitoring tool. Individual blade temperatures can be identified
by use of a key phasor.

2.11.1InaallatignSoraadmaisr—Eusmdus. There are

two approaches available for pyrometer installation. Dow has
patented an approach wherein the insertion is made near the
transition piece (Kirby, 1986) and the turbine blade viewed
through the stator nozzle. The other approach involves the
penetration of the high pressure casing. Figure 3 depicts the two
approaches.

2.9...Qattallikaanzarsnalaslallzatlan, Figure 3. Pyrometer Installation Approaches. Top arrangement

With the new generation of high performance gas turbines, the
design tip clearances of the blade tips and interstage seals are
minimized to promote high efficiency. The minimum and
maximum tip clearances can vary substantially during
operational conditions and with deterioration. This can occur
during startup and shut-down, as the rotor transgresses its critical
speeds, under conditions of rotor thermal bow and as creep
Kirby et al, 1986, lower arrangement Land Instruments.
effects manifest themselves. Blade rubs can create loss in
efficiency or, result in a catastrophic failure in severe cases. This
approach was originally suggested by Roth (1980). Simmons et
al.,(1991) describes an optical blade tip sensor in which laser

3
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 light is focused on a spot on the turbine blade tip. The spot on
the blade is then imaged by the probe on the face of the fiber
optic bundle. Because of the angle at which the light strikes the
blade, any change in distance between the blade tip and probe
will cause the imaged spot on the fiber optic to move across the
face of the bundle, the distance being directly related to change
in blade to probe separation. This system has been surrssfully
tested in a rig and could be used to monitor gas turbine blading.
The system frequency response is adequate to provide real time
capability to measure tip clearance and time of arrival
measurements for each blade in a blade row.
11111ktalluzisaLltsliazialisaSsslismillasliaa.
Damage to hot section blading can be determined by
destructive metallurgical testing. Nickel based superalloys that
are commonly used in turbine hot section blading contain a
gamma prime phase that is precipitated during blade
manufacture. With long term exposure to high temperatures, the
morphology of the gamma prime phase changes resulting in a
loss of creep strength. In order to conduct an assessment of
blading condition, one or two blades from the turbine should be
destructively tested and examined via SEM/T'Elvr techniques.
This allows a determination of coating and oxidation degradation
to be made. Once an assessment is made, corrective repair
workscope procedures can be defused. Details regarding these
tests and procedures may be found in Lowden and
Liburdi(1983,I987).
3.0 BLADING FAILURE INVESTIGATION GUIDELINES.
The guidelines presented here are general in nature and
modifications would be required depending on case specifics.
Berause of the complexities involved in blade failures, the
problem is best tackled by a multidisciplinary team. In cases
involving potential litigation, several independent teams may
work on the blade failure analysis. The author has been involved
in several cases where metallurgical analysis seemed to
predominate the investigation. Another common problem has
been stated by Dunclas (1993a,b) in an exceedingly valuable set
of papers:
"One of the greatest barriers to a successful investigation is a
tendency to explain a feature of the failure by some very
circuitous sequence of events; this is usually accompanied by a
challenge to disprove the hypothesis"
Whereas specifics may vary for different investigations, the
general procedure that should be followed is provided below:
Ito c ,01,/•
This requires a first hand site survey of the damaged machine
as soon as feasible after the failure. It is imperative that all
"clean up" operations be held up unless a major safety hazard
exists. If it is not possible for the investigator to reach the site
immediately, orders should be issued to suspend all clean up
operations to ensure evidence is not destroyed or modified. The
dismantling of the turbine should start after the investigator
arrives. Upon arrival at the site, the investigator should carefully
inspect the wreckage, take photographs and take note of 11
details. Sketches should be made to document where pieces
came to rest. Important components that warrant further
investigation should be identified and tagged.
All fracture surfaces and other components should be carefully
examined and photographed. Observations should be made
relating to:
1. Corrosion.
TEM is required to examine Gana prime particles that are very small (1-5
microns)
in case of potential litigation, great care should be taken to tag components
and maintain a paper trail
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4
2. Erosion.
3. Creep damage (elongation, necking, etc.).
4. Blocked cooling holes.
5. Blade attachment problems.
6. Evidence of rubs, over temperature (examine stators,
rotors and casings)
7. Unusual nicks, evidence of foreign and domestic object
damage (FOX) and DOD).
8. Unusual coloration.
9. DOD/FOX) locations.
10. Failure mode, if clearly evident.
It is very important to make a "master diagram" of the
machine showing precise locations of struts, obstructions, nozzle
or vane segments, etc. Blades should be carefully numbered and
shown on this diagram indicating the location of each blade with
respect to the disk. The direction of rotation and rub patterns on
the rotor and stator should be sketched. Figure 4 (Dundas 1993b)
is a useful diagram that characterizes how blade rub patterns can
be used for diagnosis.
All fractured surfaces and components should be carefully
wrapped in clean, protective wrapping material and put into
boxes. Clear lacquer may be sprayed on fracture surfaces to
protect the surfaces.
Blade removal (from disk) should be done in a careful and
controlled miainer. Prior to removal, careful inspection of the tip
shrouds should be made looking for deposits, unusual marks or
other tell-tale signs that the shrouds may have been inactive.
Disks can be checked for cracks by NDT methods. All removed
blades should be checked for cracks. The results of these checks -
should be mapped on the "master diagram". This gives valuable
indication of any failure patterns that have occurred.
In addition to inspecting the failed hardware and components,
an inspection should be made of the auxiliary systems that may
have been a root cause or indirect contributor to the problem.
For example, the fuel system, combustor nozzles, blade air
cooling subsystems and heat exchangers, air intake filtration
system, should be audited for any indication of problems.
A 8
R onto
unit:toed
Figure 4. Rub Detection Diagnosis (Dimdas, 1993b) A= 360 2
rub on both rotor and stator (insufficient radial clearance
probably during transient conditions). B= 360 2 rub on stator,
local rub on stator (stator misaligned). C= 360 2 nib on stator,
local tub on rotor (rotor whirl). I.360 !) Rub on stator, local rub
at two diametrically opposed locations on rotor (Rotor ovalized
by creep).
 1.2 Data Gatherina
After the inspection is over, a process of data gathering should
be initiated. This involves:
1. Discussions with operators who witnessed the failure and/or
operations surrounding the failure. Discussions should be
held with individuals who were there before and durinp the
failure. Questions should be asked pertaining to operating
history, problems experienced, unusual clues, noises etc.
2. Discussions with plant engineers to obtain engineering
details (specifications, design information, performance
curves, operating envelope, design and maintenance history,
other related problems etc.) Blueprints and other drawings
should be collected at this stage.
3. Operational history prior to failure. This is of critical
importance. Log sheets, strip charts and other- information
should be studied. These include:
(i) Conditions of load pressure, temperature, vibration,
EGT conditions (levels and profiles), number of
starts etc., fired bows, trips, types of fuel, etc. Log
sheets or printouts from the plant DCS may be used!
(ii) Observations relating to ambient conditions.
storms, fog, humidity. This can influence air inlet
filtration effectiveness or create blockage, i.e.,
airflow distortion.
(iii)Thrust position, bearing temperature history.
(iv)Evidence (visual or otherwise) of surge, rotating
stall or any factor possibly causing inlet distortion
or blockage.
laSalystathrtittalhugisalitlisllia,
Selected parts including components that have not failed
should be clearly marked, identified and sent to a metallurgist
who has the rglevanklackgroond (i.e., one who has experience
with gas turbines and is aware of complex interactions of
sulphidation, effects of fatigue, vibration, etc.). The metallurgist
should be briefed with the full intekground of the case, ie., all
clues, factors, and engineering information (fuel type, EGT
history, etc.) should be provided.
A metallurgical investigation typically consists of material
checks, visual observations (macro observations), SEM/TEM
analysis and hardness checks
This phase of failure investigation relates to the examination
of evidence and the thought processes of hypothesis formulation
and testing. Several scenarios should be considered keeping the
"trig picture" in mind. A common error in diagnostic reasoning
are errors of omission (i.e., certain scenarios/or events are just
not considered (Meher-Homji, 1985) Brainstorming activities
often help during scenario development and evaluation. In
several gas turbine failures, there is a complex sequence of
events that may lead to the failure. Further, several factors often
act in conjunction with one another (vibratory excitation, poor
environment, corrosion, material defects etc.)
Ii_Anablicallaysiligalissilasigalialts
If required, an analytical investigation should be performed to
include estimation of natural frequencies, 'node shapes, stress
analysis. Varying degrees of analytical sophistication can be
employed depending on the particular needs of the failure
analysts. In sonic cases, quick design checks are appropriate to
get a feel for the magnitudes of the stresses involved. If MOM
'This data cm be altered into a spraidshect and trends made of key
mem etas.
5
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sophisticated analyses are required, then FEM techniques can be
used to model the case. Even with these techniques, considerable
insight is required in determining realistic boundary conditions
and in interpreting results. Independent design reviews
pertaining to material suitability, manufacturing quality, blade
fabrication methods and stress analysis can be conducted.
4.0 BLADE FAILURE TROUBLESHOOTING CHART
The attached chart attempts to incorporate several interrelated
factors and observations into a single tabulation to assist trouble-
shooting activities. This chart is intended to provide plant
engineers a framework within which to troubleshoot blade
failures. It is important to note that combined failure modes do
occur.
5.0 SUMMARY
High failure rates and complexities in the vibrational behavior
of gas turbine blading requires users to have a clear
understanding of the underlying mists and dynamics of the
failure process. A wide variety of monitoring techniques that can
assist in either avoiding critical operating regimes or in detecting
dangerous behavior are available. The use of such techniques
can provide users information in making value judgments as to
whether critical machines in poor mechanical health can be
operated. A troubleshooting chart and an extensive set of
references and a bibliography has been provided to assist users to
investigate problems in greater detail.
TABLE I. TROUBLESHOOTING CHART
)1. Mechanism: Centr1tigaI Stress/Oversueed
Blade Design Aspects: More prevalent in longer airfoils
Failure Location: Typically in power turbine.
Metallurgical and Fracture Analysis: Shearing flow of material -
characteristic. Fracture surface with lip at the edge. Fracture
surface rough and angular. Blade lands sheared.
Surrounding Evidence: Signs of massive yielding, failure of load
coupling, control system distress, root screams may be stripped.
Overspeed will result in bowing of tiewires.
2. Mechanism: FOD/DOD/Im pact Overload
Blade Design *spuds: Transonic compressor blades may be '
susceptible to FOD (thinner profile)
Maintenance: Hardware left over from overhauls can cause
problems. Integrity and quality of air intake filter and last chance
screen important Ensure that no loss of cooling hole integrity has
been caused by minor FOD.
Failure Location: POD/DOD often results in "blade salad" type
failure. Blade can be broken or damaged at any location. Typically
the front stages experience failure (FOD). On hot section nozzles,
POD can damage aerodynamic integrity setting up undesirable
vibration in downstream blading.
Metallurgical and Fracture Analysis: Typically has a candy rock
appearance (impact overload).
Surrounding Evidence: Loud noise, high vibration, drop in
performance if damage is seven. Excessive icing/ice ingestion can
cause compressor damage.
Failure History: Operation of U710 over time under temperature
can cause drop in impact strength. DOD possible on first startup
due to tools/hardware left in machine.
 3. Mechanism: Low Cycle Fatigue
Environment and Operating Conditions: Excessive number of
start stop cycles, emergency trips or fast loading.
Failure Location: Turbine and compressor disks. Typically occur
in regions of low steady state stress 1st stage turbine blades often
prove to be thenno mechanical fatigue. Cracks in nozzles, vanes.
While some cracking is normal crack patterns that can allow part
breakaway cannot be accepted.
Metallurgical and Fracture Analysis: High temperature ICE
cracks are similar to creep cracks (intergranular fracture path and
presence of intergranular voids). Voids often larger than creep
voids. Lower temperature LCF occurs where plastic deformation
occurs with transgranular crack propagation. Low cycle fatigue
striations arc typically broader than HCF striations.
Failure History: I Arge number of start/stop cycles. Machine in
operation for several years. Peaking duty.
4. Mechanism: Creep Rupture
Blade Design Aspects: Expected in high temperature, highly
stressed blades and disks.
Manufacturing: Blockage of cooling passages dining blade
manufacture can cause overheating and subsequent damage in a very
short time (possibly hours). QA procedures of importance.
Environment and Operating Conditions: Excessive temperatures,
loss of cooling and increased wheel space temperatures can promote
creep.
Failure Location: In blades- highest temperature region midspan.
In disks depends on stress temperature distribution. In nozzles
creep distortion will be at the trailing edge or may result in sidewall
waviness. See sketch.
Metallurgical and Fracture Analysis: Microscopic voids along
grain boundaries. In final stages of failure, voids can link up to form
intergranular crack. Creep region often discovered by oxidation.
Often exhibits two zones - creep zone and final overload failure
(bright metallic appearance). Can also get multiple branch cracks
rumt#1 8 Parallel to the main crack. Coarsening of y precipitates and
cavities at grain boundaries noted.
Surrounding Evidence: Possible loss of cooling, failure of external
coolers blocked passages. Overtemperature-check for excessive
FLIT and/or spreads, fire in turbine etc. Noise from rubs may be
noticed during shutdown. Heavy tip nibs may indicate higher
temperatures or problems with internal alignment Seal rubs may
also be noted.
Failure History: More common on machines operating for a large
number of hours (assuming normal blade cooling).
Notes: Steam /Water injection increases metal temperature of
blades (increase in K and C which increases heat transfer coeff.)
5. Mechanism: Fretting Failure
Manufacturing: Coating should be used in the dove tail region.
Dovetail/Fir tree tolerances important.
Environment and Operating Conditions: Peaking gas turbine and
high humidity can induce crevice corrosion. Bucket rock can aid this
mechanism.
Failure Location: Blade attachment regions(wheel dovetails). May
see reddish brown debris of ferric oxide. Can also occur in wires,
tie pins, wire holes, tip shrouds or platform seal pins
Surrounding Evidence: High vibration can promote fretting.
Failure History: Considerable length of time.
Operating Symptoms: Excessive vibration.
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6
6. Mechanism: High Cycle Fatigue
Blade Design Aspects: Can occur in any blades or vanes
(compressor or turbine).
Manufacturing: Variances in blade quality can cause small
differences in fn .stress concentration of notches can women the
problem.
Environment and Operating Conditions: Corrosive environment
can dramatically drop fatigue strength. Natural frequencies can
change with dirt buildup, excessive temperature or change in
boundary conditions. Combustion system distress or nozzle distress
can also cause HCF on blading Self excited vibrations and flutter
can also cause HCF.
Maintenance: Nicks, pits or damage can cause problems and act as
crack initiators.
Failure Location: Cracks can be located at the base of the airfoil or
root. Failures on the airfoil other than at the base could imply a
higher mode of resonance.
Metallurgical and Fracture Analysis: Elastic deformation
predominates in all temperature regimes. Cracks initiate and
propagate transgrannularly. Fractures often have a smooth
appearance with the presence of clam shaped beach marks (ductile
failure). There is also typically a region of tear when crack has
reduced section size sufficiently. Striations perpendicular to the
direction of the crack may be found. This may not be easily detected
on some high temperature superalloys.
Surrounding Evidence: Resonance conditions can rause HCF.
Check for blockage, distortion, high FLIT spread, blocked fuel
nozzles, etc. Also check for loss of damping, increase or decrease in
mass fouling corrosion.
Failure History: Noticed early in startup process as few hours at
resonance are required. Several blade failures not unconuncm. Can
occur relatively rapidly (close coincidence with resonance) or over
time with resonance coming in and out. Can occur after a chang,e in
process design point (operating in a new speed regime etc.). 10 1
cycles is commonly accepted as a point where S-Isl curve flattens
(i.e., infinite life but under ideal conditions - no corrosion, etc.).
Operating Symptoms: Typically no wanting. Cracks may be noted
on borescope inspection.
7. Mechanism: Tangential Mode Fatigue
Blade Design Aspects: Can affect all types of blades. Vane Pitch
variations can set up excitation or vane bowing.
Manufacturing: Shroud assembly problems.
Maintenance: Blades damaged during handling.
Failure Location: Can be at foil base, root or an airfoil.
Metallurgical and Fracture Analysis: (See 13C,E)
Surrounding Evidence: Erosion/Damage of stator vanes.
Failure History: (See HcE)
S. Mechanism: Suite Stall
Environment and Operating Conditions: Excessive fouling,
corrosion, rapid acceleration or turbine section blockage. Excessive
steam injection. Part Load Operation.
Failure Location: Clash failures (Rotor Stator Contact) causes
triangular trailing edges impact of previous row of stators near outer
flow path. Vanes often broken. Damage will be rnidcompressor
(normal operation) and early stages (during startup). gang Occurs
when blade groups deflect tip of rotor tracking Impact LE of
adjacent edge on pressure side tip corners bend or tear.
Surrounding Evidence: Problems with anti surge bleed valves,
mis-scheduled fuel curve, deteriorated compressor. Failure very
often results in massive DOD.
9. Mechanism: Oxidation
Environment and Operating Conditions: Excessive cycling can
promote damage of the Ni-oxide layer.
Failure Location: On Hot section nozzles and blades. Can occur
on external or internal blade surfaces. On nozzles it is typically
located non-uniformly concentrated in localized hot spot regions
Failure History: Occurs over time
Surrounding Evidence: Possible high EGT spreads
 Note : Heavy oxidation can increase stresses ( reduced moss sectional
once) and increase material temperature ( surface roughness effect).
These can affect creep strength.
0 eehanlsm• of Co to
an securing : proper coating appbcancin can reduce
Protection.
Environment and Operating Conditions: Excessive > 03 ppm
Na+V in fuel or airborne salt ingestion Lower Threshold (825 0Q:
Melting point of Na2SO4. (950° C): Dew Point of
NaiSOa Alkali metals (Na, ~ ) combine during combustion with
Sulpher and Ot present in fuel to form NaaSOa and K2SO. When
these condense on the blade , they destroy the protective oxide scale
allowing sulphur to penetrate the base metal.
Maintenance: Problems with fuel treannent, open blow in doors in
filter, and filtration problems can allow ingress of salt Leeching of
salt through filter ,: Poor quality of water injection can also be the
cause of salt ingress . Improper washing procedures under power
with a salt laden compressor.
Failure Location : Turbine blades and nozzles . First stage blades
will suffer more than subsequent stages . Damage typically forst
occurs on LE of airfoil Roughning of the surface.
Metalluical
f? acrd Fracture
cr Analysis • Fracture may oecutr as e
resuilt o tigue or eep =th e "thiuned down" LE or TE. Can
occir as a creep failure especially if cooling system defeated by hot
corrosion . Denuded base metal zone often found with imergranular
attack and sulfide spikes . Sulfides can be disn' nguuhed from
internal oxides by their lighter co lor and non globular appearance.
Porous non - protective oxide layer found with metal /oxide layer
irregular with ni trusions of oxide into the metal and islands of un-
oxidized metal within the oxide.
Surrounding Evidence : Green coloration of bhtding (NiO),
blisters, white deposits on turbine nozzles, exhaust possible.
Su 1phidation products are ferroma etic - ch ec k with magnet ti ed to
str ing . Reduced airfo il s ec tions oft~
eri get longitudinal cracks on LE.
& transverse cracks on T.E. More uniform, porous surface scale.
Failure History : Large number of starts promotes coating cracking
distress which could lead to hot corrosion. Problem can develop
rapidly with salt ingestion.
Operating Symptoms : Reduction in performance and efficiency
with severe blade degradation.
11, echanism: Hot C o e w e e m re
n amen[ an Opera n ns: Ai bome or ruel bon
salt similar to Type I.
Maintenance : See Type I
Failure Location : Hot section stems & blades.
Metallurgical and Fracture Analysis : Layered type of corrosion
scale . No intergranular attack of denuded zone found on base metal.
Typically very little sulphide formation within the metal.
Failure History : Machines operated at part load (lower metal
temperances).
Operating Symptoms: Loss in performance. Non uniform pitting
attack.
2. elia sn • Erosio n
B lade Design Aspects: Can occur on both compressor or turbine.
Environment and Operating Conditions : erosive particles present
in either air, steam or fuel.
M a inten ance : Lack of air filtrati on system in te grity , blow in doors
op ai
Failure Location : Severe attack on LE & TE of concave side.
Surrounding Evidence : Air filtration problems, blow in doors open
loss of filter housing integrity.
Operating Symptoms: loss of power ca abi li ty, higher EGT if
severe de terioration . S urge possible with severe erosion.
3. chanism• Hot Gas EroslontOx1dadQn
v are cooling deficiencies can carte dais.
Blade Liestgn Aspects :
Manufacturing : Poor coating quality.
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Environment and Operating Conditions : Excessive number of
stain and stops may promote coating break down and additional
roughness.
Failure Location : Very often found on 1 st stage nook platforms
can be outboard or inboard platform.
Metallurgical and Fracture Analysis : Signs of ov ppeerranae
sSpurreraodusnding Evidence: Damaged coatings, Excessive EGT
Failure History: Typically noted after several operating hours.
Operating Symptoms : No symptoms . Excessive tenpaanre
uneveaness may show on EGT analysis /plot. May not be urtifo tm
around turbine circumference and is associated with hot regions
from the combustor outlet
4.Mechanism: Standbv Corrosion
B lade DeAp Aspects: Coatings are of help here
Environment and Operating Conditions : High humidity coastal
locations; salty envrtormtetttlndtuttial pollutants such as chlorite,
ammonia , Hydrogen sulphide can promote the problem. Typically
on peaking or intermittent use machines.
Maintenance : Improper storage and dehumidification.
Failure Location : Crevices, rotors, blade attachment areas.
Metallurgical and Fracture Analysis: Failure may be in Fatigue
initiated by crevice corrosion . Symptoms may be similar to
corrosion fatigue (Iraasgranular)
Surrounding Evidence : Wear in dovetail areas, none or excessive
bucket rock.
Failure History: Occurs over several years.
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