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ABSTRACT +
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OVERVIEW OF BHEL
BRIEF DESCRIPTION
RTD
THERMOCOUPLES
CONTROLLERS
• ON-OFF CONTROLLER
• PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER
• PID CONTROLLER
RELAYS
OPERATION PROCEDURE
CONCLUSION
APPLICATIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ABSTRACT
The main objective of this product is to make a temperature sensing device which can be
used to relatively sense the temperature within a particular range and temperature component can
as well be controlled by making use of controllers and the flow can be constantly monitored with
the help of relay and load
Several components are made use of within the project and their description in detail, along with
functioning and applications are enlisted further with a clear objective towards the project entitled
In the first phase, depending upon the temperature range and the environment the product is
subjected to, a valid transducer or a sensor is selected. When the temperature range is
comparatively less, RTD can be opted for and when it is subjected to wider range, thermocouple
can be taken up
Second phase deals with selecting the valid controller best suited for the range depending upon the
type of sensor used in the first phase. It as well depends upon the kind of accuracy and precision to
be required and ranges with dealing from simple on-off controller to highly rated PID controllers
Third phase involves, making use of relay for efficient regulating of supply and the output can be
monitored constantly by making use of a load which would be a continuous indicator of the
ongoing process within the set points tuned into the controllers.
Thus after the product is finally made, set points are tuned into the controller and when the RTD
end of the set up is made to come in contact with the relatively variable degree of temperature, the
flow is constantly showed with the help of load and when the set point is crossed the indication is
accordingly given. Thus the temperature can be constantly measured and monitored by making use
of this apparatus.
Resistance ther mometer
General description
There are many categories; carbon resistors, film, and wire-wound types are the most
widely used.
Carbon resistors are widely available and are very inexpensive. They have very
reproducible results at low temperatures. They are the most reliable form at extremely low
temperatures. They generally do not suffer from significant hysteresis or strain gauge effects.
Carbon resistors have been used for many years because of their advantages.
Film thermometers have a layer of platinum on a substrate; the layer may be extremely
thin, perhaps one micrometer. Advantages of this type are relatively low cost (the high cost of
platinum being offset by the tiny amount required) and fast response. Such devices have
improved performance although the different expansion rates of the substrate and platinum
give "strain gauge" effects and stability problems.
Wire-wound thermometers can have greater accuracy, especially for wide temperature
ranges. The coil diameter provides a compromise between mechanical stability and allowing
expansion of the wire to minimize strain and consequential drift.
Coil elements have largely replaced wire-wound elements in industry. This design has a
wire coil which can expand freely over temperature, held in place by some mechanical support
which lets the coil keep its shape. This design is similar to that of a SPRT, the primary standard
upon which ITS-90 is based, while providing the durability necessary for industrial use.
The current international standard which specifies tolerance, and the temperature-to-
electrical resistance relationship for platinum resistance thermometers is IEC
751:1983. By far the most common devices used in industry have a nominal
resistance of 100 ohms at 0 °C, and are called Pt100 sensors ('Pt' is the symbol for
platinum). The sensitivity of a standard 100 ohm sensor is a nominal 0.385 ohm/°C.
RTDs with a sensitivity of 0.375 and 0.392 ohm/°C as well as a variety of others are
also available.
Function
Resistance thermometers are constructed in a number of forms and offer
greater stability, accuracy and repeatability in some cases than thermocouples. While
thermocouples use the Seebeck effect to generate a voltage, resistance
thermometers use electrical resistance and require a power source to operate. The
resistance ideally varies linearly with temperature.
Resistance thermometers are usually made using platinum, because of its linear
resistance-temperature relationship and its chemical inertness. The platinum
detecting wire needs to be kept free of contamination to remain stable. A platinum
wire or film is supported on a former in such a way that it gets minimal differential
expansion or other strains from its former, yet is reasonably resistant to vibration.
RTD assemblies made from iron or copper are also used in some applications.
High accuracy
Low drift
Wide operating range
Suitable for precision applications
Limitations:
RTDs in industrial applications are rarely used above 660 °C. At temperatures above
660 °C it becomes increasingly difficult to prevent the platinum from becoming contaminated
by impurities from the metal sheath of the thermometer. This is why laboratory standard
thermometers replace the metal sheath with a glass construction. At very low temperatures, say
below -270 °C (or 3 K), due to the fact that there are very few phonons, the resistance of an
RTD is mainly determined by impurities and boundary scattering and thus basically
independent of temperature. As a result, the sensitivity of the RTD is essentially zero and
therefore not useful.
Compared to thermistors, platinum RTDs are less sensitive to small temperature changes
and have a slower response time. However, thermistors have a smaller temperature range and
stability.
Sources of error:
The common error sources of a PRT are:
Interchangeability: the “closeness of agreement” between the specific PRT's Resistance vs.
Temperature relationship and a predefined Resistance vs. Temperature relationship, commonly
defined by IEC 60751.
Insulation Resistance: Error caused by the inability to measure the actual resistance of
element. Current leaks into or out of the circuit through the sheath, between the element leads,
or the elements.
Stability: Ability to maintain R vs. T over time as a result of thermal exposure.
Repeatability: Ability to maintain R vs. T under the same conditions after experiencing
thermal cycling throughout a specified temperature range.
Hysteresis: Change in the characteristics of the materials from which the RTD is built due
to exposures to varying temperatures.
Stem Conduction: Error that results from the PRT sheath conducting heat into or out of the
process.
Calibration/Interpolation: Errors that occur due to calibration uncertainty at the cal points,
or between cal point due to propagation of uncertainty or curve fit errors.
Lead Wire: Errors that occur because a 4 wires or 3 wire measurements is not used, this is
greatly increased by higher gauge wire.
2 wire connections add lead resistance in series with PRT element.
3 wire connections rely on all 3 leads having equal resistance.
Self Heating: Error produced by the heating of the PRT element due to the power applied.
Time Response: Errors are produced during temperature transients because the PRT cannot
respond to changes fast enough.
Thermal EMF: Thermal EMF errors are produced by the EMF adding to or subtracting
from the applied sensing voltage, primarily in DC systems.
Thermocouple
A thermocouple measuring circuit with a heat source, cold junction and a measuring instrument
Principle of operation
Voltage–temperature relationship
Polynomial Coefficients 0-
500 °C
n Type K
1 25.08355
2 7.860106x10−2
3 -2.503131x10−1
4 8.315270x10−2
5 -1.228034x10−2
6 9.804036x10−4
7 -4.413030x10−5
8 1.057734x10−6
9 -1.052755x10−8
For typical metals used in thermocouples, the output voltage increases almost linearly
with the temperature difference (ΔT) over a bounded range of temperatures. For
precise measurements or measurements outside of the linear temperature range,
non-linearity must be corrected. The nonlinear relationship between the temperature
difference (ΔT) and the output voltage (mV) of a thermocouple can be approximated
by a polynomial:
The coefficients an are given for n from 0 to between 5 and 13 depending upon the
metals. In some cases better accuracy is obtained with additional non-polynomial
terms. A database of voltage as a function of temperature, and coefficients for
computation of temperature from voltage and vice-versa for many types of
thermocouple is available online.
Types
Certain combinations of alloys have become popular as industry
standards. Selection of the combination is driven by cost,
availability, convenience, melting point, chemical properties,
stability, and output. Different types are best suited for different
applications. They are usually selected based on the temperature
range and sensitivity needed. Thermocouples with low
sensitivities (B, R, and S types) have correspondingly lower
resolutions. Other selection criteria include the inertness of the
thermocouple material and whether it is magnetic or not.
Standard thermocouple types are listed below with the
positive electrode first, followed by the negative electrode.
K
E
Type E (chromel–constantan) has a high output (68 µV/°C) which makes it well suited
to cryogenic use. Additionally, it is non-magnetic.
J
Type J (iron–constantan) has a more restricted range than type K (−40 to +750 °C),
but higher sensitivity of about 55 µV/°C. The Curie pointof the iron (770 °C) causes an
abrupt change in the characteristic, which determines the upper temperature limit.
N
Type N (Nicrosil–Nisil) (Nickel-Chromium-Silicon/Nickel-Silicon) thermocouples are
suitable for use at high temperatures, exceeding 1200 °C, due to their stability and
ability to resist high temperature oxidation. Sensitivity is about 39 µV/°C at 900 °C,
slightly lower than type K. Designed to be an improved type K, it is becoming more
popular.
Platinum types B, R, and S
Types B, R, and S thermocouples use platinum or a platinum–rhodium alloy for each
conductor. These are among the most stable thermocouples, but have lower
sensitivity than other types, approximately 10 µV/°C. Type B, R, and S thermocouples
are usually used only for high temperature measurements due to their high cost and
low sensitivity.
B
Type B thermocouples use a platinum–rhodium alloy for each conductor. One
conductor contains 30% rhodium while the other conductor contains 6% rhodium.
These thermocouples are suited for use at up to 1800 °C. Type B thermocouples
produce the same output at 0 °C and 42 °C, limiting their use below about 50 °C.
R
Type R thermocouples use a platinum–rhodium alloy containing 13% rhodium for one
conductor and pure platinum for the other conductor. Type R thermocouples are used
up to 1600 °C.
S
Type S thermocouples are constructed using one wire of 90% Platinum and 10%
Rhodium (the positive or "+" wire) and a second wire of 100% platinum (the negative
or "-" wire). Like type R, type S thermocouples are used up to 1600 °C. In particular,
type S is used as the standard of calibration for the melting point
of gold (1064.43 °C).
T
Type T (copper–constantan) thermocouples are suited for measurements in the −200
to 350 °C range. Often used as a differential measurement since only copper wire
touches the probes. Since both conductors are non-magnetic, there is no Curie
point and thus no abrupt change in characteristics. Type T thermocouples have a
sensitivity of about 43 µV/°C.
C
Type C (tungsten 5% rhenium – tungsten 26% rhenium) thermocouples are suited for
measurements in the 0 °C to 2320 °C range. This thermocouple is well-suited
for vacuum furnaces at extremely high temperatures. It must never be used in the
presence of oxygen at temperatures above 260 °C.
M
Type M thermocouples use a nickel alloy for each wire. The positive wire contains
18% molybdenum while the negative wire contains 0.8% cobalt. These thermocouples
are used in vacuum furnaces for the same reasons as with type C. Upper temperature
is limited to 1400 °C. It is less commonly used than other types.
Chromel-gold/iron
In chromel-gold/iron thermocouples, the positive wire is chromel and the negative
wire is gold with a small fraction (0.03–0.15 atom percent) of iron. It can be used
for cryogenic applications (1.2–300 K and even up to 600 K). Both the sensitivity and
the temperature range depend on the iron concentration. The sensitivity is typically
around 15 µV/K at low temperatures and the lowest usable temperature varies
between 1.2 and 4.2 K.
In this example, the thermostat is the controller and directs the activities of the heater. The
heater is the processor that warms the air inside the house to the desired temperature (set point).
The air temperature reading inside the house is the feedback. And finally, the house is the
environment in which the heating system operates.
The notion of controllers can be extended to more complex systems. In the natural world,
individual organisms also appear to be equipped with controllers that assure
the homeostasis necessary for survival of each individual. Both human-made and natural systems
exhibit collective behaviors amongst individuals in which the controllers seek some form of
equilibrium.
Types of controllers
Most control valve systems in the past were implemented using mechanical systems or
solid state electronics. Pneumatics was often utilized to transmit information and control using
pressure. However, most modern control systems in industrial settings now rely on computers for
the controller. Obviously it is much easier to implement complex control algorithms on a computer
than using a mechanical system.
For feedback controllers there are a few simple types. The most simple is like the
thermostat that just turns the heat on if the temperature falls below a certain value and off it
exceeds a certain value (on-off control).
Another simple type of controller is a proportional controller. With this type of controller,
the controller output (control action) is proportional to the error in the measured variable.
On/Off Controller:
An on-off controller is the simplest form of temperature control device. The output from
the device is either on or off, with no middle state. An on-off controller will switch the output only
when the temperature crosses the setpoint. For heating control, the output is on when the
temperature is below the setpoint, and off above setpoint. Since the temperature crosses the
setpoint to change the output state, the process temperature will be cycling continually, going from
below setpoint to above, and back below. In cases where this cycling occurs rapidly, and to prevent
damage to contactors and valves, an on-off differential, or “hysteresis,” is added to the controller
operations. This differential requires that the temperature exceed setpoint by a certain amount
before the output will turn off or on again. On-off differential prevents the output from “chattering”
or making fast, continual switches if the cycling above and below the setpoint occurs very rapidly.
On-off control is usually used where a precise control is not necessary, in systems which cannot
handle having the energy turned on and off frequently, where the mass of the system is so great
that temperatures change extremely slowly, or for a temperature alarm. One special type of on-off
control used for alarm is a limit controller. This controller uses a latching relay, which must be
manually reset, and is used to shut down a process when a certain temperature is reached.
PID controller
The PID controller calculation (algorithm) involves three separate parameters, and is
accordingly sometimes called three-term control: the proportional, the integral and
derivative values, denoted P, I, and D. Heuristically, these values can be interpreted in terms of
time: P depends on the present error, I on the accumulation of past errors, and D is a prediction
of future errors, based on current rate of change.[1] The weighted sum of these three actions is used
to adjust the process via a control element such as the position of a control valve or the power
supply of a heating element.
In the absence of knowledge of the underlying process, a PID controller is the best
controller.[2] By tuning the three constants in the PID controller algorithm, the controller can
provide control action designed for specific process requirements. The response of the controller
can be described in terms of the responsiveness of the controller to an error, the degree to which
the controller overshoots the set point and the degree of system oscillation. Note that the use of the
PID algorithm for control does not guarantee optimal control of the system or system stability.
Some applications may require using only one or two modes to provide the appropriate
system control. This is achieved by setting the gain of undesired control outputs to zero. A PID
controller will be called a PI, PD, P or I controller in the absence of the respective control actions.
PI controllers are fairly common, since derivative action is sensitive to measurement noise,
whereas the absence of an integral value may prevent the system from reaching its target value due
to the control action.
Loop tuning
Tuning a control loop is the adjustment of its control parameters
(gain/proportional band, integral gain/reset, derivative gain/rate) to the optimum
values for the desired control response. Stability (bounded oscillation) is a basic
requirement, but beyond that, different systems have different behavior, different
applications have different requirements, and requirements may conflict with one
another.
PID tuning is a difficult problem, even though there are only three parameters and in
principle is simple to describe, because it must satisfy complex criteria within
the limitations of PID control. There are accordingly various methods for loop tuning,
and more sophisticated techniques are the subject of patents; this section describes
some traditional manual methods for loop tuning.
Stability
If the PID controller parameters (the gains of the proportional, integral and
derivative terms) are chosen incorrectly, the controlled process input can be unstable,
i.e. its output diverges, with or without oscillation, and is limited only by saturation or
mechanical breakage. Instability is caused by excess gain, particularly in the
presence of significant lag.
The choice of method will depend largely on whether or not the loop can be
taken "offline" for tuning, and the response time of the system. If the system can be
taken offline, the best tuning method often involves subjecting the system to a step
change in input, measuring the output as a function of time, and using this response
to determine the control parameters.
Manual
No math required. Online method. Requires experienced personnel.
Tuning
Decrease
Ki Decrease Increase Increase Degrade
significantly
Ziegler–Nichols method.
Another heuristic tuning method is formally known as the Ziegler–Nichols method,
introduced by John G. Ziegler and Nathaniel B. Nichols in the 1940s. As in the method above,
the Ki and Kd gains are first set to zero. The P gain is increased until it reaches the ultimate
gain, Ku, at which the output of the loop starts to oscillate. Ku and the oscillation period Pu are used
to set the gains
Limitations of PID control
While PID controllers are applicable to many control problems, and often
perform satisfactorily without any improvements or even tuning, they can perform
poorly in some applications, and do not in general provide optimal control. The
fundamental difficulty with PID control is that it is a feedback system,
with constant parameters, and no direct knowledge of the process, and thus overall
performance is reactive and a compromise – while PID control is the best controller
with no model of the process, better performance can be obtained by incorporating a
model of the process.
PID controllers, when used alone, can give poor performance when the PID loop
gains must be reduced so that the control system does not overshoot, oscillate
or hunt about the control setpoint value. They also have difficulties in the presence of
non-linearities, may trade off regulation versus response time, do not react to
changing process behavior (say, the process changes after it has warmed up), and
have lag in responding to large disturbances.
Linearity
Another problem faced with PID controllers is that they are
linear, and in particular symmetric. Thus, performance of PID
controllers in non-linear systems (such as HVAC systems) is
variable. For example, in temperature control, a common use
case is active heating (via a heating element) but passive
cooling (heating off, but no cooling), so overshoot can only be
corrected slowly – it cannot be forced downward. In this case
the PID should be tuned to be overdamped, to prevent or reduce
overshoot, though this reduces performance (it increases
settling time).
Noise in derivative
A problem with the derivative term is that small amounts of measurement or
process noise can cause large amounts of change in the output. It is often helpful to
filter the measurements with a low-pass filter in order to remove higher-frequency
noise components. However, low-pass filtering and derivative control can cancel each
other out, so reducing noise by instrumentation means is a much better choice.
Alternatively, a nonlinear median filter may be used, which improves the filtering
efficiency and practical performance. In some case, the differential band can be
turned off in many systems with little loss of control. This is equivalent to using the
PID controller as a PI controller.
Relay
A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly drive an
electric motor is called a contractor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with
no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays
with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are
used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power
systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still called "protective
relays".
When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed across
the coil to dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation,
which would otherwise generate a voltage spike dangerous to semiconductor circuit
components. Some automotive relays include a diode inside the relay case.
Alternatively, a contact protection network consisting of a capacitor and resistor in
series (snubber circuit) may absorb the surge. If the coil is designed to be energized
with alternating current (AC), a small copper "shading ring" can be crimped to the end
of the solenoid, creating a small out-of-phase current which increases the minimum
pull on the armature during the AC cycle.
Types
Latching relay
A latching relay has two relaxed states (bistable). These are also called
"impulse", "keep", or "stay" relays. When the current is switched off, the relay
remains in its last state. This is achieved with a solenoid operating a ratchet and cam
mechanism, or by having two opposing coils with an over-center spring or permanent
magnet to hold the armature and contacts in position while the coil is relaxed, or with
a remanent core. In the ratchet and cam example, the first pulse to the coil turns the
relay on and the second pulse turns it off. In the two coil example, a pulse to one coil
turns the relay on and a pulse to the opposite coil turns the relay off. This type of
relay has the advantage that it consumes power only for an instant, while it is being
switched, and it retains its last setting across a power outage. A remanent core
latching relay requires a current pulse of opposite polarity to make it change state.
Reed relay
A reed relay is a reed switch enclosed in a solenoid. The switch has a set of
contacts inside an evacuated or inert gas-filled glass tube which protects the contacts
against atmospheric corrosion; the contacts are made of magnetic material that
makes them move under the influence of the field of the enclosing solenoid. Reed
relays can switch faster than larger relays, require only little power from the control
circuit, but have low switching current and voltage ratings.
Polarized relay
A polarized relay placed the armature between the poles of a permanent magnet to
increase sensitivity. Polarized relays were used in middle 20th Century telephone
exchanges to detect faint pulses and correct telegraphic distortion. The poles were on
screws, so a technician could first adjust them for maximum sensitivity and then
apply a bias spring to set the critical current that would operate the relay.
Contactor relay
A contactor is a very heavy-duty relay used for switching electric motors and lighting
loads, although contactors are not generally called relays. Continuous current ratings
for common contactors range from 10 amps to several hundred amps. High-current
contacts are made with alloys containing silver. The unavoidable arcing causes the
contacts to oxidize; however, silver oxide is still a good conductor. Such devices are
often used for motor starters. A motor starter is a contactor with overload protection
devices attached. The overload sensing devices are a form of heat operated relay
where a coil heats a bi-metal strip, or where a solder pot melts, releasing a spring to
operate auxiliary contacts. These auxiliary contacts are in series with the coil. If the
overload senses excess current in the load, the coil is de-energized. Contactor relays
can be extremely loud to operate, making them unfit for use where noise is a chief
concern.
Solid-state relay
A solid state relay (SSR) is a solid state electronic component that provides a
similar function to an electromechanical relay but does not have any moving
components, increasing long-term reliability. With early SSR's, the tradeoff came from
the fact that every transistor has a small voltage drop across it. This voltage drop
limited the amount of current a given SSR could handle. As transistors improved,
higher current SSR's, able to handle 100 to 1,200 Amperes, have become
commercially available. Compared to electromagnetic relays, they may be falsely
triggered by transients.
Solid state contactor relay
A solid state contactor is a heavy-duty solid state relay, including the necessary heat
sink, used for switching electric heaters, small electric motors and lighting loads;
where frequent on/off cycles are required. There are no moving parts to wear out and
there is no contact bounce due to vibration. They are activated by AC control signals
or DC control signals from Programmable logic controller (PLCs), PCs, Transistor-
transistor logic (TTL) sources, or other microprocessor and microcontroller controls.
Buchholz relay
A Buchholz relay is a safety device sensing the accumulation of gas in large oil-filled
transformers, which will alarm on slow accumulation of gas or shut down the
transformer if gas is produced rapidly in the transformer oil.
Applications
Relays are used to and for:
Isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two are at different
potentials, for example when controlling a mains-powered device from a low-voltage switch.
The latter is often applied to control office lighting as the low voltage wires are easily installed
in partitions, which may be often moved as needs change. They may also be controlled by
room occupancy detectors in an effort to conserve energy,
Logic functions. For example, the Boolean AND function is realized by connecting
normally open relay contacts in series, the OR function by connecting normally open contacts
in parallel. The change-over or Form C contacts perform the XOR (exclusive or) function.
Similar functions for NAND and NOR are accomplished using normally closed contacts.
The Ladder programming language is often used for designing relay logic networks.
Early computing. Before vacuum tubes and transistors, relays were used as logical
elements in digital computers. See ARRA (computer), Harvard Mark II, Zuse Z2, and Zuse
Z3.
Safety-critical logic. Because relays are much more resistant than semiconductors to
nuclear radiation, they are widely used in safety-critical logic, such as the control panels of
radioactive waste-handling machinery.
Time delay functions. Relays can be modified to delay opening or delay closing a set of
contacts. A very short (a fraction of a second) delay would use a copper disk between the
armature and moving blade assembly. Current flowing in the disk maintains magnetic field for
a short time, lengthening release time. For a slightly longer (up to a minute) delay, a dashpot is
used. A dashpot is a piston filled with fluid that is allowed to escape slowly. The time period
can be varied by increasing or decreasing the flow rate. For longer time periods, a mechanical
clockwork timer is installed.
A large relay with two coils and many set of contacts used in an old telephone switching system.
Several 30-contact relays in "Connector" circuits in mid 20th century 1XB switch and5XB
switch telephone exchanges; cover removed on one
Selection of an appropriate relay for a particular application requires evaluation of
many different factors:
The RTD (resistance thermometer) is a temperature sensor which measures the temperature
in terms of resistance. The RTD is connected to the controller and the controller is connected to a
relay and the relay is connected to a bulb which is used (in this case) to see as an output. The basic
circuit diagram is shown above. The RTD acts as an input unit, the on/off controller and the relay
acts as controlling unit, the bulb acts as an output. The detailed information of the temperature
changes can also be verified on the controller while the bulb is taken as brief output.
A set point is given to the controller. Depending on the requirement the set values can be 2
or 3. As long as the temperature of the object we are measuring is within the set value the
controller keeps the circuit active. When the temperature exceeds the set value, the circuit is
inactivated. The RTD gives output in the form of resistance. The EMF is sent to the controller. The
EMF is transferred from RTD to the internal circuit of the controller via a transformer. Inside the
controller there two voltage generators, one is connected to the relay, while the other is connected
to the output of the controller. In general in industries, the output is given in form of digital output
directly displayed on the controller while the rest of the voltage is used to break the circuit thus
stopping the rise of temperature. As long as the temperature of the object remains above the set
point, the relay inside the controller remains activated. When the temperature of the object drops
below the set value, thus the EMF generated inside the RTD is stopped and thus the temperature
begins to rise as the circuit is closed. In our setup, the voltage which is sent as an output is given to
an external relay and in turn given to a bulb. When the temperature is above the set value, the
voltage generated closes external relay thus the bulb is switched on. When the temperature drops,
the bulb turns off.
On the controller there are points named as R, B, G. For thermocouples, the circuit is taken
as it is, while for RTD’s the B and G are short circuited and the connections are given. There are
points named N and P representing neutral and phase respectively. There are points named NC
(normally closed) and NO (normally open). The connections (phase and neutral) are given to R and
short circuited B, G. While the power supply for the setup is taken from source which is given to
neutral and phase of the controller. The external relay is connected to NC or NO depending upon
our choice of selection. The voltage source for the setup is in general taken as 500 volts and above
in industries but we take the general voltage given for domestic applications i.e., 230 volts. The
phase and neutral circuits are connected internally.
Once the connections are successfully established within the RTD and controller, the output
from the n/c port is connected to relay and in turn to the load. For simple demonstration purpose, a
bulb can be used for a load. Thus when the bulb is on, it shows an indication of constant power
supply within the circuit and the temperature still below the set point. When the temperature
exceeds the set point, the controller cuts the supply and the bulb is turned off indicating us the
temperature required having reached. A relay between the controller and load can be used to
regulate the supply.
Thus a temperature monitoring instrument is made by making effective use of the prior
mentioned instruments and the output coefficient has been successfully established
PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE CIRCUIT
Practically this circuit can be applied in boilers and ovens for the measurement
of temperature. Here RTD is used to measure the temperature of the boiler. This
measured temperature of the boiler, then this temperature is given as feedback to
the controller. From the other side manually set feedback is also given to the
controller. The controller generates an error based on this two readings. It uses this
error to control the relay (i.e. turning the relay on or off), this in turn switches the
heater on/off. In this way the temperature of the heater is controlled.