Development of instrumental music from Classical through to 20C
Harmony
Classical
Key assigned to works
Tonic-dominant polarity
Solo piano sonata/instrumental sonata
Beethoven Romantic Contemporary
Key assigned to many Assignation of key becoming less and less
works During this time, the key assigned to a work became less common
important. Composers of the era like Liszt began to play
Note key ambiguity of around with pitches very far out of the Ionian mode like
‘Kreutzer’ Sonata: no the augmented 4th. He also floated around key areas and
key designation and wouldn’t always stay in one area - much unlike the
unclear whether A classical composers. Scrabian sometimes would just not
major or minor assign keys to his pieces being a bridge between
dominates romantic and contemporary. Also as a generalization it is
to say that at this point, emotion took over the desire to
conform to rules of the past. So composers like Schubert
would readily change keys to follow along the mood of
maybe a character as when a vocalist may perform on of
his Leider. These changes would occur multiple times in
a composition which were to last 3 or 4 minutes when a
single movement may only change keys 3 times.
Used I-V polarity Use of multiple types of harmonic
The tonic dominant polarity becomes less important language, e.g. tonal, atonal, 12 tone, other
Also explored over time after the time of Beethoven. Beethoven also serial, modal, microtonal.
alternatives to sometimes would explore the mediant. This opened the
dominant, e.g. I-IV, or doors for composers to explore mediant more along with
chains of third the submediant. Composers as early as Liszt began
relationships writing in with 12 tone rows and pioneering a style
which would be expanded later. Later, Debussy would
explore the tritone, augmemted 2nds, and many other
key areas. Later Scrabian would write much
chromaticism and have passages with less centralization
to a key area. Composers over time used “weaker”
intervallic relationships for harmony.
 Classical Beethoven
Haydn: mostly Early: sonatas used in
written as teaching performance career
music
Mid-late: began to express
Mozart: used for more personal material in
students as well as sonatas
own performances,
commissions Note ambiguity of ‘Kreutzer’
Sonata subtitle: ‘Sonata for
piano with violin obbligato
in the style of a concerto’
Average length: 10- Length: anywhere from 15-
15 minutes 30 minutes
Romantic
The solo piano repertoire during this period in history
evolved greatly. Composers like Chopin created entire new
genres like the ballade which was a variation on the sonata
form. Etudes also started to become genuine major
additions to the repertoire. Sonatas were also still written
but sometimes were written following a more loose
structure than what was written in the past. Schubert would
frequently expand the sonata form in various ways. And
Lizst frequently would use are very loose sonata form in
order to convey some emotion or some other reason.
Chopin Sonata no. 2 - 45min
Ballade-10min
Schuman-15-30min
Contemporary
Genre of sonata no longer predominant
solo/chamber form, but still composed by
numerous composers during 20C, e.g.
Hindemith, Ravel, Debussy, Ives, Copland,
Sessions, Scriabin, Prokofiev, Shostakovich,
Boulez
Length: anything from 10 min (Berg Sonata) to 4
hours (Sorabji’s Opus Clavicembalisticum, multi-
movement solo work for piano)

Absolute music
Three or four
separate
movements:
i Sonata form; most
important
movement
ii slow movement
iii min/trio
iv rondo or sonata;
fun/light
Sonata form dominates:
Exposition (two subjects:
i in I plus ii related key)
Development (develops i
and ii in various keys,
ends on V)
Recapitulation (begins in
I and ends in I)
Absolute music
Early: often 4 movements
using Classical template (ii
and iii often swapped)
Mid-late:
- often three movements, Op.
111 has only two
- linked movements (Op. 57,
Op. 109, Op. 110)
- emphasis on last
movement as most
important (e.g. Op. 109, 110,
111)
Sonata form used
Included variation form: e.g.
Op. 26, Op. 57, Op. 109, Op.
111
Also integrated fugal
writing: Op. 109, Op. 110,
Op. 111
Programmatic Music - though some did not, others would Mixture of absolute (e.g. Hindemith) and
title their pieces posthumously program (e.g. Janacek’s 1.X.1905, Ives’ Concord)
This period sees much variety as far as the amount of Any number of movements, e.g.
movements a sonata for solo may have and how the space
between movements would be dealt with. Liszt would write One movement:
4 movement works so the each movement would lead to the Berg: Sonata Op. 1
next. Chopin regularly composed single movements which Scriabin: piano sonatas 5-10
were often played together to for 3 or 4 single pieces as Prokofiev: Op. 1
movements - the 4 ballades for example.
Two movements:
Ligeti: Solo Cello sonata
Janacek: 1.X.1905
Three or more movements:
Ives Piano Sonata no. 2
Cage: Sonata for Clarinet
Prokofiev: 6, 7, 8 (and others)
Sonata form, in this time in history, would be played and Sonata form still in use, but other structures very
modified among composers. A composer may repeat the prevalent, e.g. variation, thematic
subject more than just once. Schubert even modulated keys transformation, various ABA structures that
3 times in one of his expositions. Some composers like evoke sonata form but do not necessarily
Chopin, Liszt - though more than Chopin, would just play conform exactly to it.
around with the form by expanding the exposition by adding
addition material to a theme or something of the like.
Scriabin even wouldn’t use a key at all for his sonata type
writting.

Concerto
 Classical Beethoven
Used by Haydn and Used by Beethoven to
Mozart to spotlight further his career; did not
soloists write any more piano
concerti after he stopped
Mozart used to performing
further his own
career
One to three One to three soloists plus
soloists plus orchestra; note ‘Choral
orchestra Fantasy’ for piano solo,
chorus and orchestra
Opposition/contrast Opposition/contrast
between soloist and between soloist and
orchestra orchestra
Three separate Often three separate
movements movements, but some
exceptions:
Triple Concerto & Violin
Concerto: ii attacca into iii
5th Piano Concerto: ii
linked to iii
Orchestral Often follows Classical
exposition before practice however, in
soloist entrance 4th Piano Concerto: soloist
begins entire work alone
before orchestral entrance
Cadenzas are Cadenzas are composed
improvised but Beethoven would often
improvise in concert
Symphony/symphonic music
Classical Beethoven
Romantic
Composers would sometimes write for musicians they knew
or for special requests for a specific music. One such example
would be Harold in Italy by Berlioz for Paganini. Though this
composition blurs the lines of a true classical concerto.
For the most part, concertos are mostly for solo instruments
during this time still. Though there are some double
concertos.
Some concertos written for this time blur the lines between
normal symphonic soloist and a concerto soloist. Like Harold
in Italy - in the Mendelssohn Violin Concerto the soloist
accompanies the orchestra.
The lines between movements for compositions in the
general in the time period can become a bit blurred at times.
In the Mendelssohn Violin Concerto, there is no break
between movements - an instrumental soloist in the
orchestra is the bridge between movements.
In the Mendelssohn Violin Concerto, the soloist starts the
exposition and then the orchestra repeats the subject again
later. Other concerti are similar to this.
Again the in the Mendelssohn, the cadenza is written down
by every note, and the soloist does not improvise. This
becomes more standard over time.
Romantic
Contemporary
Composers can write for own performance, e.g.
Bartok, Prokofiev, Rachmaninoff
Concerti often written as commissions by
soloist or orchestra
Any number of soloists, e.g.
Messiaen: Concert à quatre
Bartok: Concerto for Orchestra, Lutoslawski:
Concerto for Orchestra
Roles of soloist and orchestra less defined e.g.
Strauss: Don Quixote (orchestra with prominent
cello solo); Britten: Cello Symphony; Prokofiev:
Symphony-Concerto; John Adams Violin
Concerto uses soloist almost continually with
little use of orch/solo contrast
Any number of movements, e.g.
Prokofiev First Piano Concerto (three
‘sections’); John Adams Saxophone Concerto
(two parts); Schoenberg Piano Concerto (four
movements all connected); Schoenberg Violin
Concerto (in Classical 3 movt form, although 12
tone in language)
Use of orchestra-only exposition very rare
Form and language totally variable; e.g. Berg
Violin Concerto uses 12 tone row that
incorporates tonal and whole tone elements;
Hindemith Clarinet Concerto follows Classical
template while using 20C language;
Cadenzas composed but differing in concept,
e.g. Philip Glass Violin Concerto no. 2 offers solo
pieces before each movement instead of a
cadenza
Note use of aleatoric elements in Lutoslawski
Cello Concerto
Contemporary
Orchestral work
Length on average: 15-25
minutes
Began as instrumental
interlude or ‘filler’ item;
mainly because of Haydn (and
then Mozart) the symphony
gained importance as a genre
during Classical period
Absolute
Four separate movements:
i Sonata form; most important
movement
ii slow movement
iii min/trio
iv rondo or sonata; fun/light
Sonata form predominant
Orchestral
9: orchestra plus
chorus
3: 45 minutes
Beethoven used the
symphony to express
profound and epic
utterances
3: extra-musical
reference to Napoleon
6: descriptive names
given to each
movement
5: iii transitions into iv
6: five movements
Sonata form used
alongside variation
form (e.g. 3 iv, 5 ii, 7 ii,
9 iii) and fugal writing
In this time, the orchestra grew in size because of the refining of Wide variation in instrumentation,
instruments and thanks to composers and conductors of the time e.g. Mahler 8: two choirs, children’s
who implemented and pioneer the use of the brute size, force, and choir, vocal soloists, large orchestra,
density of the romantic orchestra. Hector Berlioz, for example was off stage brass section
one of the best symphonists of all time. He would write his Elliott Carter: Symphony for three
Symphonie Fantastique to originally have close to 300 musicians Orchestras
on stage. (though i know this wasnt from the class) His self-
proclaimed magnum opus was his Requim which would require a
350 member choir and orchestra along with tenor soloist and 4
brass choirs together numbering 45 to each cardinal point of the
audience(8 of these musicians were BASSOONISTS!!!). The
posibilities for the orchestra grew and so did the requirements and
wishes of composers of the period. Along with this, the refinment
of the piano allowed for large scale works with piano with or
without orchestra.
varied Wide variation, e.g.
Berlioz- 1.5hrs-45min Mahler 3: 100 minutes
Schumann- 30-45 Sibelius 7: 23 minutes
The use of an idee fixe was implemented by Berlioz in Symphony The symphony and symphonic works
fantastique which was used as a character which was to morph still seen as serious expression of
and change and degrade throughout the composition. Similar ideas composer’s work
to this were implemeted by other composers.In Lzst’s Faust, he
states themes and melodic content for Faust then he uttlerly
mutilates them for Mephistopheles in order to write the last
movement.
Very much so Programmatic. Whether it be writting about Mixture of absolute (e.g. Prokofiev,
literature, or real life evnts, or places, or people, or ideas, or Shostakovich) and programmatic
feelings - anything and everything was written about. (e.g. Britten Spring, Messiaen
Turangalîla-Symphonie)
Though some like Brucker wrote with no programmatic ideas.
Highly varied - could be 3 movements like Faust, or 5 like Wide variation, e.g.
Symhponie Fantastique, or 4 like a Tchaikovsky Symphony, Even 5 Schoenberg Chamber Symphony (1
with one of them being a cadenza and mostly solo like movt); Strauss Alpine Symphony (22
Shostakovich 9. sections)
Bruckner exhibited sonata form in some way in all 8 symphonys. Sonata form used but no longer
While some others followed sonata form loosely as already stated, predominant; wide use of many
some completely strayed away from the form. other structures, e.g. variation,
thematic transformation

String Quartet
Classical
Established and elevated by
Haydn
Mozart used this genre as
mode of personal expression
and experimentation, e.g. K
465 ‘Dissonance’
Absolute music
15 – 20 minutes on average
Four separate movements:
i Sonata form; most important
movement
ii slow movement
iii min/trio
iv rondo or sonata; fun/light
(9)
Experimentation with
form in 9 iv includes
ambiguous form plus
thematic
transformation
Beethoven Romantic Contemporary
Early 4tets dedicated to The string 4tet output lessened slightly during 19C because The quartet still considered to be a serious
Haydn many composers felt that Beethoven’s late 4tets were the expression of composer’s intent, therefore
pinnacle of the genre; e.g. Schubert’s comment after hearing many 20/21C composers explore this genre.
Late 4tets express some Beethoven’s Op. 131: ‘After this, what is left for us to write?’
of Beethoven’s most Wide variation in concept, e.g.
profound and personal Barber: Dover Beach (includes vocal soloist)
feelings, e.g. Op. 130- Stockhausen: Helicopter String Quartet
135 Crumb: Black Angels (electric 4tet)
Steve Reich: Different Trains (quartet plus
tape)
Absolute Some absolute (e.g. Schumann, Brahms) Mixture of absolute (e.g. Bartok 4tets,
Shostakovich) and programmatic (e.g. Reich
Op. 132 iii ‘Holy Song of Programmatic: Different Trains, 4tets by Kurtag and Maxwell
Thanksgiving of the Mendelssohn 6: ‘Requiem for Fanny’ written for M’s late Davies)
Convalescent to the sister
Deity’ Smetana 1: ‘From my Life’ depicts scenes of the composer’s
life
Dvorak 12: ‘American’ deliberately evokes Americana in
musical material
Op. 130: 50 min Wide variation, e.g. Wide variation, e.g.
Op. 131: 40 min Faure: 22 Shostakovich: 8 (20 min)
Brahms 2: 35 Morton Feldman: 2 (5+ hours)
Borodin 1: 38 min
Schubert 14: 41
Early 4tets are four Mendelssohn 2: cyclical element of three-note motif present Wide variation, e.g.
movements in all movements; also includes fugal writing Babbitt 3: one movement
Shostakovich 15: six movements
Late 4tets: Tchaikovsky 2: begins with introduction (in no key
Op. 130: 6 movts signature), then segues into main body of first movement Sonata form used, but many and varied ways
Op. 131: 7 linked movts (in F). Includes cadenza-like writing within the movements. of structuring works, e.g. Ives 1 (includes
Op. 132: 5 movts Second movement is in mixed meter with many ambiguous fugal writing and does not exhibit sonata
rhythmic effects. form at all), Cage’s String Quartet in Four
Sonata form used in Parts which uses separate harmonic groups
conjunction with Debussy Quartet: cyclical, exhibits thematic transformation to create texture and to prevent any sense of
variation and fugal rather than sonata form progression, string techniques progression
writing become integral part of the musical language, used rhythmic
effects as part of language, harmonic language moves away
from diatonic integrating pentatonic and modal.