Roman Garb

Overview:
8th Century BCE to 4th Century CE

Countess Dulcia MacPherson, OL, OP, OR Shire of Benonshire’s Mermaid’s Faire

Kingdom of Trimaris Wednesday, March 14, 2018 at 1:00 PM
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CONTENTS
When was “Rome”?............................................................................................................................................................. 2
Roman Art .............................................................................................................................................................................. 3
Issues with Roman Sculpture: ................................................................................................................................... 4
Issues with Roman Paintings & Mosaics: .............................................................................................................. 5
Roman Law, Clothing, & Rank ........................................................................................................................................ 5
Summary of the Evolution of the Stola .............................................................................................................. 7
The Kingdom of Rome: 753 - 509 BCE ........................................................................................................................ 9
The Early Republic: 508 – 101 BCE........................................................................................................................... 12
Late Republic: 100 - 27 BCE ......................................................................................................................................... 15
Clavi.............................................................................................................................................................................. 15
Three kinds of tunicas: .............................................................................................................................................. 15
Tunica Capitium (T-tunic Style) ........................................................................................................................ 15
Tunica Recta and Tunica Aclassis (straight tunic) ..................................................................................... 16
the early empire: 27 BCE – 199 CE ............................................................................................................................ 28
Mid-to-Late Empire: 200 - 399 CE ............................................................................................................................. 35
Very Late Empire: 400-476 CE ................................................................................................................................... 39
Transitioning to Post-Rome in the West, and Byzantine in the East ....................................................... 39
Dalmatics ................................................................................................................................................................... 39
Roman Textiles.................................................................................................................................................................. 43
About my images .............................................................................................................................................................. 46
References........................................................................................................................................................................... 48
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WHEN WAS “ROME”?

By comparison...

More comparisons:
 From the founding of the United States of America from 1776 - 2017 = 241 years
 From the founding of the Jamestown Colony by the British in 1607 to 2017 = 410 years
 From the founding of St. Augustine by the Spanish in 1565 to 2017 = 452 yearS
 From the Norman conquest of England in 1066 to 2017 = 951 years
 From Leif Erikson explores the northeast coast of North America c. 1001 to 2017 = 1016 years
 We have to go all the way back to 788 CE, to the period when Charlemagne was conquering
Bavaria and the "England" still consisted of a collection of small, Saxon kingdoms to equal the
total time span of Ancient Rome to the fall of the Western Empire. Just the Imperial portion
lasted longer (503 years) than Europeans have been living permanently in North America.
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ROMAN ART

Rome was a society that expressed itself visually. Huge quantities of art were produced for use in
both public venues and for the home.

 The human figure was the main motif in Roman art:

o The portrayal of the human figure was codified and stylized:
 Ordinary (mortal/real) humans (men, women, and children) are
*NORMALLY* depicted fully clothed
 Empresses and high-ranking wives, when not depicted in the guise of a
goddess or priestess, are usually in some version of the "good wife" outfit of
tunica, stola, and palla and/or the modesty pose to reinforce their image as a
"good wife of high reputation.” This remains true even after the "good wife"
outfit is no longer in fashion.
 Gods, goddesses, and heroes are *usually* depicted naked, partially clothed,
and/or with their nipples showing, with diadems/crowns and holding
symbols of their power(s)
 The portrayal of real humans in the guise of gods/goddesses varied -
o Empresses were frequently depicted "as" goddesses, especially if they were deified
after their death. They were normally depicted: fully clothed in the traditional "good
wife" outfit, but with their nipples showing through the fabric of their clothing;
wearing the contemporary hairstyle they were known for; wearing the diadem and
other jewelry of the goddess; and holding the symbol of the goddess being depicted.
o Emperors were more likely to be depicted partially clothed when in the guise of a
god as there was no stigma attached to it
 There was a fashion in the Antonine period (138-193 CE) for non-Imperial
couples to have themselves depicted as gods and goddesses, especially Venus
& Mars (See below)
 Gods, goddesses, and heroes tend to be depicted in specific garments and/or
accessories based on their Greek prototypes
o These garments are often stylized versions of "archaic" dress, sometimes blended
with elements of contemporary fashion (similarly to how fairy tale books today
depict the characters in "archaic" but historically inaccurate clothing, and how
biblical scenes are depicted)
o The symbolic clothing of gods/goddesses includes:
 naked or half-dressed men, and women who are naked, half-dressed, or have
displayed nipples
 women wearing a skimpy "tube dress" (likely the archaic vestis longa)
 women with their dress falling off one shoulder, possibly with one breast
exposed
 Mars & Venus = a man naked, but wearing a helmet and/or carrying a
weapon, and a woman totally or partially naked
 Men and women holding symbols associated with specific gods or goddesses
in their hands (for example, Neptune's trident, Juno's diadem &
pomegranate, Minerva's owl, Apollo's bow & arrows, Ceres' cornucopia, etc.)
 Wearing a crown or diadem - in general, only women of the Imperial family
and goddesses wore diadems.
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 In this case, a diadem refers to a "tiara-shaped" or "crown-shaped"

crown or coronet that stands up from the surface of the head. Other
Roman women are depicted wearing cloth and/or metal plain or
decorated bands, which lie flat on the head.
 In the late 3rd century CE there was a movement to depict gods and
goddesses in less archaic dress, but they are still not wearing real,
contemporary dress either (think of the depictions of Saints during the
Renaissance)
 The primary aim of Roman artists was *not* to render accurate, detailed
representations of current clothing styles (unfortunately)
o Roman artists had a deep reverence for ancient Greek art, and made many copies of
Greek-era statues
o Roman artists used a catalogue of stylistic conventions that conveyed important
messages about the people represented in the art to their audience
 Much of the extant Roman-era art that is readily available to us today (especially via
the internet and sites such as Pinterest) is either unlabeled, partially labeled,
mislabeled, inaccurately dated, and/or not dated at all
o Other common issues encountered by amateur researchers:
 No back or side views available of many sculpture
 "Artistic" camera angles
 Non-Roman works in the Roman style (often unlabeled) are often mistaken
for Roman art by amateursIssues with Roman Art:

ISSUES WITH ROMAN SCULPTURE:

 In general, only the people with money to pay for it are represented
 Formal poses use formal clothing, which may not represent what was actually worn in daily
life
 “Economy Statues” used standard bodies wearing standard clothing paired with semi-
customizable heads
 Most sculptures appear to have been painted in period, so most small details were not
sculpted – that was the painter’s job. Now those details are almost entirely lost.
 Depictions showing everyday life and/or members of the lower classes may have been
idealized and/or exaggerated for effect
 The art of sculpture focused on the play of light and shadow on the folds of cloth, so
sculptures tend to show heavy folds of cloth, whether it was realistic or not
 Some statues for rich clients have holes were real jewelry, sleeve “buttons”, diadems, and
other details were attached. These have all disappeared, leaving only the holes to show
where things were attached.
 Most sculptures (and Roman art in general) does not have labels, names, or captions. The
clues provided in the art itself, and the location of the piece, were all the captioning the
Roman people needed for many public works.
 The Empresses were the fashion icons of their time:
o Most of the Empresses created their own unique hairstyle, though some had several
hairstyles over their reign and a few wore a version of a hairstyle made famous by a
predecessor.
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o These hairstyles can be used to roughly date artwork because they changed so
frequently, but….
o Some women, especially non-Imperial, did not change their hairstyles as they aged,
or were portrayed with the hairstyle of their youth

Issues with Roman Paintings & Mosaics :

 Roman paintings include frescoes, encaustic (mummy) paintings, etc.

 Egyptian encaustic paintings are limited to a specific region of the Empire and usually show
only the head and shoulders
 Frescoes often portray myths and legends, rather than real life.
o The characters are frequently gods, goddesses, heroes, etc.
o The characters are often wearing stylized versions of archaic clothing (like fairy tale
books, biblical illustrations, etc.)
o Frescoes reflect the taste and interests of the person who commissioned the
artwork
o Damage to the paintings themselves, and chemical changed in the paint due to
atmospheric issues, may have changed the colors and affected the paintings, making
them difficult to interpret
 Mosaics usually simplified all elements of the subject being portrayed
o Mosaics also tend to portray myths and legends, therefore using archaic clothing

ROMAN LAW, CLOTHING, & RANK

Rank in Roman society was understood to include the legal right to wear certain articles of
clothing, even if those items were not commonly worn at the time. Certain articles of clothing,
therefore, became symbols of rank, office, and/or legal status. Consequently, those clothing terms
became literary symbols in the Latin language for that rank, office, and/or legal status:

 A "stolata" (stola-wearer) meant a female citizen, of good reputation, and holding rank or
status
o Empresses are still depicted wearing stolae in official likenesses long after the stola was
no longer regularly worn in public
o Tombstones and monuments for faithful wives continue to reference the wife as
"stolata" (wearing the stola) hundreds of years after the stola had passed completely
out of fashion
 A "togata" (toga-wearer) meant a male Roman citizen
o The multitude of specific togae were badges of, and representations of, various ranks
and offices. So, for example in Roman literature, a man described as wearing a toga
candida is understood to be running for office without any further explanation

Male authors routinely described what they *thought* an honorable Roman matrona (married
woman) should like, rather than what they *actually* looked like at the time of writing. Roman
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literature almost universally describes matronae as wearing the stola, palla, and vitta but this
combination of garment is rarely depicted in Roman art. The stola and palla worn together - yes.
The vitta is rarely depicted.

 The vitta is described as the traditional hairstyle accessory of the Roman matrona, but it is
typically only seen in art depicting the Vestal Virgins, other priestesses, and women
engaged in performing a sacrifice.
 The elaborate hairstyles favored by most Roman women rarely have any place for the vitta.
 It is possible that most women only wore vittae on religious occasions.

The palla is always described as being properly worn over the head (as a veil) and wrapped
around the body to shield the matrona from the view of strange men, as demonstrated in the
famous "pedestal" (modesty) pose seen in art of the early Republican period.

 The majority of female busts and statues show women with an *unveiled* head (showing
off her hairstyle)
 Many Roman hairstyles would have been difficult to wear with a veil.
 The religious procession depicted on the Ara Pacis (consecrated on January 30, 9 BCE)
depicts a public, outdoor, religious procession and shows some women with their pallae
drown over their heads, while other women in the procession are completely unveiled.
 Many current authors theorize that the pudesta pose, with veiled head, was more symbolic
than real and that in reality the degree to which a matrona covered her head and body was
left to her discretion.
 The earliest depiction of a stola (as an over-garment worn over a tunica) dates from the
early 1st century BCE. Stolae are rarely depicted at all after about 175 CE, at which time the
depictions are primarily formal and/or ceremonial.

How the Romans
described the Stola
1. The Length – In literature, it is described as
always covering the feet. In art, it is depicted as
belted under the bust, and then belted a
second time at the waist with a hidden belt.
The length is bloused over the hidden belt, so
that the hem covers the tops of the feet and the
excess length forms a long over-fold, which
usually hangs to the lower hip or upper thigh.
2. The institia – an element that is never defined
in the literature. For decades, the institia was
described by historians as a “flounce” sewn
onto the bottom of the stola. (There is no
precedence for such a thing anywhere else in
Roman fashion and not a single Roman-era
image exists that depicts something with that
appearance.) The institia is now thought to be
a band or colored border woven into or sewn
onto the hem of the stola, although not all
stolae appear to have had a contrasting border.
It is possible that the either the border was
painted onto many Roman statues, or this was
an optional element. Another theory is that the
institia were the straps that passed over the
shoulders, connecting the front and back of the
garment, even though not all stolae had straps.
My theory is that the vestis longa did not have
straps, but was joined at the shoulders
similarly to the tunica muliebris. The early
stolae were probably constructed like the
vestis longa, and over time, the strapped
version became fashionable. Nearly all of the
later depictions of non-strapped stolae are
worn by representations of priestesses or
goddesses, leading me to theorize that the
older style was considered ritual garment.
3. The stola is *always* worn over a tunica
muliebris with sleeves reaching to at least
the elbow. This element of the stola does seem
to be portrayed consistently in Roman art.
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SUMMARY OF THE EVOLUTION
OF THE STOLA
Late Republic (c. 270 – 27 BCE) – worn by
ALL respectable women married to Roman
citizens
Early Empire (27 BCE – c.200 CE) it was
falling out of fashion
Flavian Period (69-96 CE): The stola was
restricted by law to the wives of the 600
Roman Senators, making it an indicator of
rank in the late 1st century CE. Equestrian &
Plebian wives could not wear stolae
anymore, generally wearing the tunic with
clavi instead. The frescoes in the Vesuvian
cities (which stopped at 79 CE) show very
few identifiable stolae
2nd century CE: Literary mentions of the
stola also disappear by the beginning of the
2nd century CE. High-ranking senatorial &
imperial wives continue to be immortalized
in statuary wearing the stola as a symbol of
their virtue, even if they did not wear one in
daily life (though they might have worn one
on very formal occasions). Stolae are very
rarely found in the visual arts after about
170 CE. Engravings on tombs of Equestrian
wives from the later 2nd & 3rd centuries
sometimes refer to them as “Stolata“ (stola-
wearers) even though ladies of this rank had
long-since stopped wearing the stola
3rd century CE: The stola is used in Roman
plays as an indicator of national identity and
high-class status, but it is used generically
for all Roman upper-class women, not just
senatorial wives
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CHART: WHO WORE THE STOLA, ACCORDING TO THE LAW

Approximate SCA
Era Years Condition Wear a Stola?
Rank
c.753 - Yes- but possibly
Kingdom
509 Married woman No awards needed without an under-
of Rome
BCE tunic
509 –
Republic Freeborn/citizen woman married
c.268 No awards needed Yes
of Rome to a Roman citizen
BCE
ANY woman married to a Roman
Republic c.269– citizen (includes freedwomen &
No awards needed Yes
of Rome 27 BCE foreign women, as long as they are
married to a citizen)
Yes - but the stola &
Roman 27 BCE A very traditional woman married
No awards needed gap-sleeved tunica
Empire – 68 CE to a Roman citizen
are losing popularity
Roughly Yes - but maybe not
68 –
Roman Wife of a Senator (Note - there are equivalent to on a daily basis;
c.100
Empire only 600 Senators!) Peers & Royal possibly as formal
CE
Peers wear
NO – stolae are only
c.101 –
Roman found in paintings &
c.200 Actual, living woman No awards needed
Empire statues of high
CE
ranking women
Roman c.201 -
Living woman or artwork No awards needed NO
Empire 476 CE
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THE KINGDOM OF ROME: 753 - 509 BCE

 The Romans wore clothing they evolved and adapted from both the Greeks & the Etruscans
 The toga was based on a dress robe used by Rome’s northern neighbors, the Etruscans.
The toga is believed to have been established as the principal Roman garment around the
time of Numa Pompilius, the 2nd King of Rome.
o Free citizens were required to wear togas because slaves could only wear tunics.
Tunics were a sign of poverty and would let those wearing them work with ease.
o Because the toga was not worn by soldiers, it was regarded as a sign of peace. A
civilian was sometimes called Togātus (toga-wearer) in contrast to sagum-wearing
soldiers.
o Members of the Praetoriani wore togas for Imperial palace or escort duty during the
earlier Imperium Rōmānum, in order to maintain the impression that civilian
authority was still dominant.
o In the Kingdom of Rome, BOTH sexes wore the toga
 Men often wore just the toga (no tunic); women began wearing a garment
underneath the toga
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THE EARLY REPUBLIC: 508 – 101 BCE

 By the 5th century BCE, the garment worn under the toga by Roman women was called the
Vestis Longa (long robe) and it was long enough to cover the feet when belted.
 By the 3rd century BCE respectable women no longer wore the toga – they now wore the
vestis longa and palla
o The palla is derived from the Greek himation
o The palla, along with the vestis longa/stola became the visible symbols of marital
rank.
o Wearing the vestis longa/stola and palla combination in public protected a woman
and afforded her additional rights and privileges under Roman law.
o In this period, respectable women did not go out in public unveiled. In 166 BCE, the
Consul Sulpicius Gallus divorced his wife because she left their home unveiled
“allowing everyone to see what only he should see.”
 The Vestis Longa gradually becomes two separate garments: The Tunica and the Stola.
o The Tunica was the basic garment worn by all women and girls, and was floor length
o The word Stola first appears in the 2nd century BCE, and is derives from the Greek*.
This is the new name for the vestis longa.
o The Vestis Longa/Stola became the overgarment worn by respectable married
women, and was long enough to be floor length after being belted twice (below the
bust and again at the hips to form an overfold).
o Both garments could be constructed as a Tunica Recta, Tunica Acclasis, or Tunica
Muliebris (see the next era for detailed descriptions of these styles). It should be
noted that if one of the garments was closed by buttons or brooches at the
shoulders, the other garment nearly always had sewn or folded shoulders.
 The Rica was a small, square or rectangular veil the covered the head and hair while the
matrona (married woman) was in the house.
o It is not clear when Roman matronae started wearing the Rica, or when they
stopped wearing it regularly. The rica appears to have lived on in the costume of
some priestesses long after it was no longer worn by ordinary women.
o The palla was probably worn over the rica when the matrona went out in public, but
this is not entirely clear.
o The rica is not commonly found in identifiable form in Roman art.
 Sumptuary Legislation:
o Lex Oppia (enacted 215 BCE) restricting women’s wealth and their display of wealth.
Women were forbidden to:
 Wear more than ½ ounce of gold (and possibly also to possess more than ½
ounce of gold)
 To wear a multi-colored garment, particular one trimmed in purple
 To ride in an animal-drawn vehicle in any city or town, or within a mile
thereof, except in the case of public religious festivals
o Following the Second Punic War (201 BCE), increased wealth flowed into Rome, and
the Lex Oppia was repealed in 195 BCE.
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 However, shortly after the law was repealed, Cato the Elder, acting in his role
as Censor, heavily taxed extravagance on identical items as had been
restricted by law.
o Throughout the Roman Republic, lavish use of jewelry was not only frowned upon.
Modesty in adornment was considered a prized Roman virtue. This does not begin
to change until the Empire period, when women’s jewelry slowly gets larger, and
women begin wearing more pieces of jewelry at the same time.
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LATE REPUBLIC: 100 - 27 BCE

CLAVI

 NO CLAVI on women’s clothing in this period! The wearing of clavi, and the width worn
by various ranks, was still tightly controlled during this period. Clavi were only worn by
men & boys in this period.
 “Clavus” means “stripe.”
 The plural is “clavi,” which is the term most often used in regards to
Roman clothing as the stripes appeared in pairs, with one at each
shoulder (just outside the neck slit).
 Clavi run parallel to each other from the shoulders to the hem of the tunic
on both front and back.
 Clavi were woven into the fabric of the tunic, as the cloth was being made, using
contrasting wefts.
 Clavi are *never* found on gap-sleeved tunicae or stolae.
 During the Republic and early Empire there were several distinct forms of clavi:
 Praetexta clavi – two extremely narrow purple stripes on the tunics of
young boys – 3/8” wide
 Angusta clavi (Clavus Angustus) – two narrow purple stripes, 3 times
as wide as praetexta clavi, worn on the tunics of male members of the
Equestrian class (approximately equivalent in the SCA to the AoA or
above) – 1 1/8” wide
 Lati clavi (Clavus Latus) – two wide purple stripes, 3 times as wide as
angusta clavi, worn on the tunics of Senators (approximate SCA rank of
Bestowed and Royal Peers) – 3 3/8” wide

THREE KINDS OF TUNICAS :

TUNICA CAPITIUM (T-TUNIC STYLE)

 This style is not commonly seen at this time. It is usually only found on working-class
women. This style usually had short sleeves, but long sleeves can be found in the extant
artwork. Unfortunately, we do not have extant examples from this period.
 The Tunica Capitium (plural "capitii") was sleeved tunic worn by women that was probably
woven to shape in one piece, with a fold at the shoulders and a woven opening for the head.
 Usually appears to have a slightly scooped neck, but that may be artistic license since other
tunics at this period appear to have the more traditionally Roman straight slit neckline.
o It is possible that the slight scoop on women's tunics could have been created by
making the front wider than the back, as was done with other styles of tunicas. That
would create a scoop without requiring round cuts or extensive hemming.
 The tunics were cut full enough for movement, but not overly full. The side seam(s) could
be left unsewn for several inches at the hem for greater movement.
 The tunics are usually shown ankle length or shorter
 They could be worn belted under the breasts, or unbelted and hanging loose.
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TUNICA RECTA AND TUNICA ACLASSIS (STRAIGHT TUNIC)

 Sleeveless tunics, which may have the appearance of sleeves due to belting under the bust
and the shoulders draping onto the upper arm.
o Worn by women as both a subucula (under tunic) and as a primary garment/gown
o This style is traditionally defined in costuming sources as a simple long rectangle of
fabric, with minimal seaming. It is identified as being identical to the men’s tunicas
of this period, except that a woman's tunica never had clavi in this period. The
difference between the Tunica Recta and the Tunica Aclassis was in construction:

TUNICA RECTA:

 The construction for the tunica recta is suggested by an event in the life of Octavian, the
future Emperor Augustus. According to Kenneth Matthews in "The Imperial Wardrobe of
Ancient Rome,” when Octavian performed the ritual of assuming his toga virilis, his tunica
recta came unsewn at the shoulders and fell to his feet. Observers at the ceremony, such as
Nicolaus of Damascus, considered this a good omen.
 This comment suggests that the tunica recta was sewn closed at the shoulders to create the
shoulder seam. It is unlikely that there were two ways of making such a basic garment, and
it is stated in many places that the tunica recta worn by men and women is identical.
 It appears likely that the tunica recta was constructed:
 From fabric woven as a tube with the shoulders sewn closed; or
 From fabric woven as a rectangle and turned on its side, with a single seam at the
side and the shoulders sewn closed
 Either construction would potentially allow the maker to sew the tunic with a wider
front, creating a slightly dipping neckline
 Both constructions can be found in extant Roman tunics
 “sleeves” are created by letting the excess fabric hang down the arms

TUNICA ACLASSIS:

 The Tunica Aclassis is defined as a tunic that is "unstitched over the shoulders.” This is
generally interpreted as a tunic made by folding a long length of cloth and cutting an
opening for the head (though a head opening could also have been woven into the cloth).
 This construction is not typically Roman, but has been found in Roman archaeological sites
in Egypt and the near east.

COMMON FEATURES OF BOTH TUNICS:

 Neckline appears to be either: straight across (shown on both men and women ), or a slight
scoop or drape created by using a wider piece of fabric in front than in back
 Men and women wore the tunic belted or unbelted. Men wore their belt at the waist, while
women belted their tunics below the bust
 Usually ankle to below the knee length on women after belting, and shorter on men.
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TUNICA MULIEBRIS (WOMAN’S TUNIC, OR GAP-SLEEVED TUNIC)

 The Tunica Muliebris was a type of sleeved tunic worn only by women ("muliebris" means
"feminine, womanly, or belonging to women"). Because this type of tunica is described as
being closely related to the older, Greek styles, we (modernly) sometimes refer to it as the
“gap-sleeved tunica.”
o This style of tunica is somewhat similar to the older Greek Ionic Chiton, but with
closed (sewn and/or woven) sides. Worn by matronae under the stola, or by
unmarried women and girls without the stola.
 It was probably worn over a sleeveless under-tunic
 Not usually worn with a long-sleeved undertunic, but can be worn with one when it is cold.
There are some artistic examples of gap-sleeved tunicas being worn over long-sleeved
under-tunics.
 Ground length and belted under the bust with a simple cord
 Constructed of two wide rectangles of cloth to create elbow-length sleeves, or as a very
wide tube of fabric like the tunica recta. The shoulder seam is not sewn, but fastened at a
number of points. The sagging of the fabric between the points creates the characteristic
appearance of the sleeve.
 The fastenings vary in appearance, but are only 1-2 cm (3/4” or less) across. There
are usually 3-5 fastenings shown on each sleeve, but sometimes there are as many
as seven. Sometimes the last fastening was not at the very end of the sleeve, leaving
short flaps.
 In the past it was assumed that these fastenings were metal studs, brooches or small
fibula but their size means they are unlikely to be brooches (metal that fine was not
strong enough to stand up to much wear and tear, and would also damage the
fabric)
 It seems odd to us that, if they were made of metal (gold or copper alloy) they were
not more decorated and treated as an opportunity for display of wealth. It also
seems odd to us that, if they were made of metal, we have not found them in large
quantities.
 On statues:
 The fastenings tend to be depicted as either upstanding and roughly spherical,
with uniform shapes (similar to modern globe-shaped buttons)
 Or they are depicted as being smooth, circular, and flat (similar to modern disk-
shaped buttons, but without the holes in the center)
 In Paintings:
 They are not usually depicted as being perfectly round
 they often appear to have incisions or indentations in their surface, which may
indicate texture or decoration
 An indication of the color of these fastenings could help, but while this form of
tunica is often depicted on statues and busts, it is rare on colored wall paintings
and the painted, or attached, versions on statues have not survived.
 The clearest paintings show the fasteners in a paler color than the tunic, with
darker shadows. This could represent light reflecting off metal, or it could simply
be a way of making the fastenings more visible.
 Current theories:
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 Metal fasteners may have been made of Discs, or hollow half-balls, with a bar or
loop on the underside where it was sewn to the edges of the cloth. The fabric
was probably gathered or pleated slightly prior to sewing on the fastening. This
would create a stronger foundation for seeing on the ornament and create more
emphasis around the gapped openings in the sleeves. You can see these gather
lines in some extant artwork.
 Non-metal fastenings were probably small “rosettes” of gathered and
sewn/bound cloth from the edges of the sleeves. Which would cause the folds
often seen radiating from them. The fabric from the two edges can be lightly
gathered or pleated together, and then wrapped with thread to form a small
fabric "tuft" or rosette. The tufts could be left standing up, or opened and
flattened. The pleating or gathering of the fabric creates the fold lines shown
radiating from the fastenings in some of the extant art.

THE STOLA (OVERDRESS – FORMERLY CALLED THE VESTIS LONGA)

 All women (except prostitutes, apparently) - wore an under tunic (usually unseen) called
the subucula or the indusium
 Women of the Commons who are married to a Citizen - wore the tunica, stola & palla
when out in public, unless they wore working dress during the day.
o The hem of the stola was long enough to wear double belted under the bust with
only the toes showing.
 Women of the Commons who are married to a NON-Citizen - wore the tunica & palla
when out in public, but were forbidden by law to wear the stola.
 Working women - wore the tunica alone while they were working.
o Working women's hems ranged mid-calf to just below the knees. This allowed
greater freedom of movement and kept the fabric from dragging on the ground.
o The t-tunic style of tunica was starting to be worn by working women at this time. It
was much more practical for working women than other styles.
 Unmarried upper-class women - dressed in the tunica and palla like the lower status
married women, but with better fabrics.
o It is possible that women who never married may have continued to wear the toga
praetexta, rather than the palla, but this is not certain.
o Because the minimum legal age for marriage was 12 years old for girls, and because
Roman law and social policies advocated marriage, unmarried Roman women over
the age of 20 were not common. There are examples of noblewomen who never
married, however, such as Maidie Minor (85 BCE - c161 CE), the half-sister of
Empress Vibia Sabina (the wife of Emperor Hadrian).
o Roman women would also dress in the tunica and palla when they were between
husbands through divorce or being widowed.
o Not wearing the stola marked an adult woman as being available for courtship.
 Upper class married women - as long as they were married to a Roman citizen, were
considered matronae (matrons), and wore the sleeved tunica, stola, and palla.
 19

5 IDENTIFYING CHARACTERISTICS:

 The stola was worn exclusively as an overdress! It was never worn alone, and always over a
tunica with sleeves. The most common combination is a stola over a gap-sleeved tunica, but
other combinations can occasionally be found.
 The stola is traditionally made out of wool. In “Symbolism in the Costume of the Roman
Woman” Judith Sebesta states that while the garments of priests and priestesses had to be
made entirely of wool, common togas could be made of blends of wool and linen, or even
cotton or other vegetable fibers. It is possible that women’s ceremonial garments were
made entirely of wool, but, like the common togas, their common stolae could be made of
wool blends as well.
 The stola was constructed like the tunica recta – as a simple tube with some means of
attaching the shoulders (fabric knots, round pins/brooches, or thin straps) though the
exact construction and appearance of the stola changed quite a bit over time.
 The stola was worn double-belted in this period: the garment was extremely long and, after
being belted under the bust, a second belt was added at the low waist/hips. The excess
length was then pulled up through the low belt and arranged in a long fold around the hips.
This arrangement emphasizes wider hips and smaller bust combination that was the
Roman feminine ideal.
 Hem is long enough to cover the feet, with only the toes showing where they protrude from
underneath the skirts.

CINGULUM OR ZONA (BELT OR SASH):

 Roman women appear to have always tied their tunics and stolas high under the bust,
rather than at the waist.
o Depictions of women wearing their tunic belted at the waist or hips are likely to be
goddesses or priestesses, or copies of Greek artwork
o Roman women also did not use the style of belting common to earlier Greek women,
where the belt cord was tied around the shoulders and waist.
 Belts consist of twisted cords (wool, linen, or possibly silk for the very rich), narrow strips
of cloth, or narrow woven bands
 Roman women frequently tied their belts in a reef knot, or Hercules knot, with only short
ends hanging down
 Another common style of tying the belt looks similar to the bow on the traditional Laurel
wreath
 The visible belt was usually in a contrasting or complementary color to the tunic or stola.
The second belt, which was worn with the stola, was wider but hidden.
 Belting under the bust when wearing long, loose-fitting clothing actually creates a long
visual line and make you look less “dumpy.”

PALLA (MANTLE):

 The palla consisted of a long rectangle of cloth, with straight edges on all sides, which could
cover the body from the head or shoulder to the knee or lower calf. They were probably 5-8
yards long x 45-60” wide.
o An extant palla from the Cave of Letters is 106.3” (8’10.3”) long x 55” wide.
 20

 Usually plain colored fabric, but could have solid color, contrasting borders on the
edges and /or ends
 The palla was worn by draping one end in front of the left shoulder, either bringing the rest
behind the back, passing over the right shoulder to conceal most of the wearer, or brought
under her right arm. The remainder could then be draped over the left shoulder, over the
left arm, or secured in some other way.
o It is believed that the palla was not pinned into place, although the use of small,
hidden fibula cannot be entirely ruled out. Like the toga, the bulk of the palla was
probably held in, or controlled by, the hands.
o This would not present much of a problem for the rich who had slaves to accompany
them and carry things for them, but would have presented a problem for working
class women who were also required to protect their modesty and reputation by
wearing the palla.
 There are a number of depictions of working-class women wearing their
pallae tied in large knots on their hips in order to keep their hands free to do
their work.
o Throughout most of the Republican period, women traditionally wore the palla
draped over their head when in public, and truly modest women protected their
pudicitia (modesty and moral purity) by using the palla to conceal their body and
clothing, from their feet to below their knees when in public.
 Gaius Sulpicius Gallus, co-consul in 166 BC with Marcus Claudius Marcellus,
divorced his wife for going unveiled in public, thereby allowing everyone to
see what should be reserved for her husband alone.
o These moral standards became more relaxed over time. By the late Republic, the
majority of Roman art shows women in both public and private settings with
unveiled heads. For example, the Ara Pacis frieze, which was commissioned in 13
BCE, depicts outdoor, public processions that include both women who are veiled
and women who are not. (The woman on the far left of the frieze, who is holding a
child's hand, is wearing a long-sleeved tunica, stola, and palla, but does not have her
head veiled. The woman in the center, on the other hand, has her palla pulled up
over her head.)
o It is possible that by the late Republic period it was up to the husband whether he
expected his wife to be veiled while in public or not. On the other hand, by the early
1st century CE men were complaining about how the palla shrouded women from
view. Nevertheless, the palla was the necessary covering for a modest woman and
no respectable woman would leave her house without her palla, even if she did not
wear it over her head or conceal her body with it.

VITTAE & INFULAE (BANDS WORN ABOUT THE HEAD)

 The infula was a fillet (band worn around the head) made of wool, worn by priests and
sacrificial victims.
o Servius (a 4th century grammarian) described infula based on Virgil’s Aeneid: “The
infula is a band similar to a diadem, from which ribbons hand down on either side; most
are broad and twisted [and in color they are] red and white” –
 21

o The Vestal portraits, however, appear to show that the infulae were twisted and that
the vittae were flat and broad, but whether both were made of red and white wool
remains a question
o From Servius is it clear that the Vestal’s infulae were worn wrapped around their heads
o The term vittae (plural of vitta), which forms the second element of the Vestal
headdress, refers to the 4 or 6 long loops of cloth or ribbon (?) that lay on the Vestal’s
shoulders, upper chest, and/or upper back and which are shown in the Vestal portraits.
 The vittae were attached at the back of the Vestal’s head, underneath the rows of
the infula
 Ancient writers emphasize the vittae’s importance as a social indicator rather
than a sacred head ornament like the infulae
 Virgil & Ovid described the vittae as a ribbon or band worn by all freeborn women and
girls to confine the hair and to distinguish them from women of low birth or low morals
– freedwomen, slaves, and prostitutes.
o Modern authors have interpreted the vittae of non-Vestals as woolen fillets worn
around the head, with the ends hanging down behind the head
 It is further speculated that the vittae of matronae was a double band, while that
worn by unmarried girls was a single band. For ordinary women, the vittae
signified that they were freeborn Roman (citizen) women with high morals.
o
 The color of the vitta was probably a matter of individual choice
 The simple wool vittae gradually into elaborate bands decorated with
embroidery, fancy weaving, or metalwork, sometimes set with pearls and gems.
 These bands would lie flat against the head at the front, like a circlet or
modern hair band, and be tied with ribbons behind the head.

UDONES (SOCKS):

 Statues of this era usually show women in sandals without socks, but women could, and did,
wear both leg wraps and socks on occasion.
 Another word for sock, soccus, also mean “Slipper” depending on the context, so sometimes it’s
hard to tell what exactly is meant in the texts
 The “flame-colored socci” mentioned by Catullus as part of a bride’s traditional clothing
probably meant slippers (closed shoes) made of wool felt, rather than socks
 Pliny also mentions women fixing pearls not only to the straps of their sandles, but all over
their little socci – this could refer to embellished socks intended to be seen under the sandals,
or embellished wool slippers

COLORS & PATTERNS

 It is thought that female costume during the last few centuries of the Republic appears to
not make much use of borders and patterns (but this may be from bias of the surviving
evidence)
 22

 While upper-class men seemed to have preferred white tunics, women were more likely to
wear colors
o Linen and silk were primarily available in pastel colors at this time
o Wool was available in vivid colors
o Linen and silk could be woven with wool to produce some colored effects
o Violet and yellow were closely associated with women’s garments, but purple, sky-
blue, “water color,” saffron, green, amethyst, chestnut, almond, and wax-yellow, plus
many others, were also available.

Relief of a birthing scene found in Ostia. The midwives wear short-sleeved

tunicae capitii.
 23

Tunica
Muliebris

Tunica
muliebris
with the
stola.
24
 25

Empress Livia depicted as the goddess Ops.

She wears a flower and ivy crown with a
vitta.

Bust of Empress Livia wearing a tunica,

stola, and palla, with a vitta on her head.
26
27
 28

THE EARLY EMPIRE: 27 BCE – 199 CE

STOLAE

 The stola is going out of fashion with most women.

 The Roman Senate passed a law in 69 CE, restricting the wearing of the stola to Senators' wives
and empresses only.
o The stola became a high-status garment and found a renewed popularity for a short
time, but primary as clothing for formal and/or state occaisions
 Remember – there were only 600 Senators in the entire Roman Empire and an
estimated 1-2 million people lived in the city of Rome, with an additional 3-5
million living throughout the Empire.
o Senator’s wives probably worn short-sleeved tunicas for daily wear
o These high-ranking wives continued to have their official portraits made while wearing
their status garments through the mid-to-late 2nd century, even if they rarely (if ever)
wore the garments in real life.

TUNICAE:

 The Tunica Muliebris, which was primarily worn with the Stola, has also gone out of fashion.
 The Tunica Capitium and Tunica Chiridota: These tunics are fashionable across all levels of
Roman society.
o Tunicae Capitum – (T-tunic Style) with sleeves made in one piece with the body of the
tunic. Descended from the Tunica Aclassis.
 This style usually had short (elbow-length or longer) sleeves but sleeves to the
wrist can also be seen in contemporary artwork.
 Usually shown with a straight slit neckline, usually created during the weaving
process.
 Constructed by weaving the fabric to shape, with long or short sleeves woven
directly with the body of the garment.
o Tunica Chiridota - Literally, a tunic with sewn-on sleeves. This style appears to be
descended from the Tunica Recta.
 It is usually constructed from a large piece of cloth that is folded in half, but
unlike the Tunica Capitum, the fold is placed on the right side of the body and a
seam runs down the left side of the body.
 The shoulders are sewn closed, leaving a gap open for the neckline.
 Two cut rectangles are then sewn on as sleeves, with a fold on the top of the
sleeve and a seam underneath.
o Women’s Tunics of both styles are made in the same style as men’s tunics, but longer
(mid-calf to floor length, depending on the social class of the wearer).
 Serving girls (presumably slaves?) are often shown in calf-length tunicas that are
usually worn unbelted.
 Middle- and upper-class women wore their short-sleeved tunicas belted under
the bust, as they had done with the gap-sleeved tunica and stola.
 Middle- and upper-class women usually wore short-sleeved tunicas over a white
under-tunic, which would show at the neckline. By the mid-to-late 2nd century,
 29

the neckline of the undertunic is frequently decorated with simple embroidery

or a woven band.
 The under-tunic could also have a short fringe at the hem, which would show
underneath the hem of the over-tunic.
 There is an extant under-tunic found in a cemetery in Jordan, which has
both a decorated neckline and a fringe at the hem.
 A full-length painted shroud from Egypt also shows both a decorated
neckline and a fringed hem
o Clavi - The old rules regarding clavi have fallen by the wayside. Women are now
wearing clavi on their sleeved tunicas.
 At first the clavi are simple, narrow bands of contrasting color worn by freeborn
men and women, but by the middle of the 2nd century, everyone, including
slaves, is wearing clavi on their tunics.
 These later clavi can be narrow or wide, depending on the individual's taste and
pocketbook. Wide clavi may contain multiple smaller stripes of color, but are
very rarely patterned at this time.

CINGULUM OR ZONA (BELT OR SASH):

 Roman women appear to have always tied their tunics high under the bust, rather than at
the waist.
o Depictions of women wearing their tunic belted at the waist or hips are likely to be
goddesses or priestesses, or copies of Greek artwork
 Belts consist of twisted cords (wool, linen, or possibly silk for the very rich), narrow strips
of cloth, or narrow woven bands
 Roman women frequently tied their belts in a reef knot, or Hercules knot, with only short
ends hanging down
 The belt was usually in a contrasting or complementary color to the tunica.
o Belting under the bust when wearing long, loose-fitting clothing actually creates a
long visual line and make you look less “dumpy.”

PALLA (MANTLE):

 The palla continued to be worn over the sleeved tunics, although it is not always shown
worn over the head in this period.
 The palla is still usually plain colored fabric, but could have solid color, contrasting borders
on the edges and /or ends
o The palla was worn by draping one end in front of the left shoulder, bringing the
rest behind the back, either passing over the right shoulder to conceal most of the
wearer, or brought under her right arm. The remainder could then be draped over
the left shoulder, over the left arm, or secured in some other way.
o By the early 1st century CE, men were complaining about how the palla shrouded
women from view. Nevertheless, the palla was the necessary covering for a modest
woman and no respectable woman would leave her house without her palla, even if
she did not wear it over her head or conceal her body with it
30
 31

Rare back view of Empress Vibia Sabina as the goddess Ceres at Leptis
Magna in Africa.
32
33
34
 35

MID-TO-LATE EMPIRE: 200 - 399 CE

TUNICAS

 Although the gap-sleeved tunic continued occasionally to be depicted in art until the late
3rd century, it was considered extremely old-fashioned and had been completely replaced
in daily wear by the short-sleeved tunic. By the early 3rd century Imperial women were
being portrayed in the short-sleeved tunica in public art.
o Reliefs on the Arch of Severus in Lepcis Magna from 203-4 CE show Empress Julia
Domna wearing a gap-sleeved tunica in one scene, and a short-sleeved tunica belt
under the bust in another
 Made in the same style as men’s tunics, but longer (calf to ground length depending on the
age and social class of the wearer).
o Clavi are simply regarded as decorative elements on the tunic. Everyone wears clavi
on their tunics - men, women, children, working men and women, and even slaves.
 These clavi can be narrow or wide, depending on the individual's taste and
pocketbook.
 Clavi may contain multiple smaller stripes of color, but are not normally
patterned.
o Serving girls (presumably slaves?) are often shown in calf-length tunicas that are
usually worn unbelted, while middle- and upper-class women continue to wear
their short-sleeved tunicas belted under the bust.
o Middle- and upper-class women usually wore short-sleeved tunicas over a white
under-tunic, which would show at the neckline.
 The neckline of the undertunic is usually decorated with embroidery or a
woven band.
 The under-tunic could also have a short fringe at the hem, which would show
underneath the hem of the over-tunic.

DALMATIC:

 A new style of tunic/gown was adopted by women in the late 3rd century - the dalmatic.
The dalmatic was wider through the body than the short-sleeved tunic, and was generally
worn loose and unbelted by upper class women.
 Although women of this period occasionally have decorated clavi, they are never shown
with the roundels found on male tunics of this period.
o The clavi are usually plain, but two depictions of patterned clavi exist. The women
wear hairstyles dated to 270-310 CE: Catacombs of Priscilla, Rome & Catacomb of
Traso, Rome
 Usually mid-calf length with a curved hem, but floor-length is also possible. Length may be
an indication of social status – shorter on slaves and working-class women vs. long on
upper-class women.
 Both loose, wide sleeves and tighter, narrow sleeves are seen.
o Dalmatics with sleeves that are wide throughout the entire sleeve can easily expose
a large portion of the body, so these were worn over an undertunic.
o Under tunics probably still white and could be sleeveless, short-sleeved, or long-
sleeved.
 36

 Working-class women and slaves may have belted their tunics to keep the fullness of the
tunic body and the large sleeves out of their way.
 When upper-class women belted the dalmatic, it was with a belt worn high, under the bust
as in previous fashions. Since the arm scye of the excessively wide sleeves of the dalmatic
typically extend down into the body of the garment, they may have fed the belt through
holes in the tunic to bypass belting the sleeves.
 Colors for the dalmatic were the same as the short-sleeved tunic, with the body of the
dalmatic contrasting sharply with the clavi and other decorations.
o Purple and white are still common, traditional colors for clavi and decorations.
o Extant artwork also shows the following as common color combinations: A pink
dalmatic with brown & white clavi; a yellow dalmatic w/ red & black clavi; a dark
pink dalmatic w/ copper colored clavi.

BELT:

 Still worn under the bust/high waist

 Often still simple cord belts on working-class women and slaves, but there was a growing
fashion for more elaborate belts made of wider bands of fabric with elaborate fastenings
for upper-class women. Fasteners could be a brooch, or more of a decorative buckle
configuration with a bar at the back

PALLA/MANTLE:

 The palla is decreasing in size, becoming less cumbersome

 Patterned Pallae are becoming more common.
o From the later 2nd century, pallae could be decorated with borders with the L- and
H- shapes, and by the early 3rd century with roundels like those found on male
mantles.
o In the later 3rd century, pallae frequently had wide, decorative borders, often with
patterns in the borders.
 New methods of draping the palla: Pallae are rarely draped over the head anymore. Smaller
versions could be draped over one or both shoulders like a shawl. Larger versions could be
draped over the left shoulder, behind the back, under the right arm, and over the left arm at
the elbow (or possibly secured in the belt). By the late 3rd century it could also be tied on
the chest in a large knot with short ends hanging down
37
38
 39

VERY LATE EMPIRE: 400-476 CE

TRANSITIONING TO POST-ROME IN THE WEST, AND BYZANTINE IN THE
EAST

DALMATICS

 By the late 4th century, the sleeves had changed shape and were narrower at the shoulder
and wider at the wrist, allowing the belt to pass under the sleeve, or they were sleeveless.
 Both styles were ground length, and were worn over a visible under-tunic with long, tight-
fitting sleeves.
o The visible under-tunics were colored and often had decoration at the wrist, and
sometimes at the neck and/or hem.
 The new fashion ensured that the entire body was covered. A white underwear layer tunic
was worn beneath the fashion under-tunic. The white layer was sometimes visible at the
hem or wrist, which could also be decorated.
 By the late 4th century, some dalmatics are shown with all-over geometric patterns, such as
blue birds on a pale pink background. Lower-class women wear simple striped tunics,
while upper-class women have decorated clavi, borders on the lower edge, and the
roundels previously only seen on male tunics, with all-over patterns on their dalmatics.

BELT:

 With the advent of wearing two visible tunics in the late 4th century, belts became wider
and stiffer – probably made out of leather with a larger buckle/fastener. These belts could
be set with gems and pearls in addition to having a jeweled buckle.

PALLA/MANTLE:

 By the late 3rd century the palla was ofted tied on the chest in a large knot with short ends
hanging down
 In the late 4th century, both ends of the mantle are thrown back over the shoulders so that
the shoulders and upper arms are covered by fabric, but there are no ends hanging down in
front anymore. The ends may be fastened together at the back.
 The women of Empress Theodora’s court also wear much narrower pallae with one end
hanging down on the left side, with the other end taken around the back, over the right
shoulder and thrown over the left shoulder again, like a long, wide, and very fancy scarf
40
41
 42

Small hunting mosaic

from the Villa Romana
del Casale - Italy
 43

ROMAN TEXTILES

ROMAN WEAVING TECHNOLOGY

 Roman fabric was usually woven to the shape of the garment, rather than woven into
lengths and cut up to assemble into a garment.
o Some Egyptian looms were wide enough to be operated in teams of two weavers
and produced cloth wide enough to make long-sleeved tunics in one piece
o Necklines were generally woven as a simple selvage slit long enough for the head to
go through. The slit neckline creates the distinctive appearance of the neck on
Roman tunics for both men and women.
o Seaming was primarily attaching one selvage edge to another with simple stitches.
o Piecing of garments, when used was minimal. Construction was almost universally
based on the rectangle.
 Garments could be woven as:
o Tubes – used with the shoulders pinned together or sewn, or straps attached (as
with the stola)
o Rectangles – used as is for mantles and pallas; used with a slit woven in for the head
and the selvages sewn together as side seams; or the rectangle could be turned
sideways and sewn together at one side with the selvage edges at the top pinned or
sewn closed
o T-shapes – used with a slit woven in for the head and the selvages sewn together as
side seams
o Togas were woven to shape – the only known Roman garment with a woven curved
edge
 Embellishments on clothing:
o Clavi were woven into the garment as it was being created, rather than applied later
o Borders were also usually woven into the garment as it was being created, rather
than applied later
o Some encaustic paintings show simple embellishment around the slit neckline of the
white undertunic, which may have been woven or embroidered.

ROMAN FABRICS & FIBERS

 Wool:
o Wool was the most important fiber in the Roman world, and the mostly commonly used:
 Spinning wool & weaving wool cloth were considered part of every woman’s duty to
her family, and symbols of her virtue and womanliness.
 The association between womanly virtue and the spinning and weaving with wool
was so strong that Augustus, the first Roman Emperor, required his wife and
daughter to personally spin and weave his togas as an example of feminine virtue
for other Roman women to follow. In fact, when at home he always wore clothing
made from their homespun, home-woven cloth.
 Most upper class households also had slaves who participated in the spinning and
weaving, and probably produced the bulk of the household fabric, but supervising
 44

their production, as well as participating in the work, was the duty of the matron
and her daughters.
 By the 1st century CE, professional weavers began supplying the bulk of the yarn and
fabric used in many large upper class households, but wool working remained the
symbol of matronly responsibility throughout the Roman Empire.
o All ritual and ceremonial garments were made of wool: priest & priestess robes, wedding
clothes, the vittae (wool hair ribbons worn as a headband), infulae, toga, stola, palla, etc.
 Throughout the Kingdom, Republic, and Empire periods, the garments of priests and
priestesses had to be made entirely of wool.
 It is widely believed that the stola, palla, and the toga were generally made of
wool through the Early Republic, but gradually began to be made of linen/wool or
cotton/wool blends.
 Linen, cotton, and silk were also used for clothing, but there is no known specific
mention of a stola made in any fabric other than wool, however there is mention of
“common togas” (togas for those in the lower classes?) being made of inferior wool
blends.
 Linen:
o Second most commonly used fabric in Rome
o Considered to be “less soft” than wool
o The best linen in the Roman age came from Syria and Palestine, with linen from the Po
Valley and the southeast region of Spain being second best
o Pliny’s discussion of linen suggests that bleached white was the preferred color – the
brighter white the better
 The natural color is a grayish brown and many garments were also made in this
natural color, especially for the lower classes
o Linen was sometimes interwoven with fibers made from poppy stems to produce a
glossy, smooth, lightweight, and luxurious fabric.
 Silk:
o Imported from China as woven fabric rather than as raw yarn and was hugely expensive
 The Chinese silk was fairly heavy and stiff, which the Romans did not care for.
They unraveled the fabric and rewove it into soft, light-weight fabrics
o In the late 3rd century, a pound of silk was worth a pound of gold (literally worth its
weight in gold!)
o Silk was very popular because it could be woven into very fine, lightweight, nearly
transparent cloth
o Silk fibers were usually woven into silk/linen or silk/wool blends to cut down on cost
while obtaining the benefits of silk
o Coan Silk:
 The Greek island of Cos also had a thriving silk industry and there are many
references to matrons and whores wearing Coan silk
 Cotton:
o Cotton was cultivated in Egypt, Nubia, Ethiopia, and India during the Roman period
o Cotton was almost as expensive as silk
 Pliny the Elder, in 77 CE, described India as “the sink of the world’s gold,”
complaining that Senators wives spend too much on Indian spices and luxuries,
including fabrics.
 45

 Roman Senators also complained that their wives spent vast fortunes on lengths
of cloth from India.
 Note – the rectangular part of the modern Indian sari that hangs loose
from the shoulder is called the “palla,” a term that does not occur
anywhere else in the study of ancient Indian costume. Some historians
believe that the cross-cultural influence of the Roman palla was melded
into the indigenous antarya and uttariya to evolve into the modern sari.
o Although modern cotton is grown on a bush (Gossipium herbaceum), the cotton of the
Romans was probably grown on trees (Gossipium arboretum)
o Like silk, it was usually used in blends with linen, wool, or sometimes silk for a luxury
fabric
o Cotton was rarely used as “100% cotton” because it was not as strong and durable as
linen
 Luxury Garments:
o From the Republic onward extremely expensive luxury garments could be woven with
gold-wrapped threads in the weave. Gold threads can be found in weaves with wool,
linen, cotton, and especially silk and silk blends.
 The gold threads could be used as lines of gold thread throughout the body of
the fabric, or they could be used to create decorative elements, such as clavi and
edgings. Sometimes they were used both ways in the garments of the Imperial
family or very rich.
o Clothing made of silk woven with gold threads would have cost *more* than its
weight in gold! Probably only worn by the very highest ranking individuals and
the Imperial Family would have had clothing like this.
 Jewels could also be sewn onto clothing for the Imperial Family and extremely
high ranking individuals
o Luxury garments like these were sharply criticized and satirized. This kind of
ostentation was considered by most people to be vulgar and “un-Roman.”
 Unpopular Emperors were rumored to wear such clothing, even if they never
owned any.
o It was not until the 4th century CE that attitudes toward this kind of conspicuous
consumption changed. Emperors began indulging in extremely elaborate clothing to
add to their mystique and “apartness” from the majority of the people.
 During this period Roman Emperors also began wearing crowns
o Excessively rich Romans had to suffer for fashion:
 Emperor Severus Alexander (208-235 CE) complained, “If these garments are
made of linen in order to prevent their being rough, what is the use of having
purple (purple wool threads) in it?”
 Gold threads were also rough against the skin, and made the garments stiff and
very heavy. They tended to be uncomfortable and were worn only on very
formal occasions.
 46

ABOUT MY IMAGES

The colorized images used in this handout and presentation are mine. They are either photographs
that I have taken of my own work, or are images that I have manipulated to better illustrate the
garments, hairstyles, and accessories depicted. The statues, paintings, and other artwork have been
"painted" with various semi-transparent (30% opaque) colors either to enhance the existing painted
details, or to create different colors where none currently exist.

When enhancing painted art I color match the existing colors as closely as possible in order to make it
easier to see the extant details. When enhancing sculptures and friezes, where there is no visible paint
to act as a guide, I use the lines in the drapery to guide my interpretation. I color what I believe I am
seeing, but this does not mean that I am correct in every instance. There have been many times when I
have changed my mind about my interpretation of a piece of art. Sometimes it is because I am seeing a
detail I did not notice before. Sometimes I have found a photograph from a new angle, or with better
lighting, or better resolution. Sometimes I learn something new about Roman clothing, culture,
religion, society, or symbolism that changes my interpretation of what I am seeing.

The colors I use are not meant to represent period colors or period color combinations. The limitation
inherent in using semi-transparent color painting, which is necessary in order to allow the details of the
art to show through the color overlay, is that only deep or bright colors show up well over darker
grayish or brownish stone, and those colors tend to appear as chalky pastels. I choose to use visually
distinct colors for the different layers of Roman garments. Please do not use my colorized versions of
these pieces of art as "documentation" for your Roman clothing colors. I plan to create some versions
that use more realistic color combinations in the future, but for the moment, the goal is to make the
layers and garment shapes easily discernible.

I really appreciate all the positive feedback that I have received on my colorized Roman art, but please
- do not steal it! Respect the hundreds of hours I have dedicated to this project over many years. If you
would like to get copies of my images to use, please contact me. If you use my images or information
you got from this site, please give me all appropriate credit for my work.
 47

(C) 2017 Elizabeth Bair Brooks, known in the Society for Creative Anachronism as Countess Dulcia
MacPherson, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

https://sites.google.com/view/DulciasRomanCloset/Home
 48

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