Cement

Portland cement consists essentially of compounds of lime (calcium oxide, CaO) mixed with silica
(silicon dioxide, SiO2) and alumina (aluminum oxide, Al2O3). The lime is obtained from a calcareous
(lime-containing) raw material, and the other oxides are derived from an argillaceous (clayey) material.

Types Classification
Type I All-purpose cement
Type II Moderate sulfate resistance

Type III High early strength

Type IV Low heat of hydration (slow reacting)

Type V High sulfate resistance

Characteristics

Type I Fairly high C3S content for good early strength development

Type II Low C3A content (<8%)

Type III Ground more finely, may have slightly more C3S

Type IV Low content of C3S (<50%) and C3A

Type V Very low C3A content (<5%)

Applications

Type I General construction (most buildings, bridges, pavements, precast

units, etc)
Type II Structures exposed to soil or water containing sulfate ions.

Type III Rapid construction, cold weather concreting.

Type IV Massive structures such as dams. Now rare.
Type V Structures exposed to high levels of sulfate ions.
Physical and Chemical Properties
Fineness
Fineness of cement means the particles size of cement. It affects the hydration process of cement. That
means it affects the rate of strength gain of cement.

Soundness

Cement has a trend to shrink when it is hardened. This is called soundness of cement. Good soundness
cement doesn’t shrink after hardening.

Consistency

Consistency means the required water to produce plastic cement paste for particular cement. Thus one
can know the water-cement ratio for better workability of mix.

Setting Time

As soon as water is mixed with Portland cement, hydration process starts and it begins to set. Cement
has two setting time, initial-setting time and final-setting time. In construction, initial-setting time
shouldn’t be too early and final-setting time shouldn’t be too late. Normally, initial-setting time is 30 to
45 minutes and final-setting time is below 10 hours.

Specific Gravity

Specific Gravity of cement is necessary for calculating the mass for desired volume of cement. The
Specific Gravity of normal type of cement is 3.15.

Compressive Strength

Cement has three types of strengths. Compressive strength, Tensile strength and Flexural strength.
However, compressive strength is taken into consideration, the rest can be ignored. For knowing
compressive strength of cement, only cement paste can’t be tested. For this purpose, either cement-
sand mortar cubes or “cement-concrete cubes” are made. The testing result of cubes can be affected
by several things such as water-cement ratio, curing and dampness of cubes during testing. Minimum
compressive strength result for 3 days mortar cube should be 16 N/mm2 and for 7 days cube should be
22 N/mm2.
Heat of Hydration

Cement reacts as soon as the water is added. It is called hydration. During hydration cement generates
heat. This is the Heat of Hydration. Heat of Hydration is influenced by several things. Such as cement’s
ingredients, fineness of cement and water-cement ratio, etc. During large volume concreting cement
creates much heat in the center of concrete structure. This extreme heat can affect the quality of
concrete. On the other hand, Heat of Hydration can be helpful during cold weather concreting.
Admixtures
Types
ACCELERATING ADMIXTURES
RETARDING ADMIXTURES
AIR-ENTRAINING ADMIXTURES
WATER REDUCING ADMIXTURES
Classifications
By adding this admixture to concrete or mortar, for increasing the
rate of hydration of hydraulic cement is raised as well as setting
time is reduced. Calcium chloride (CaCl2) is mostly recognized as
accelerating admixture.
Retarding admixtures postpone the preliminary rate of hydration
of cement and lengthen the setting time of cement paste. This
admixture is useful for high temperature and where the concrete
should be transmitted to a long distance. It can also be utilized for
grouting oil wells.
With air entraining admixtures, it is possible to generate a specific
amount of air bubbles in the concrete mixture. The admixture can
enhance the resistance capacity toward freeze-thaw degradation
and cohesion. The workability of fresh concrete is also enhanced
devoid of modifying the setting or the rate of hardening.
Include water reducers to a concrete mixture, mortar or grout for
raising the flow ability devoid of augmenting the water content.

Benefits of Water Reducing Admixtures:

 The rate of concrete placement becomes speedy.

 Strength, longevity, density etc. considerably get better.
 Segregation, permeability, and cracking are significantly minimized.

SPECIAL ADMIXTURES:

 Super plasticizing admixtures.

 Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures.
 Grouting admixtures.
 Coloring admixtures etc.
Advantages

 Admixtures reduce the required quantity of cement and make concrete economical.
 They enhance the workability of concrete.
 Admixtures imparts early strength in concrete.
 Admixtures reduce the early heat of hydration and overcome thermal cracking problem in
concrete. If there is a more heat of hydration then cracks can propagate in fresh concrete.
 Admixtures improve the resistance against freeze-thaw effect on concrete.
 Concrete admixtures maximize the sustainability by bringing waste products in use.
 Concrete admixtures can accelerate the setting time as well as there are admixtures that
decelerate concrete setting time.
 There are some admixtures that act as anti-bacterial agents.
 There are concrete admixtures that decrease initial strength, but increase the hardened
concrete strength more than the normal concrete strength.

Disadvantages
 Increased dosage initially makes the concrete mix look workable and increases the slump, but
the slump drops very quick, thus making the mix unsuitable for working.
 Increased dosage of PCE based admixture creates bleeding initially in the concrete mix which
is later on arrested making the mix stick and eventually rendering the mix improper for Slip
form work as it would stick to the form and create honeycomb.
 In case of form finished concrete the high range water reducing super plasticizer results
discoloration of the concrete and gives rise to air voids on the exposed surface.
Timber
KAMAGONG
Also known as Philippine Ebony, kamagong is a wood unique to the country. With a black heartwood
(inner region) and gray sapwood, this produces really dramatic, dark timber hence the name. The grain
is often grayish and has strong, dark brown streaks. "It's good to use on accent pieces lang, but

Ideal for: Small, decorative pieces and combat tools like arnis sticks and eskrima

MOLAVE
One of the hardest local woods, molave has a fine texture that makes it smooth to the touch. It's
available in pale yellow to pinkish-brownish tone with a lighter sapwood (outer region), and mostly
straight grain. It has no distinct odor.

Ideal for: window frames, shipbuilding, structural posts, railroad tracks, and other outdoor applications

NARRA
This very popular tropical wood has tones that range from yellow to red. The grain (texture and
alignment of wood fiber) is often interlocked and wavy, which creates interesting flame and ribbon
figures when quartersawn or flat sawn, which makes it a beautiful finishing material. Texture can be
anywhere from average-fine to average-coarse. The wood itself is lustrous and has an attractive odor.
Narra is classified as endangered and vulnerable here, and in Malaysia.

Ideal for: furnishings, floor planks, wall panels

TANGUILE
A moderately hard reddish wood, tanguile is one of the seven local woods often referred to as Philippine
mahogany. This abundant wood type boasts of fine ribbon or straight grain. It's relatively soft and easy
to work on, but resilient enough for outdoor construction.

Ideal for: interior finishes, cabinets, boat building

YAKAL
This resinous wood with yellow to golden-red tones is another local mahogany type. A high-grade
timber, yakal can tolerate harsh hot and cold weathers.

Ideal for: furniture, surface finishes, small weapons, and outdoor constructions
Chemical Properties
Examples of chemical properties are ability to burn, ability to rust and ability to sour. So a chemical
property of wood is its ability to burn. When it burns, it gets hot and changes to ash. A physical property
is a characteristic that can be seen or measured without changing the material. Examples are odor,
color, shape and texture.
Physical Properties
The main physical properties of wood include: color, luster, texture, macro-structure, odor, moisture,
shrinkage, internal stresses, swelling, cracking, warping, density, sound - electro - thermal conductivity.
Color, shine, texture and macrostructure determine the appearance of wood.
Advantages of Timber

 It is easy to repair and maintain wood. While old woods can be renewed by special touches
other materials are highly difficult and costly to maintain and to repair. Therefore they are
usually disposed of.
 Resistance to electrical current of a completely dry wood is equal to that of phenol
formaldehyde. An oven dried wood is a very good electrical insulator.

Disadvantages of Timber

 Wood is a hygroscopic material. This means that it will adsorb surrounding condensable vapors
and loses moisture to air below the fiber saturation point.
 The agents causing the deterioration and destruction of wood fall into two categories: Biotic
(biological) and abiotic (non-biological). Biotic agents include decay and mold fungi, bacteria and
insects. Abiotic agents include sun, wind, water, certain chemicals and fire.
 Another disadvantage of wood is that it easily catches fire. Wood consists of organic compounds
which are composed mainly of carbon and hydrogen. They can combine with oxygen and burns.
Because of these properties, wood is classified as a combustible material.
Rebar
(short for reinforcing bar), collectively known as reinforcing steel and reinforcement steel, is a steel bar
or mesh of steel wires used as a tension device in reinforced concrete and reinforced masonry
structures to strengthen and aid the concrete under tension.

 Carbon Steel Rebar: This is the most common type of rebar and is sometimes referred to as a
"black bar." It's extremely versatile but it corrodes more easily than other types, making it
inappropriate in areas that are subject to high humidity or in structures that are frequently
exposed to water. Many consider carbon steel rebar to be the best option in all other types of
construction, however.
 Welded Wire Fabric: Welded wire fabric (WWF) is made from a series of steel wires arranged
at right angles and electrically welded at all steel wire crossings. It can be used in slab-on-ground
slabs where the ground has been well compacted. A heavier fabrication of welded wire fabric
can be used in walls and structural floor slabs. This is commonly used in road pavement, box
culverts, drainage structures, and in small concrete canals.

 Sheet-Metal Reinforcing Bars: Sheet-metal reinforcement is commonly used in floor slabs,

stairs, and roof construction. Sheet-metal reinforcing is composed of annealed sheet steel
pieces bent into corrugations of about one-sixteenth of an inch deep with holes punched at
regular spacing.
 Epoxy-Coated Rebar: Epoxy-coated rebar are expensive and used in areas that will be in contact
with salt water or where a corrosion problem is imminent. The only problem is that the coating
can be very delicate, so bars should be ordered from a reputable supplier.

 European Rebar: These rebar are typically made of manganese so they tend to bend more
easily. They're not suitable for use in areas that are prone to extreme weather conditions or
geological effects, such as earthquakes, hurricanes, or tornadoes. They can be cost effective,
however.
 Stainless Steel Rebar: Stainless steel can be used as an alternative reinforcing steel bar with
carbon steel reinforcement. Using stainless steel reinforcing bars will not create galvanic
corrosion, and it can be a cost-effective solution in areas subject to corrosion problems or where
repair is difficult and expensive. These rebar will cost at least eight times more than epoxy-
coated rebar, however.

 Galvanized Rebar: Galvanized rebar are 40 times more resistant to corrosion than carbon steer
rebar, making them ideal for structures that will be heavily exposed to wet and humid
conditions. They're pricey, however.
 Expanded Metal or Wire Mesh Rebar: Expanded metal or wire mesh reinforcement is another
good product for concrete. Expanded metal is made by shearing a sheet of steel into parallel
lines that are then expanded to form a diamond shape or a square shape between each cut.
Expanded metal is commonly used as reinforcement in areas where a considerable thickness of
plaster is required, or to reinforce light concrete construction. Wire mesh reinforcement can be
 used on sidewalks, small concrete pads, or walkable surfaces that don't receive high live or load
charges.

 Glass-Fiber-Reinforced-Polymer (GFRP) Rebar: Similar to carbon fiber, GFRP rebar will not
corrode—ever, under any conditions. You'll pay dearly for that, however. These rebar can run
10 times the cost of epoxy-coated rebar.

Physical properties
a. Steel has a thermal expansion coefficient nearly equal to that of modern concrete. If this
were not so, it would cause problems through additional longitudinal and perpendicular
stresses at temperatures different from the temperature of the setting.

b. Common rebar is made of unfinished tempered steel, making it susceptible to rusting.

Normally the concrete cover is able to provide a pH value higher than 12 avoiding the
corrosion reaction.
Advantages
 High tensile strength
 Can be welded easily

Disadvantages
 Maintenance cost of a steel structure is very high. Due to action of rust in steel, expensive paints
are required to renew time to time. So that resistance against severe conditions increases.
 Steel has very small resistance against fire as compared to concrete. Almost from 600-700C half
of steel strength reduced.
 Steel cannot be mold in any direction you want. It can only be used in forms in which sections
originally exists.
 If steel loses its ductility property, than chances of brittle fractures increase.
 If there are very large variations in tensile strength than this lead steel to more tension. Due to
which steel tensile properties graph falls down.
Aggregates
Types of Aggregates
Granite Aggregates -This is the best aggregate for high-grade concrete, and as it comes in a variety of
shades, like grey, red and pink, it can also be used as a decorative feature. Granite itself is composed of
feldspar, quartz and mica crystals, which dictate the color of the stone.

Limestone Aggregates - Limestone aggregates are creating through the crushing of sedimentary rock.
This type of aggregate is one of the most commonly used in road construction and reinforced concrete
aside from granite and gravel.

Gravel / Ballast Aggregates - Gravel aggregates are sourced by sifting quarried rock and crushing
natural stone. Gravel aggregates don’t possess as much strength as their granite counterparts, but they
are often cheaper to purchase. Another, somewhat niche, but nevertheless positive quality is that it
has a low radioactive content. Gravel aggregates are used for foundations and concretes, as well as
products made of reinforced concrete and materials used in road construction.

Two Categories of Gravel / Ballast Aggregates

 Scrabbled stone – regular, natural and crushed
 Gravel – rounded pebbles usually from river or sea origin

Secondary Aggregates - Obtained by crushing construction waste (concrete, bricks and asphalt),
secondary aggregates are designed as an effective, low cost option to other materials. It is
approximately two times cheaper than granite, but it is not as strong as its costlier counterpart.
However, secondary aggregates have a wide range of uses: a large scale filler for concretes with
strengths of 5-20 MPa, road construction, maintenance works (used under asphalted areas and
pavements) and for reinforcing weak soils.

Sand - Sand is used to provide bulk and strength for materials like asphalt and concrete, as well as being
used for decorative purposes. Sand combines with water and other aggregates to form the solid,
durable concrete that is used in countless applications all over the world. It also plays a key role in the
binding agent in asphalt, transporting it throughout the mix.

Granite Limestone Gravel/Ballast Sand

Physical Properties of Aggregates

Absorption, Porosity and Permeability:

An important property of aggregates is the internal pore characteristics. What make up
this characteristic are the absorption, porosity and permeability of the aggregate. The size, number and
continuity of the pores has an effect on its strength, its resistance to abrasion, texture of the surface,
gravity, bonding capabilities as well as its resistance to freezing and thawing. The ratio of the volume
of the pores to the total volume of the particle is what makes up the porosity. Absorption is the
particle’s ability to absorb water. Permeability is the particle’s ability to let water pass through it. An
important property of aggregates is the internal pore characteristics. What make up
this characteristic are the absorption, porosity and permeability of the aggregate. The size, number and
continuity of the pores has an effect on its strength, its resistance to abrasion, texture of the surface,
gravity, bonding capabilities as well as its resistance to freezing and thawing. The ratio of the volume
of the pores to the total volume of the particle is what makes up the porosity. Absorption is the
particle’s ability to absorb water. Permeability is the particle’s ability to let water pass through it.

Texture of the Surface:

The pattern and the roughness or smoothness of the aggregate is the surface texture. It plays a
substantial role in creating a bond between the aggregate and the cementing material. For example,
when the surface of an aggregate has a rough texture, it gives the cementing material something to
grip and this produces a stronger bond. The texture of the surface also plays a role in the workability
of hot mix asphalt, how much asphalt is required for the hot mix and the water requirements in cases
where Portland cement concrete is being used.

Strength and Elasticity:

The strength of an aggregate is measured in terms of its ability to endure forces that may push or crush
while it is being used. Elasticity refers to how much the particle can stretch. High levels of both these
properties are required in the base and surface. The rate at which the concrete disintegrates is
minimized while the stability of the compacted material is maximized by these properties.

Density and Specific Gravity:

The weight per unit of volume of a substance makes the density while specific gravity is the ratio of
the density of the substance to the density of water. The density and the specific gravity of an aggregate
particle depend on the density and specific gravity of the minerals making up the particle and also on
how porous the particle is.

Hardness:
The resistance of the aggregate to abrasion and degradation is controlled by the hardness of
the minerals which the aggregate particles are made up of and the firmness with which the grains of
the particles are cemented or locked together. Minerals that have a low degree of hardness compose
soft aggregate particles. The weaker the particles are, the poorer the cementation is.
Chemical Properties

Composition
The chemical composition of aggregate is significant in determining the difference between limestone
and dolomite. Limestone is a rock consisting mainly or wholly of calcium carbonate and has a tendency
to polish smooth under traffic. Therefore, limestone is limited to use in low traffic-volume HMA surface
courses. Dolostone under traffic maintains a higher-friction, skid-resistant surface and is used on higher
traffic volume locations. Dolostone is a carbonate rock which consists largely of calcium magnesium
carbonate. The word dolomite is the mineral calcium magnesium carbonate Ca Mg (Co3)2. INDOT uses
an elemental magnesium (Mg) content test to determine if a rock source is dolomitic. An elemental
magnesium content of 10.3 percent or above is required for dolomite aggregates.

Reaction with cement and asphalt

There are several types of substances found in mineral aggregates which may have a negative effect on
the cementing and overall performance qualities of asphalt and cement. Most are rarely significant but
various organic substances may retard hardening, reduce strength development or cause excessive air
entrainment in Portland cement concrete. These organic substances include, but are not limited to,
mica, iron oxide, lightweight chert, shale, coal, and lignite.

Uses of Aggregates for Construction

Aggregate can be used in a number of ways in construction. In roads and railway ballast the aggregates
are used to resist the overall (static as well as dynamic) load, to distribute the load properly to the
supporting ground and to drain the water off the surface. In concrete the aggregate is used for
economy, reduce shrinkage and cracks and to strengthen the structure. They are also used in water
filtration and sewage treatment processes.
 As a Load Bearing Material
 As a Filling Material
 As an Infiltrating Material

Uses of Aggregate in Concrete

 To provide a rigid structure
 To reduce the shrinkage and cracking
 Concrete aggregate is used in many structures and substructures e.g. different elements of a
Building, bridges, foundations
 The smaller the aggregate size the greater its surface area and the more binding material
(cement) will be required, resulting in a higher cost
 The greater the aggregate size the larger will be the voids, resulting in wastage of binding
material(cement)