CRIMINALISTICS

Criminalistics - is the forensic science of analyzing and interpreting evidence using the natural sciences. Forensic science
pertains to all sciences applied to legal problems.

- application of scientific techniques in collecting and analyzing physical evidence in criminal cases.

Hans Gross - (1847-1915) An Austrian criminalist who in 1891 first used the term criminalistics. Father of forensic
publications. Wrote the book on applying all the different science disciplines to the field of criminal investigation.

Sir Arthur Conan Doyle - sci-fi author in late 1800. Popularized scientific crime detection methods through his fictional
character "Sherlocke Holmes".

Mathiew Orfila - (1787-1853) father of toxicology. Wrote about the detection of poisons and their effects on animals.

Alphonse Bertillon - (1853-1914) father of anthropometry. Developed a system to distinguish one individual person
from another based on certain body requirements.

Francis Galton - (1822-1911) father of fingerprinting. Developed fingerprinting as a way to uniquely identify
individuals.

Leone Lattes - (1887-1954) father of blood stain identification. He developed a procedure for determining the blood
type (A,B,AB or O) of a dried stain.

Calvin Goddard - 1891-1955) father of ballistics. Developed the technique to examine bullets using a comparison
microscope to determine whether or not a particular gun fired the bullets.

Albert Osborn - (1858-1946) father of document examination. His work led to the acceptance of documents as scientific
evidence by the courts.

Police Photography Definition of Terms

Actinic rays - light rays of short wavelengths occurring in the violet and ultraviolet parts of the spectrum, which produce
chemical changes, as in photography.

Angle of incidence - the angle of incidence as used here conforms to that used in optics to describe reflection and
refraction of light rays.The angle is measured with respect to the normal to the surface, rather than to the surface itself.
The normal is an imaginary line perpendicular (90°) to the plane of the surface. Thus, a straight-on impact (along the
normal) is said to have an angle of incidence of zero.

Aperture - Adjustable opening, also referred to as f-stop, that controls the amount of light that is focused on the film.

Aperture preference - Term used to describe the automatic exposure system used on some cameras, in which a specific
aperture is selected but the shutter speed adjusts automatically to expose the film to the correct amount of light.

Artificial light - Any light other than daylight.

Artificial light film - Color film balanced for use in tungsten artificial light, usually of 3200°K. Packs are usually marked
tungsten or Type B.

ASA - American Standard Association, formerly a standardized rating number for film based on its sensitivity to light.

Auto iris - Automatically regulates the amount of light entering the camera.

Auto white balance - Electronically adjusts camera color levels.

Auto focus - Automatically sets the focus (distance) from scene to camera.

Automatic camera - A camera with a built-in exposure meter that automatically adjusts the lens opening, shutter speed,
or both for proper exposure.

Auxiliary lens - A lens element added to a regular lens to shorten or increase the focal length.

Background - The part of the scene that appears behind the principal subject of the picture.

Backlighting - Light shining on the subject from the direction opposite the camera; distinguished from frontlighting and
sidelighting.

Backscatter - The light reflected back to the camera in underwater photography caused by flash reflection of particles
suspended in the water.

Blur - Indistinct image caused by movement or inaccurate focusing.

Bounce lighting - A light source reflected off of another surface and then onto the subject.Flash or tungsten light
bounced off the ceiling or walls in order to give the effect of natural or available light.

Bulb - A shutter speed setting used to hold the shutter open for extended periods with the use of a shutter release cord
or continuous pressure on the shutter release button.

Cable release - A flexible, enclosed wire used to release the shutter mechanism.

Camera - A photographic apparatus used to expose sensitized film or plates to reflected light images formed by a lens.
Also, an electronic device to change film or live action into video signals.

Camera angle - The photographer’s point of view of a subject or scene as viewed through the lens or viewfinder.

Cartridge - A lightproof container that is loaded with film in the dark and can be handled and placed in the camera in the
light.

Cassette - A film cartridge or magazine. A lightproof holder used in autoradiography for exposing x-ray film to
radioactive blots.

Circle of confusion - An optical term describing the size of an image point formed by a lens.

Close-up - A photograph taken close to the subject or evidence, often requiring an auxiliary lens. Macro and micro are
degrees of close-up.
Color - The sensation produced in the eye by a particular wavelength or group of wavelengths of visible light.

Color balance - The ability of a film to reproduce the colors of a scene. Color films are balanced in manufacture for
exposure to light of a certain color quality daylight, tungsten, etc. Color balance also refers to the reproduction of colors
in color prints, which can be altered during the printing process.

Color balancing filter - Filters used to balance color film with the color temperature of the light source and to prevent
the formation of colorcasts. An 85B filter is used with tungsten film in daylight, an 80A filter with daylight film in
tungsten light.

Color compensating (CC) filters - Comparatively weak color filters used to correct for small differences between the color
temperature of the illumination and that for which the film was manufactured.

Color conversion filters - Fairly strong color filters used for exposing film in light of a type markedly different from that
for which the film was made.

Color negative film - Film that records the colors of the subject in complementary hues that are subsequently reversed
again in the printing paper to give the correct colors.

Color reversing film - Film that produces a direct positive by effectively reversing the negative image during processing.
Transparency (slide) film is of this type.

Contrast - The difference in intensities of light falling on various parts of a subject. The density range of a negative, print,
or slide; the brightness range of a subject or the scene lighting.

Contrast filter - A colored filter used to make a colored subject stand out either lighter or darker (for black-and-white
film).

Correction filter - Filters used to alter colors to suit the color response of the film.

Coupled exposure meter - Exposure meter built into the camera and linked with the aperture or shutter speed controls,
or both.

Coupled rangefinder - A rangefinder connected to the focusing mechanism of the lens, which is focused while measuring
the distance to the subject or object.

Cropping - The elimination of part of an original image on a single negative during printing either because of automation
or enlargement.

Daylight color film - Color film designed to be used with daylight or a light source of equivalent color temperature,
including blue flashbulbs and electronic flash. The film is balanced to 5400 EK.

Dense - Dark negative or positive film on paper that is overexposed, overdeveloped, or both.
Depth of field - The zone between the foreground and background that appears in sharpest focus for a particular lens,
distance, and aperture.

Depth of field scale - Scale on a lens barrel showing the near and far limits of depth of field possible when the lens is set
at any particular focus and aperture.

Developer - A solution used to turn the latent image into a visible image on exposed films or photographic papers.

Electronic flash - Lighting unit utilizing the flash of light produced by discharging a current between two electrodes in a
gas-filled tube.

Electronic viewfinder (EVF) - A small TV monitor attached to a video camera for viewing of recorded images.

Emulsion - a suspension of a salt of silver in gelatin or collodion used to coat film.

Existing light - That light present at any one time in a given area no matter what the source.

Exposure index - Methods of rating film speed developed by the American Standards Association (ASA), now known as
the American National Standards Institute, Inc. (ANSI).

Exposure setting - The lens opening and shutter speed selected to expose the film.

Extension tube - Increases the distance between the lens and the sensitive film in the camera and changes the lens
capability.

Eyepiece - The optic found on a camera, microscope, telescope, and so on, used to look through the instrument.

Fade-in/Fade-out - Gradually changing video from dark to picture or picture to dark.

Fast film - Film that has an emulsion that is very sensitive to light. Such films have high ASA ratings.

Fast lens - lens with a large aperture, requiring less light.

Field of vision - The area a person is able to see through the viewfinder, scope, or lens.

Fill-in - Secondary illumination to keep shadow areas from photographing too dark; also known as the fill light.

Film - A sheet or strip of celluloid coated with light-sensitive emulsion for exposure in a camera.
Film plane - That portion of the camera body that holds the sensitized film in place during the exposure process. It is also
that position of the camera where the image is focused.

Film speed - A means of representing numerically the response of a photographic emulsion to light.

Finder - A viewer through which the picture to be taken may be seen and centered.

Fish-eye lens - Wide-angle lens with angle of view that may reach 180°. Depth of field is practically infinite.

Flash - A general term for any auxiliary, sudden, brilliant light. A unit holding flashbulbs is referred to as a flash.

Flash sensor - Electronic unit actuated by light flash.

Flood - Light source providing a wide, diffused beam of light.

Fluorescence - Property possessed by various substances that glow when exposed to light of a short wavelength. The
phenomenon in which some substances absorb light and re-emit part of it as light of a longer wavelength. Fluorescence
ceases when incident or exciting illumination ceases.

Focal length - The distance in millimeters (mm) from the center of the lens to the point where the image comes into
critical view.

Focal plane shutter - A shutter that operates immediately in front of the focal plane. Usually contains a fixed or variable-
sized slit in a curtain of cloth or metal that travels across the film to make the exposure.

Focus - Point at which converging rays of light from a lens meet.

Focusing - The adjustment of the lens-to-film distance to produce a sharp image of the subject.

Format - Size, shape, and general makeup of negatives, slides, photographic prints, camera viewing areas, or video
equipment.

Frame - An individual picture on a roll of film or one full onscreen image of displayed computerized information.

Frame buffer - A separate area of memory where an image or frame is stored in a computer.

Frame counter - A dial on the camera indicating the number of exposures or frames used.

f-stop (f-number) - Focal setting for the diaphragm controlling the size of the aperture; the higher the f-stop, the smaller
the aperture opening.
Fully automatic - Term indicates that camera aperture and speed settings can be combined to give complete automatic
exposure for a picture.

Gain select - Increase sensitivity to light. Used when sufficient illumination is not available for video recording.

Gamma - A process that improves the video image by correcting for the lack of picture clarity.

Glare - Intense light reflected off highly reflective surfaces such as water, glass, and very light-toned objects.

Grain - Individual silver particles or groups of particles in the emulsion

which, when enlarged, become noticeable and sometimes objectionable.

Graininess - The grainy appearance of photographic enlargements. More prominent on higher-speed film. The sand-like
or granular appearance of a negative, print, or slide resulting from the clumping of silver grains during development of
the film. Graininess becomes more pronounced with faster film, increased density in the negative, and degree of
enlargement.

Guide number - An indication of the power of a flash unit, enabling the correct aperture to be selected at a given
distance between flash and subject. The number divided by the distance gives the f-stop that should be used. A film
speed is specified with the guide number and recalculation is needed for different speeds.

Haze filter - Lens filter that reduces the effect of atmospheric haze. Red reduces most, green the least. A blue filter
induces haze.

Illumination - A specific amount of light present in any given area. Expressed in lux or foot-candles; the lower the lux of
equipment, the less light required for a good picture.

Image - The photographic representation of an object or scene formed by optical or chemical action.

Image aspect ratio - Ratio of the width to the height of a displayed computer generated image.

Image resolution - Number of pixels displayed per unit of printed length in an image, usually measured in pixels per inch
(ppi).

Infrared photography - Recording of images produced by infrared radiation.

Iris - The opening of a camera lens that controls the amount of light let in.

Lens cap - A cover used to protect a lens from dust and damage when not in use.

Lumen - Photometric unit equal to the luminous flux on 1 ft2 of

surface from a standard candle 1 ft away.

Luster - The gloss or shine possessed by a fiber, resulting from its reflection of light. The luster of manufactured fibers is
often modified by use of a delustering pigment.

Macro lens - Lens designed to work at close distance, permitting image

magnification.

Macro photography - Photography usually involving close-up capabilities,whether with lens or bellows, with a
magnification from life size (110) up to 50 times (501).

Magenta - A reddish-blue (minus green) color.

Micro photography - The term used in Europe for the making of large photographs of small objects, usually through a
microscope. In the United Kingdom and the United States this is called photomicrography, and microphotography is
used to refer to the technique of making microscopically small photographs by the process of optical reduction.

Monochrome - Single colored; for instance, black-and-white photographs and sepia- or other-toned images in one color.
Similar light rays of one color wavelength (i.e., a single, pure color).

Motor drive- Device for advancing the film and retensioning the shutter by means of an electric motor.

Multiple flash - The use of more than one flash unit, usually operating

simultaneously.

Natural size - A photograph enlarged to the true size of the content.

Near point - The closet object to the camera in focus for a given distance.

Negative - Photographic image in which the amount of silver present is more or less based on the reflectivity from the
original object. Black is white, white is black. The developed film that contains a reversed-tone image of the original
scene.

Normal lens - A lens that makes the image in a photograph appear in a perspective similar to that of the original scene.

Objective - The first lens, lens system, or mirror through which light passes or from which it is reflected in an optical
system.

Open flash - Method of using the flash in which the shutter is opened, the flash is fired, and then the shutter is closed. It
is used when the shutter speed is unimportant because existing lighting is poor or nonexistent.

Open up - The term used in reference to changing to a larger aperture (f-stop) opening.

Optical microscope - An instrument used to obtain an enlarged image of a small object, utilizing visible light; in general,
it consists of a light source, a condenser, an objective lens, and an ocular or eyepiece that can be replaced by a recording
device. Also known as a light microscope.
Pan-and-tilt head - Tripod head with separate locks for horizontal (pan) and vertical (tilt) movements of the camera.

Panning - The movement from left to right and right to left of the camera; normally associated with movie and video
cameras.

Parallax - Difference between the image seen in a viewfinder and that

recorded by the taking lens. Most pronounced at close distance with twin-lens reflex and rangefinder cameras. Single-
lens reflex and studio cameras are free from parallax error.

Peak - The visual image representing an allele on an electropherogram.

Photo flash lamp - An electronic lamp working at higher than the normal voltage,giving brighter light.

Photoelectric cell - Light-sensitive cell used in exposure meters and for remote triggering of the shutter.

Photoflood - Photographic lamp designed to produce a high output of light during a comparatively short life.

Photogrammetry - The process of surveying or mapping through analysis of photographs. A scientific method used to
determine from photographs the length of skid marks, width of roadways, or any other types of measurements needed.

Photographic negative - A transparency produced when black-and-white film is exposed in a camera and then
developed. The term is derived from the appearance of the transparency, in which white areas of the original appear the
darkest or most opaque, while the darkest portions of the original are almost clear. With color film the light–dark
reversal is coupled with a change of colors to the complements of those in the original material.

Photographic positive - A print made by passing light through the negative generally onto photographic paper. In this
print the tonal values are directly proportional to those of the original; i.e., light areas of the original appear light, and
the dark areas are dark.

Photography - To write or draw with light. Recording with light is closer to the modern meaning of the word.

Photomicrographs - Photographs that are made through a compound microscope and may be a greatly enlarged image
of a small area. Similarly, enlarged photographs, which may be prepared with only a lens of very short focal length, are
accurately termed photomacrographs. It is extremely difficult to distinguish between photographs made by these two
processes, and both are often incorrectly referred to as a photomicrograph.

Projected prints - A print made by focusing light from the negative on the printing paper by means of a lens system.
These positives are generally enlargements. Some workers refer to them as bromides because of the type of paper
emulsion originally used.

Quartz lens - A special lens used for ultraviolet photography.

Rangefinder - A viewer system found on cameras without a through-the-lens viewing capacity (SLR cameras).
Record/review - Automatically rewinds and plays back the last few seconds of videotape recording. Provides a smooth
transition from one segment to another.

Reflection - The bouncing back of rays of light striking a surface.

Reflex camera - A camera in which the image can be seen right side up and full size on the ground-glass focusing screen.

Refraction - The bending of a light ray when passing obliquely from one medium to a medium of different density.

Refractive index (N) - The change in direction (apparent bending) of a light ray passing from one medium to another of
different density, as from air to water or glass. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of
refraction is the index of refraction of the second medium. Index of refraction of a substance may also be expressed as
the ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to its velocity in the substance.

Resolution - The capability of an optical device to separate into

two or more objects (or points) what to the unaided eye appears to be one object (or point), thus yielding details not
otherwise perceptible. Measurement in units per inch of the amount of detail in an image file: dpi = dots per inch; ppi =
pixels per inch; lpi = liners per inch.

Reversal - A positive film such as slide film (either color or black-and-white).

Rogues’ gallery - A file of photographs of arrested individuals; usually includes fullface and profile photographs (mug
shots) along with detailed physical description, age and place of birth, Social Security number, fingerprint classification,
nicknames and aliases, modus operandi, etc. (also called mug shot file).

Scale - The enlargement or reduction of an object or texture.

Schlieren optics - Imaging system in which the transparent or translucent object to be examined is placed between two
spherical mirrors. The illuminant is a point light source placed at the focal point of one of the mirrors. Parallel light rays
from the mirror pass through the object to the second mirror, which projects the image onto a screen. A knife edge is
placed at the focal point of the second mirror to block unrefracted light rays. Only light rays refracted by the object
reach the screen.Schlieren optics can produce images of thickness, density, and refractive index differences.

Self-timer - A timing device permitting the photographer to delay shutter.

Shoot (shot) - A slang term for taking or having taken a photograph.

function.

Shot sheet - A form for recording all pertinent photographic information on a particular roll of film.

Shutter - Mechanical device that regulates the time light can act upon the film.
Shutter preference - An automatic exposure system in which shutter speed may be selected and the aperture is adjusted
automatically to give correct exposure.

Shutter speed - The action of the shutter that controls the duration of an exposure.The faster the speed, the shorter the
exposure.

Silhouette - A photograph that shows only the mass of a subject in black against a white or colored background.

Single-lens reflex - Camera system utilizing a hinged mirror between the lens and the film that swings out of the light
path when the shutter is open, allowing the taking and viewing functions of a lens to be combined.

Slide - A positive film mounted in a slide mount or a positive print on glass for projection upon a screen.

Slide film - Direct reversal film; usually color film used in cameras for full-color projection positives. Sometimes called
color transparency film.

Slit-width - Size of the opening of the slit through which light emerges. Size depends on wavelength range, separation
ability of wavelength selector,and desired isolation of specific wavelength.

Slow film - Film having an emulsion with low sensitivity to light. Typically such films have an ASA rating of 32 or less.

Slow lens - A lens with a relatively small maximum apertura, such as f-8.

Snapshot - A casual picture taken by amateurs, usually with simple equipment.

Snow Print Wax - Registered name of an aerosol product used to assist in the photography and casting of footwear
impressions in snow.

Speed - The sensitivity of a photographic emulsion to light. ISO, ASA, or DIN numbers indicate their relative speed
characteristics. The higher the number, the faster the film reacts to light.

Spotlight - Lamp unit with a reflector and lens that can either focus light into a small, concentrated circle or give a wider
beam.

Standard lens - Lens whose focal length is approximately equal to the diagonal of the film format with which it is used. It
is also referred to as the prime or normal lens.

Static streak- Light streak that appears on photographic film, usually in cold weather when film is advanced too quickly.
Static streaks can be harmful to development of clear photographic images.
Still - A photograph lacking motion; a single frame.

Stop - A lens aperture or diaphragm opening, such as f-4 and f-5.6.

Strobe - Electronic flash unit. An electrical power supply charges the gas-filled flash tube emitting light between 1/1000
sec and 1/50,000 sec. A strobe can be manual or manual and automatic.

Surveillance photography - A secretive, continuous, and sometimes periodic visual documentation of activities involving
persons, places, or objects of importance to an investigation.

Sync-cord - An electrical power cord used to connect the flash unit to a power source.

Synchroflash - A term applied to flash photography in which a flash bulb is ignited at the same instant that the shutter is
opened.

Time exposure - The camera shutter is opened and closed manually, not automatically.

Time-lapse - A timing device that can be set to take a photograph every few seconds, minutes, hours, etc.

Transmission - The ratio of the light passed through an object to the light falling upon it.

Transmitted light - Light that is passed through a transparent or translucent medium.

Transparency - A positive photographic image on film, viewed or projected by transmitted light (light shining through
film).

Trash mark - Mark left on a finished copy during photocopying; results from imperfections or dirt on the cover glass,
cover sheet, drum, or camera lens of a photocopy machine.

Tripod - A three-legged stand used to support a camera or lens and camera.

Tungsten light - Incandescent light, from a bulb having filaments usually of lower wattage, 15 to 500 W.

Tungsten light film - Color film balanced to suit tungsten light sources, with a color temperature of 3200°K.

Twin-lens reflex (TLR) - Camera having two lenses of the same focal length; one is used for viewing and focusing, the
other for exposing the film. The lenses are mounted above each other.

Ultraviolet filter - A filter that transmits ultraviolet light as used for photography by the reflected ultraviolet light
method.
Ultraviolet light - Light rays beyond the visible spectrum of light at its violet end with wavelengths longer than x-rays, but
shorter than visible light.

Ultraviolet photograph - Any photograph that records the document under ultraviolet illumination. With some of these
the ultraviolet radiation strikes the film, but with others a filter is employed so that only the visual fluorescence caused
by the ultraviolet is recorded.

Underexposure - Results of insufficient light exposing the film. A condition in which too little light reaches the film
producing a thin negative, a dark slide, or a muddy-looking print.

Unipod - A one legged support for a camera.

Videography - The recording of visual images electronically on magnetic tape.Usually accompanied by a recorded
soundtrack.

Viewfinder - A viewing instrument attached to a camera that is used to obtain proper composition.

Washed out - A negative or print lacking detail and contrast.

White balance - A procedure used to tune a video camera’s color by setting it to perfectly reproduce a white object.

Zoom lens - A lens with the capacity to have varied focal lengths while maintaining focus on a particular subject at a
given distance.

Zooming - Moving a variable focus lens during an exposure.

Walter McCrone - (1916-1915) father of microscopic forensics. he developed and applied his microscopic techniques to
examine evidence in countless court cases.

Police Photography Review Notes

Important Personalities in Police Photography

*Joseph Nicephore Niepce - was able to obtain camera images on papers sensitized with silver chloride solution in
1816.He invented a photographic process which he called "heliography" meaning "writing of the sun"

*Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre - invented "Daguerreotype", an

early photograph produced on a silver or silver-covered copper plate.It formed an image directly on the silver surface of
a metal plate.It was a positive process,thus,it yielded one of a kind images.

*William Henry Fox Talbot - invented a process called calotype, a photographic process by which a large number of
prints could be produced from a paper negative.Calotype use paper with surface fibers impregnated with light sensitive
compounds.

Calotype vs. Daguerre - fixation in calotype was only partial while

images in daguerreotype were made permanent with the use of

hypo (short for hyposulfite thiosulfate,sodium thiosulfate or a

solution of thiosulfate).

Sodium thiosulfate or hypo is a hygroscopic (readily taken up and

 retaining moisture) crystalline salt used especially as a

photographic fixing agent and a reducing or bleaching agent.

*John Frederick William Herchel - coined the term photography and applied the terms negative and positive to
photography.He made improvements in photographic processes, particularly in inventing the cyanotype process and
variations (such as the chrysotype) the precursors of the modern blueprint process.He discovered sodium thiosulfate to
be a solvent of silver halides in 1819, and informed Talbot and Daguerre of his discovery that this "hyposulfite of soda"
(hypo) could be used as a photographic fixer, to fix pictures and make them permanent after experimentally applying it
in 1839.

*Richard Leach Maddox - was an English photographer and physician who invented light weight gelatin negative plates
for photography in 1871.

*Frederick Scott Archer - invented the photographic collodion process which preceded the modern gelatin emulsion.

Collodion - is a wound dressing material made of nitrated cotton

dissolved in ether and alcohol and other chemicals on sheet of

glass.

*George Eastman - founded the Eastman Kodak company and invented roll film, helping bring photography to the
mainstream.

Definition of Terms:

Photography - To write with light,from two Greek words, Phos - light and Graphia - write.

Police Photography - It is an art or science which deals with the study of the principles of photography, the reproduction
of photographic evidence, and its application to police work.

Forensic Photography - the art or science of photographically documenting a crime scene and evidence for laboratory
examination and analysis for purposes of court trial.

1.Take photographs of the following:

a.crime scene

b.suspects.

c.detainees

d.prisoners

e.aliens

f.apprehended persons

g.applicants for clearances

h.military and civilian personnel

i.unknown cadaver

j.applicant to possess firearm

k.other physical evidence

2.Conduct comparative examination and analysis of questioned

photographs or pictures to the known photographs.

3.Process color and black and white film, print, reduce and enlarge

picture.

4.Reproduce picture and other printed matters.

5.Compose portrait by means of portrait composition.

6.Provides photographic intrusion detection devices.

7.Maintain Rogues Gallery (a collection of pictures of persons arrested

as criminals)

Care and Handling of Camera

* Must be carried using a portable bag or built-in container to avoid

dust and dirt.

* Must be kept dry and avoided contact with water and other liquid

substances.

* Must be repaired only by qualified technician.

* Must not be cleaned by oil.

* Must not be fixed without proper equipment and tools to avoid

serious damage on it.

Basic Camera Parts and Functions

Camera is a light-tight box; with a lens to form an image with a shutter and diaphragm to control the entry of the image;
a means of holding a film to record the image/and a viewer or viewfinder to show the photographer what the image is.

Camera originated from the term camera obscura. Camera obscura (Latin veiled chamber ) is an opticaldevice used, for
example, in drawing or for entertainment. It is one of the inventions leading to photography.The principle can be
demonstrated with a box with a hole in one side (the box may be room-sized, or hangar sized). Light from a scene passes
through the hole and strikes a surface where it is reproduced, in color, andupside-down. The image's perspective is
accurate. The image can be projected onto paper, which when tracedcan produce a highly accurate representation.

1.Light Tight Box. This part of the camera is very essential because

of its capability to exclude all unwanted light that may expose the

sensitized materials or film. It is an enclosure that is devoid of light.

2.Lens. The lens is the only responsible in focusing the rays of light

coming from the subject. It is one of the most important parts of

camera because without lens, it is impossible to form a sharp image

of the film.
3.Film H older. The film holder holds the film firmly inside the camera. It

is always located at the opposite side of the lens of the camera.

4.Shutter. The shutter served as the barriers of the rays of light that

will enter and effect the film inside the camera. It is usually placed

at the path of the light passing thru the lens.

Other Parts of the Camera

1. Viewing system

2. Film advancer

3. Shutter speed

4. Lens aperture

5. Focusing mechanism

Major Types of Camera

1.View Finder Type - The smallest and simplest type of camera.This is

also known as instamatic camera.View finder camera suffers parallax

error.

2.Single Lens Reflex Type - Cross section view of SLR system

1) Lens

2) Mirror

3) Shutter

4) Film or sensor

5) Focusing screen

6) Condensing lens

7) Pentaprism

8) Eye piece

Picture

The best way to determine the entire coverage of the camera is to look behind the lens of the camera.In this manner the
object can be framed properly and recorded on the film.This type of camera eliminates the problem of parallax error.

Twin Lens Reflex Camera - has two lens, one for viewing and focusing on the subject and for taking lens.In this type of
camera,the image to be photographed is seen as flat surface as the image is reflected by the mirror behind the viewing
lens.This suffers parallax error.

Parallax - the difference between what the view finder on a point and shoot camera sees and what the lens sees (and
thus records on film).At close shooting distances,the difference can cause you to crop off the top of a subject's head.
Parallax error - the image you see through the view finder is different from the image the lens will capture.

VIEW OR PRESS TYPE

1.Lens plane

2.Front standard

3.Lens axis

4.Base

5.Film holder/Ground glass

6.Rear standard

7.Film plane

Picture

VIEW OR PRESS TYPE CAMERA - The biggest and most sophisticated among the different type of camera. This type of
camera is practically useless for candid and action photography.

SPECIAL CAMERAS - These are cameras that have been devised that offer unique advantage or serve special purposes.
Among the special cameras are: a. polaroid, b. panoramic cameras, c. aerial cameras, d. miniature and ultra-miniature
cameras e. digital cameras (using computer processing.

Control of Cameras

Knowing the controls on camera is necessary to produce a sharp and normal image and negatives after photographing.
There are three important controls in a camera to be manipulated and adjusted to its proper setting.

* Focusing control

* Diaphragm/Aperture control

* Shutter speed

Focusing Control

The camera lens bends light rays to form an image or likeness of the object. Adjusting the lens to form the clearest
possible image is called focusing .Focusing is defined as the setting of the proper distance in order to form a sharp
image.

Three Types of Focusing

1.Rangefinder Type (e.g. viewfinder, instamatic camera and 35mm

cameras)

2.Ground Glass Type (e.g. twin-lens reflex camera and digital camera)

3.Scale Bed Type (e.g. press and view camera, and Polaroid Evidence

Camera)
Rangefinder Type

The rangefinder type is classified into two:

1.Coincidence type - the object to be photographed looks double when

the focusing control is not in proper distance, and by moving this

control, one of the objects will move and coincide with the other object

to make as one and become accurate appearance of an object.

2.Split Type - Splits the objects to be photographed into two. While

moving the focusing control, the split image will move and unite to form

an undivided appearance and therefore the focus is accurate and

perfect.

Ground Glass Type

Ground glass type focusing mechanism clearly indicates whether the object distance and the camera is out of focus or
not. If the object is not well focused, the object to be photographed will appear blurred. To make it clear and accurate
the focusing ring of the camera is adjusted on clockwise or counter clockwise to get the desired clearness of the object.

Scale-Bed or Focusing Scale

In the scale or bed type focusing mechanism, the distance of the object to be photographed is calculated by means of
feet or meter. There are cameras where estimated distance from the camera to objects is being indicated in the focusing
ring.

Diaphragm Control (lens opening)

A device called a diaphragm usually serves as the aperture stop, and controls the aperture. The diaphragm functions
much like the iris of the eye²it controls the effective diameter of the lens opening.Reducing the aperture size increases
the depth of field, which describes the extent to which subject matter lying closer than or farther from the actual plane
of focus appears to be in focus.

Aperture and shutter speed are the fundamental controls available to the SLR user: Varying one or other of these opens
up a myriad of creative possibilities. Both also control how much light reaches the film ± so if you make the hole through
which the light passes into the camera (the aperture) smaller; you must keep this hole open for longer (the shutter
speed) to compensate.

Fortunately, on most cameras this adjustment is made automatically. The size of the aperture is measured using
f/numbers (or f/stops). Confusingly, as f/numbers represent fractions, the larger the f/number the smaller the aperture.
The widest aperture on a lens might be f/2, whilst the smallest aperture available may be f/22.
Shutter Speed - is a device that allows light to pass for a determined period of time, for the purpose of exposing
photographic film or a light-sensitive electronic sensor to light to capture a permanent image of a scene.

Types of Shutter

1. Central shutters

2. Focal-plane

Central Shutters - are mounted within a lens assembly, or more rarely behind or even in front of a lens,and shut off the
beam of light where it is narrow. A leaf mechanism is usually used.

Focal Plane Shutter - In camera design, a focal-plane shutter is a type of photographic shutter that is positioned
immediately in front of the focal plane of the camera, that is, right in front of the photographic film or image sensor.

Types of Shutters (as to mechanism)

1.Focal-plane shutters

2.Leaf shutters

3.Diaphragm shutters

4.Central shutters

Focal-Plane Shutters - Focal-plane shutters are usually implemented as a pair of cloth, metal, or plastic curtains which
shield the film from light.

Leaf Shutters - is a type of camera shutter consisting of a mechanism with one or more pivoting metal leaves which
normally does not allow light through the lens onto the film, but which when triggered opens the shutter by moving the
leaves to uncover the lens for the required time to make an exposure, then shuts.

Diaphragm Shutters - is a type of leaf shutter consisting of a number of thin blades which briefly uncover the camera
aperture to make the exposure.

Central Shutters - is a camera shutter normally located within the lens assembly where a relatively smallopening allows
light to cover the entire image. The term is also used for shutters behind, but near to, the lens.Interchangeable lens
cameras with a central shutter within the lens body require that each lens has ashutter built into it. In practice most
cameras with interchangeable lenses use a single focal plane shutter in thecamera body for all lenses, while cameras
with a fixed lens use a central shutter.In photography, shutter speed is a common term used to discuss exposure time,
the effective length of time a shutter is open; the total exposure is proportional to this exposure time, or duration of
light reaching thefilm or image sensor.

There are many factors to be considered in using this control . Some of these factors are:

1.The light sensitivity of the film, which are determined through its ISO

2.The lighting condition

3.The motion of the subjects on different angles

4.The purpose of the photographs to be taken, etc.

The different shutter speeds are:

1, 2 or 1/2 sec, 4 or 1/4 sec, 8 or 1/8 sec, 15 or 1/15 sec, 30 or 1/30 sec, 60 o r 1/60 sec, 125 or 1/125 sec,250 or 1/250,
500 or 1/500 sec, 1000 or 1/1000, 2000 or 1/2000.

Camera shutters often include one or two other settings for making very long exposures:

B (for bulb ) - keep the shutter open as long as the shutter release is held.

T (for time ) - keep the shutter open until the shutter release is pressed again.

Avoiding Camera Shake

Unless you are using a tripod, the first thing you should ensure when choosing the shutter speed is that it is fast enough
to avoid camera shake. However tightly you hold your camera, it will always move slightly as you fire. If you use too slow
a shutter speed this will mean blurred pictures. The speed you use depends on the focal length of lens you are doing.

How to Hold Your Camera

To be able to use the slowest possible handheld speeds, you must hold the camera correctly to avoid as much vibration
as possible.

Low-level shooting - you don always want to take your pictures from

normal eye level. This kneeling position allows you to take shots at

waist level.

Picture

When to Use Slow Shutter Speeds

By using a tripod, or other camera support, photographers can use slower shutter speeds than usual.These allow you to
use apertures that would not otherwise be possible when using a handheld camera and to shoot in the lowest light.
Slow shutter speeds can also be used for creative effect, as moving subjects will become artistically blurred.

When to Use Fast Shutter Speeds

Moving subjects require you to consider using a faster shutter speed than that needed to avoid camera shake. Some blur
may be welcome with action subjects, but often we want to freeze the action. Selecting the right shutter speed depends
not only on the velocity of the subject, but also on the direction in which it is traveling.

Picture

The Lens - A lens is an optical device with perfect or approximate axial symmetry which transmits and refracts light,
converging or diverging the beam.

Types of Lenses

1. Biconvex
2. Biconcave

3. Plano-convex/plane-concave

4. Convex-concave or meniscus

5. Positive or converging lens

6. Negative or diverging lens

Picture

Biconvex - A lens is biconvex (or double convex , or just convex ) if both surfaces are convex.

Biconcave - A lens with two concave surfaces is biconcave (or just concave ).

Plano-convex or Plano-concave - If one of the surfaces is flat, the lens is plano-convex or plano-concave depending on
the curvature of the other surface.

Meniscus - A lens with one convex and one concave side is convex-concave or meniscus.It is this type of lens that is
most commonly used in corrective lenses.

Positive or Converging Lens - If the lens is biconvex or plano-convex, a collimated or parallel beam of light traveling
parallel to the lens axis and passing through the lens will be converged (or focused ) to a spot on the axis, at a certain
distance behind the lens (known as the focal length ). In this case, the lens is called a positive or converging lens.This
lens is always thicker at the center and thinner at the sides. Light passing through it is bended toward each other on the
other side of the lens meeting at a point. It produces a real image on the opposite side of the lens or where light is
coming from.

Negative or Diverging Lens - If the lens is biconcave or plano-concave, a collimated beam of light passing through the
lens is diverged(spread); the lens is thus called a negative or diverging lens. The beam after passing through the lens
appears to be emanating from a particular point on the axis in front of the lens; the distance from this point to the lens
is also known as the focal length, although it is negative with respect to the focal length of a converging lens.This lens is
always thinner at the center and thicker at the sides. Light passing through it is bended away from each other as if
coming from a point. It produces a virtual image on the same side of the lens or where light is coming from.

Inherent Lens Defects or Aberrations

1. Spherical Aberration

2. Coma

3. Curvature of Field

4. Distortion

5. Chromatic Aberration

6. Astigmatism

7. Chromatic Difference of Magnification

Spherical Aberration - When light passing through near the central part of a converging lens is bended more sharply than
those rays falling in the edge, thus the rays coming from the edges are focused on a plane nearer the lens than those
coming from the central part.

Coma - This is another form of spherical aberration but is concerned with the light rays entering the lens obliquely. The
defect is noticeable only on the outer edges and not on the central part of the lens. If a lens has coma, circular objects
reproduced at the corners of the negative are comet-like form. Just like the spherical aberration, it is reduced by
combinations of lenses of different curvatures.

Curvature of Field - This is a kind of defect where the image formed by a lens comes to a sharper focus in curved surface
than a flat surface. The correction of this defect is similar to spherical aberration and coma.

Distortion - A lens with distortion is incapable of rendering straight lines correctly; either horizontal or vertical lines in an
object. This is caused by the placement of the diaphragm. If the diaphragm is placed in front of the lens,straight lines
near the edges of the object tends to bulge outside. This is known as the barrel distortion.If the diaphragm is placed
behind the lens, straight lines near the edges tends to bend inward. This isknown as the pincushion distortion. Distortion
is remedied by placing the diaphragm in between the lens component and the two opposite distortions will neutralize
each other.

Chromatic Aberration - This defect is the inability of the lens to bring photographic rays of different wavelengths to the
same focus. Ultraviolet rays are bent the most while infrared rays are bent to the least when they pass through the lens.
This defect is reduced by utilizing compound lenses made up of single lens made up of glass of different curvatures.

Astigmatism - This defect is present when the size of image produced by photographic rays of one wavelength is
different from the size produced by another. Size of the image increases as the wavelength of the rays decreases.In color
photography it produces a rainbow colored fringes around the edges of objects while in black and white photography, it
appears as a slight blue.

Types of Lenses (as to degree of correction to lens aberration)

1.Achromatic lens - corrected for chromatic aberration.

2.Rapid-rectilinear lens - corrected for distortion.

3.Anastigmatic lens - corrected for astigmatism as well as the other lens

defects.

4.Apochromatic lens - also corrected for astigmatism but with higher

degree of correction to color.

Focal length - is the distance measured from the optical center of the lens to the film plane when the lens is set or
focused at infinity position or far distance.Focal length is a measure of the light-bending power of a lens. It is invariably
measured in millimeters(mm). The longer the focal length of a lens , the narrower the angle of view , and the larger
objects appear in theviewfinder without the need to move any closer to them.

Focal Distance - is the distance from the optical center of the lens to the film plane.
Telephotos - are long focal length lenses.

Telephotos are lenses with focal lengths greater than 50mm. They range from 70mm short telephotos to "long toms"
with focal lengths of 1000mm or more.

Wide angles - are short focal lengths.

A lens with a focal length of 50mm is known as a standard lens ± the view that it gives is similar to that of the human
eye . Any lens with a shorter focal length, and wider angle of view, is known as wide-angle.

How Focal Length Affects Image Size - Lenses work on the principle that light affecting from a subject can be bent using
the refractive properties of glass to form a miniature image of the subject. Lenses with short focal lengths, such as the
wide-angle lens, produce a small image. Telephoto lenses, with longer focal lengths, produce a larger image, when taken
from the same distance.

Zoom Lens - It is a kind of lens with variable focal length.

Does Focal Length Affect Depth of Field?

Aperture is not the only factor that affects how much of a scene is in focus. You should also take into account the focal
length of the lens being used and the distance that the lens is focused at (generally the distance from the camera to your
subject). The longer the focal length, the more restricted depth of field becomes.So, all things being equal, a wide-angle
lens keeps more of the scene in focus than a telephoto one. In addition, depth of field becomes increasingly more
limited the closer you are to the subject that your lens is focused on.

Factors Affecting Depth of Field

1.Aperture - The larger the aperture the less depth of field. For

maximum depth of field, use the smallest aperture.

2.Focused Distance - The closer the subject you focus on, the less depth

of field. Depth of field is greater with distance subjects.

3.Focal Length - The longer the lens you use, the less depth of field you

will have. Wide-angle lenses give the greatest depth of field.

Films and Papers

A.Black and White Films

1.Emulsion - a suspension of a sensitive silver salt or a mixture of silver

halides in a viscous medium (as a gelatin solution) forming a coating on

photographic plates, film, or paper.

2.Gray or Anti-Halation Backing - a layer found in modern

photographic films. It is placed between the light-sensitive emulsion

and the tough film base, or sometimes on the back of the film base.

The light that passes through the emulsion and the base is absorbed

by the opaque anti-halation layer.This keeps that light from reflecting

off the pressure plate or anything else behind the film and re-exposing

the emulsion, reducing contrast. The anti-halation layer is rendered

transparent or washed from the film (as in K-14 films) during processing

of the film.

3.Film Base- A film base is a transparent substrate which acts as a

support medium for the photosensitive emulsion that lies atop it.

Despite the numerous layers and coatings associated with the emulsion

layer, the base generally accounts for the vast majority of the

thickness of any given film stock.

Historically there have been three major types of film base in use: cellulose nitrate,cellulose acetate (cellulose
diacetate, cellulose acetate propionate, cellulose acetate butyrate, andcellulose triacetate), and polyethylene
trephthalate polyester (Kodak trade-name: ESTAR).

Characteristics of B & W Films:

1.Emulsion Speed

2.Spectral Sensitivity

3.Granularity or Graininess

Emulsion Speed

a.ASA (American Standards Association) rating. This is expressed in

arithmetical value.

b.DIN (Deutsche Industrie Normen) rating, which is expressed in

logarithmic value.

c.ISO (International Standards Organization) rating. This is expressed in

the combined arithmetical and logarithmic values.

Spectral Sensitivity

a.Blue sensitive film ± sensitive to UV rays and blue color only

b.Orthochromatic film ± sensitive to UV rays, to blue and green color.

 It is not sensitive to red color.

c.Panchromatic film ± sensitive to UV radiation to blue, green, and red

light or all colors.

d.Infra-red film ± sensitive to UV rays, to blue, green, red light and

infrared rays.

Granularity or Graininess

This refers to the size of the metallic silver grains that are formed after development of an exposed film.Generally, the
size of metallic silver grains are dependent on the emulsion speed of the film and the type of developing solution that is
used in processing.

Rules to remember:

1.The lower the emulsion speed rating of the film, the finer is the grain.

2.The higher the emulsion speed rating of the film, the bigger are the

grains.

3.A film developer will produce a finer grain that a paper developer when

used for film processing.

B.Color Films

A color film is a multi-layer emulsion coated on the same support or base.

Main types of color film in current use

1.Color negative film forms a negative (color-reversed) image when

exposed, which is permanently fixedduring developing. This is then

exposed onto photographic paper to form a positive image.

Ex:Kodacolor

2.Color reversal film, also known as slide film, forms a negative image

when exposed, which is reversed to a positive image during

developing. The film can then be projected onto a screen. Ex:

Kodachrome

C.Photographic Papers (Black & White)

Photographic paper is exposed to light in a controlled manner, either by placing a negative in contact with the paper
directly to produce a contact print, by using an enlarger in order to create a latent image, by exposing in some types of
camera to produce a photographic negative, or by placing objects upon it to produce photograms. Photographic papers
are subsequently developed using the gelatin-silver process to create a visible image.

Characteristics of a Photographic Paper

1.Chloride paper - has a slow speed and is suited for contact printing.

2.Bromide paper - has a fast speed and is recommended for projection

printing or enlarging.

3.Chloro-bromide paper - is a multi-speed and could be used in both

contact printing and enlarging.

Exposure and development latitude

Latitude is the degree or amount of which you can deviate from the ideal exposure or development without appreciable
loss of print quality.

1.Exposure latitude Generally, photographic papers do not have a wide

exposure latitude so exposure must be critical at all times.

2. Development latitude Papers that do not change appreciable in

contrast and image tone with reasonable variations in development

has a good latitude. However, for best quality the developing time

should be as near as those prescribed by the manufacturer.

Contrast Range or Grade

In most photographic papers, the contrast range or grade are indicated by numbers - # 0 to 5

1.#0 and 1 are used on over-exposed or low contrast negative

2.#2 are used on normal exposed or normal contrast negative

3.#3 to 5 used in under-exposed or high contrast negatives

Which Film to Use

Film is available in variety of 'speeds'. The faster the film the more sensitive it is to light, and the shorter the exposure
needed. Fast film produces a grainier image.Film speed is measured on the ISO scale. A film rated as ISO 100 is four
times slower than an ISO 400film, and needs four times more light for the same shot.

Picture

Filters

In photography, a filter is a camera accessory consisting of an optical filter that can be inserted in the optical path. The
filter can be a square or rectangle shape mounted in a holder accessory, or, more commonly, a glass or plastic disk with
a metal or plastic ring frame, which can be screwed in front of the lens.
Types of Filters

a.Light Balancing Filter

b.Color Compensating Filter

c.Neutral Density Filter

d.Polarizing Filter

Light Balance Filter - A filter used to change the color quality of the exposing light in order to secure proper color balance
for artificial light films.

Color Compensating Filter - This is used to change the over-all color balance of photographic result obtained with color
films and to compensate for deficiencies in the quality of exposing energy.

Neutral Density Filter - This filter is used when the light is too bright to allow the use of desired f-number or shutter
speed with a particular film.

Polarizing Filter - It is used to reduce or minimize reflections on subjects like water glass, and highly polished surfaces.

Exposure - is simply a combination of the aperture and shutter speed. Thus, it is defined as the product of the total light
intensity and the length of time it strikes the emulsion.

Exposure is subjective and errors in calculation will result to overexposure or underexposure.

Proper exposure is dependent on:

a. Film speed

b. Lighting condition

c.Type of subject

Light: Its Characteristics and Sources

Light is a form of energy, and to understand light we begin with the electromagnetic spectrum which is basically a
grouping of all electromagnetic radiation arranged according to the amount of energy contained in the radiation.Visible
light is a part of this electromagnetic spectrum that creates the sensation of light when it falls on the human eye.The
properties of all electromagnetic radiation can be described by three inter-related terms. These are wavelength,
frequency and energy. Since light is a part of this spectrum, it too can be described by these terms. Hence, it is important
to understand these terms as a first step towards understanding light.

Wavelength

Simplistically, we can think of light traveling as a wave. A typical wave form (e.g., ripples on the surface of water) has
crests (or peaks) and troughs (or valleys). The distance between two consecutive peaks (or troughs) is called the
wavelength, and is denoted by the Greek letter (lambda).The wavelengths of visible light are measured in nanometers
(nm) where 1 nm = 1 billionth of a meter (10-9 meters). The wavelength of visible light is between 400-700nm. The
combined effect of the complete range of radiation between 400-700nm appears as white light to the human eye.

Rainbow Colors:

* Violet - 400 to 440nm

* Blue - 440 to 490nm

* Green - 490 to 540nm

* Yellow - 540 to 590nm

* Orange - 600 to 650nm

* Red - 650 to 700nm

4 Photographic Rays of Modern Photography

1.X-Rays - 1 to 30 nm

2.UV Rays - 30 to 400 nm

3.Visible Light - 400 to 700 nm

4.Infrared Rays - 700 to 100 nm

Primary Colors of Light

1.Red

2.Green

3.Blue

Secondary Colors of Light

1.Yellow

2.Cyan

3.Magenta

White - is the presence of all color.

Black - is the absence of all colors or the absence of light.

Primary Colors of Coloring Matters

1.Red

2.Yellow

3.Blue
Bending of Light - When traveling in open space, light travels in a straight line (186,000 miles/second). However, when
light comes in contact with an object, it may be bended in the following manner:

* Reflection

face, it bounces off in all directions due to the

microscopic irregularities of the interface.

* Refraction - It is the change in direction of a wave

due to a change in its speed. This is most commonly observed when

a wave passes from one medium to another.

* Diffraction - It is described as the apparent bending of waves

around small obstacles and the spreading out of waves past small

openings.It is also described as the bending of light when it hits a

sharp edge of an opaque object.

Examples of Diffraction

1.The closely spaced tracks on a CD or DVD act as a diffraction

grating to form the familiar rainbow pattern we see when

looking at a disk;

2.The hologram (a picture that changes when looked at from

different angles) on a credit card.

Kinds of Objects

1.Transparent objects - allows sufficient visible light to pass through

them that the object on the other side may be clearly seen.

2.Translucent objects - allows light to pass, however diffuse it

sufficiently that objects on the other side may not be clearly

distinguished. In some cases the objects on the other side may be

recognizable but sharp detail and outlines are obscured.

3.Opaque objects - so greatly diffuse the light that recognizing the

object on the other side is very difficult if not impossible.

Sources of Light

1.Natural Light Source

2.Artificial Light Source

Natural Light Source (Sunlight)

1.Bright sunlight - a lighting condition where objects in open space cast

a deep and uniform or distinct shadow.

2.Hazy Sunlight - objects in open space cast a transparent shadow.

3.Dull Sunlight - objects in open space cast no shadow

1.Cloudy bright - objects in open space cast no shadow but objects at

far distance are clearly visible.

2.Cloudy dull - objects in open space cast not shadow and visibility of

distant objects are already limited.

Artificial Light Source - Light sources of this category are man-made and is divided into the continuous radiation and the
short duration.

Forensic Light Sources

1.UV Lamp

2.LASER - Light Amplification through Simulated Emission of Radiation.

3.Alternative Light Sources

4.Forensic Light Sources

DEVELOPING, PRINTING AND ENLARGING

Chemical Processing

1.Black & White Processing - development, stop-bath, and fixation.

2.Color Processing - development, stop-fix, and stabilizer

Development - It is the conversion of latent image in an emulsion into visible image.

1.B & W Emulsion - reducing exposed silver halide crystals (black silver)

into metallic silver. (Same reaction is found in photographic papers.)

2.Color Emulsion - Developed silver is replaced with cyan, yellow, and

magenta dye.

Stop-Bath - The purpose of the stop bath is to halt the development of the film, plate, or paper by either washing off the
developing chemical or neutralizing it.

Fixation - The fixer removes the unexposed silver halide remaining on the Photographic film or photographic paper,
leaving behind the reduced metallic silver that forms the image, making it insensitive to further action by light. Without
fixing, the remaining silver halide would quickly darken and cause severe fogging of the image.The most common salts
used are sodium thiosulfate - commonly called hypo - and ammonium thiosulfate, commonly used in modern rapid fixer
formula.

Film Processing - It can be carried out in trays, tanks, or mechanized equipment.

Note:

Panchromatic materials - handled in total darkness.

Blue films, orthochromatic films and printing papers - handled under a safe light.

Equipment for Film Processing

1.Tank or tray

2.Developing reel

3.Opener for film cartridge (pliers)

4.Scissors to cut the tongue of the film

5.Thermometer

6.Timer

7.Funnel

8.Photographic sponge

9.Film clips for drying

10.glass or plastic bottles (gallon size) for storing mixed solutions

Developer Formulation

Typical component:

1.Solvent (water)

2.Developing agent

3.Preservative

4.Accelerator or activator

5.Restrainer

D-76 Film Developer Formula

1.Water 520 C - 750 ml

2.Elon - 2 gm

3.Hydroquinone - 5 gm

4.Sodium Sulfite - 100 gm

5.Borax (granules) - 2 gm

6.Water to make - 1 li
Dektol - Paper Developer

1.Water 520C or 125 0F - 500 m l

2.Elon - 311 gm

3.Hydroquinone - 12 gm

4.Sodium Sulfite - 4.5 gm

5.Sodium carbonate - 67.5 gm

6.Potassium bromide - 1gm

7. Water to make - - 1 li

Stop-Bath - Stop-bath can be plain water only with 28% glacial acetic acid.

Fixing Bath Formula

1.Water

2.Dissolving agent

3.Preservative

4.Neutralizers

5.Hardeners

Typical Fixing Formula:

1.Water 520C or 125 0F - 600 ml

2.Hypo - 240 gm

3.Sodium sulfite - 15 gm(anhydrous)

4.Acetic Acid (28%) - 480 ml

5.Boric Acid (crystals) - 7.5 gm

6.Potassium alum - 15 gm(fine granular

7 Water to make - 1 li

Photographic Painting

1.Contact Printing - It is a procedure of exposing photographic print

materials while it is pressed in contact with the negative being

reproduced.

2.Projection Printing or Enlarging - It is a type of printing where the

image in a negative is optically projected or enlarged onto a print

material for exposure to produce a picture image. The main equipment

 is Enlarger, the so-called camera in reverse.

Equipment for Paper Developing

1.Three plastic trays - one each for the developer, stop-bath, and the

fixer. (The size of the tray is determined by the largest prints size).

2.Metal, plastic, or bamboo tong preferably with rubber ends to hold the

prints.

3.Rubber (surgical) hand gloves.

4.Timers

5.Paper cutter

6.A bigger tray or tank for washing prints.

APPLICATION TO POLICE WORK

General Application

1.Identification purposes

2.Recording and preserving of evidences

3.Discovering and proving of evidences not readily seen by the naked

eye.

4.Recording action of offenders

5.For court exhibits

6.For crime prevention

7.Public information

8.Police training

Specific Applications

1.Identification Photographs

2.Crime-Scene Photography

Edmond Locard - (1877-1966) father of the crime lab. In 1910, he started the first crime lab in an attic of a police station.
Founded the institute of criminalistics in France. His most important contribution was the "Locards Exchange Principle".

Locard Exchange Principle

1. Every contact leaves a trace

2. Every criminal can be connected to a crime by particles carried from the crime scene

3. When a criminal comes in contact with an object or person, a cross transfer of evidence occurs.
J. Edgar Hoover - father of the FBI. Director of the FBI during the 1930s. His leadership spanned 48 years and 8
presidential administration. Organized a national laboratory to offer forensic services to all law enforcement agencies in
the US.

Goals of Forensic Science - to determine the cause,location,and time of death.

Police Photography Reviewer 1

1. A photograph of the crime scene is a factual reproduction and
accurate record of the crime scene because it captures time,
space and ___.
A. person
B. event
C. thing
D. crime scene

2. In police photography it can be used as demonstration

enlargements, individual photos, projection slides, motion pictures
during:
A. Court proceedings
B. Court exhibits
C. Educational tour
D. Crime prevention
3. In photography, the light writes when it strikes minute crystals
of light sensitive surfaces (films and photographic papers) thru
the use of a mechanical device called:
A. Camera
B. Photograph device
C. Film and accessories
D. Flashlight

4. ___ is a mechanical result of photography.

A. Camera
B. Picture
C. Photograph
D. Film

5. The bending of light around an object gives rise to the

phenomenon called ___. This phenomenon is responsible for the
partial illumination of object parts not directly in the path of the
light.
A. detraction
B. retraction
C. diffraction
D. defragmentation

6. What is the approximate wavelength of the primary color red?

A. 700 mu
B. 450 mu
C. 550 mu
D. 590 mu

7. In photography, which one is not a primary color?

A. All of these
B. Cyan
C. Magenta
D. Yellow

8. Refers to the taking in of light by the material. Following the law of

conservation of energy, such light taken in is not lost but merely
transformed into heat.
A. Diffraction
B. Somnambulism
C. Absorption
D. Convection
9. Mediums that merely slow down the speed of light but allow to
pass freely in other respects, transmit 90% or more of the incident
light.
A. Translucent objects
B. Opaque objects
C. Transparent objects
D. None of these

10. The simplest camera is a ___, which consists of a box with a

small hole in one of its sides.
A. Camera obscura
B. Fixed focus camera
C. Pinhole camera
D. Nikkon camera

11. What changes the size of the aperture of the lens and regulates
the amount of light reaching the film?
A. diaphragm
B. shutter
C. lens
D. film

12. What part of the camera controls the opening and closing of the
shutter, regulates the quantity of light that reaches and affects
the sensitized material, a dial which sets the length of time in
which the light is allowed to enter the camera?
A. Shutter speed
B. Focusing mechanism
C. Shutter release button
D. Shutter speed dial

13. The lens is as important a part of a camera as the body. Lenses

are referred to in generic terms as wide-angle, normal, and
telephoto. The three terms refer to the focal length of the lens,
which is customarily measured in ____
A. millimeters
B. inches
C. centimeters
D. mile per second

14. What kind of lens causes light rays to converge, or come

together, and is called a positive lens. A positive lens focuses light
from a distant source into visible image that appears on the
opposite side of the lens to the object.
A. Concave
B. Convex
C. Reflex
D. Converge

15. The process of changing the distance between the center

of the lens to the focal plane. It is the technique of adjusting the
focal length to get the sharp image of the object or scene to
be photographed.
A. Infinity
B. Lens change
C. Focusing
D. Shutting

16. It is important to have the lens at the right distance from the film
otherwise the image of an object point will be seen as a circle
which is__________.
A. clear in appearance
B. blurred in appearance
C. no photo
D. all of these
17. What part of the film consists of silver compounds which are light
sensitive and halogens?
A. Top layer
B. Emulsion layer
C. Film base
D. Film surface

18. It is defined as the product of illumination and time. The unit of it

is usually in meter candle second which is equivalent to exposure
produced by a light source of one candlepower, in the second at a
distance of one meter from the surface of the sensitive material.
A. Photographic exposure
B. None of these
C. Photographic speed
D. Light

19. These are used to control the relative tone values in which colors
are rendered by the photographic process, to lighten or darken
particular colors or to obtain color separation records for color
photography works.
A. Viewing Filter
B. Color Filter
C. Filtering
D. None of these

20.Because of the fact that all negative do not print best on one kind
of paper, and in order to permit printing for special effects,
photographic papers are made in several different grades of
contrast and surface texture. What is the paper made by Kodak
that offers six degrees of contrast and glossy surface?
A. Glossy paper
B. Manila paper
C. Velox paper
D. Bond paper

Answers: Police Photography

1. B
2. B
3. A
4. C
5. C
6. A
7. A
8. C
9. C
10. C
11. A
12. D
13. A
14. B
15. C
16. B
17. B
18. A
19. B
20. C

Personal Identification Reviewer 1

1. The abrupt end of a ridge.
A. Ridge ending
B. Independent ridge
C. Ridge bifurcation
D. Island

2. A single ridge that divides into two ridges.

A. Ridge ending
 B. Bridge
C. Spur
D. Ridge bifurcation

3. A ridge that commences, travels a short distance and then ends.

A. Ridge ending
B. Spur
C. Short ridge
D. Delta

4. A single small ridge inside a short ridge or ridge ending that is

not connected to all other ridges.
A. Delta
B. Spur
C. Short ridge
D. Island

5. A single ridge that bifurcates and reunites shortly afterwards

to continue as a single ridge.
A. Cross-over
B. Ridge enclosure
C. Independent ridge
D. Island
6. A bifurcation with short ridge branching off a longer ridge.
A. Core
B. Independent ridge
C. Spur
D. Delta
7. A short ridge that runs between two parallel ridges.
A. Bridge
B. Short ridge
C. Ridge enclosure
D. Ridge bifurcation
8. A Y shaped ridge meeting.
A. Delta
B. Cross-over
C. Core
D. Spur
9. A U-turn in the ridge pattern.
A. Delta
B. Cross-over
C. Core
D. Spur
10.Major features of a fingerprint.
A. Minutiae
B. Bridge
C. Divergence ridge
D. Cross-over

Remember the following: Personal Identification

1. Ridge ending -The abrupt end of a ridge.

2. Ridge bifurcation - A single ridge that divide into two ridges.

3. Short ridge - A Ridge that commences, travels a short distance

and then ends.

4. Island - A single small ridge inside a short ridge or ridge ending that
is nor connected to all other ridges.

5. Ridge enclosure - A single ridge that bifurcates and reunites

shortly afterwards to continue as a single ridge.

6. Spur - A bifurcation with short ridge branching off a longer ridge.

7. Bridge - A short ridge that runs between two parallel ridges.

8. Delta - A Y shaped ridge meeting.

9. Core - A U turn in the ridge pattern.

10.Minutiae - Major features of a fingerprint.

Personal Identification
1. Fingerprint
2. DNA
3. Forensic Anthropology
4. Facial reconstruction
5. Hair comparisons
Answers: Personal Identification
1. A
2. D
3. C
4. D
5. B
6. C
7. A
8. A
9. C
10. A
Personal Identification Reviewer 2
1. It is an electronic device used to capture a digital image of the
finger print pattern.
A. Fingerprint
B. Fingerprint Identification
C. Fingerprint Sensor
D. Electronic Recording

2. It refers to the identification of humans by their characteristics

or traits.
A. Fingerprint
B. Fingerprint Identification
C. Fingerprint Sensor
D. Biometrics

3. A U-turn in the ridge pattern.

A. Island
B. Delta
C. Bridge
D. Core

4. A Y-shape ridge meeting.

A. Delta
B. Island
C. Cross-over
D. Core

5. A short ridge that runs between two parallel ridges.

A. Ridge Enclosure
B. Bridge
C. Ridge Ending
D. Cross-over

6. A bifurcation with a short ridge branching off a longer ridge.

A. Spur
B. Ridge Bifurcation
C. Ridge Enclosure
D. Island

7. A single ridge that bifurcates and reunites shortly afterwards

to continue as a single ridge.
A. Spur
B. Ridge Bifurcation
C. Ridge Enclosure
 D. Island

8. A single small ridge inside a short ridge or ridge ending that is

not connected to all other ridges.
A. Ridge Ending
B. Island
C. Cross-over
D. Spur

9. A ridge that commences, travels a short distance and then

ends.
A. Short Ridge
B. Ridge Ending
C. Spur
D. Cross-Over

10. Short Ridge is also known as

A. Spur
B. Bridge
C. Island
D. Independent Ridge

Answer:

1. C
2. D
3. D
4. A
5. B
6. A
7. C
8. B
9. A
10. D

Personal Identification Reviewer 3

1. A bridge is also called
A. Spur
B. Island
C. Independent Ridge
D. Cross-Over

2. A single ridge that divides into two ridges.

A. Cross-Over
B. Delta
C. Ridge Bifurcation
D. Island

3. The abrupt end of a ridge.

A. Ridge Ending
B. Short Ridge
C. Island
D. Core

4. Major Features of a fingerprint, using which comparisons of one

print with another can be made.
A. Minutiae
B. Friction Ridge
C. Latent Print
D. Fingerprint Identification
5. A Short Ridge is also known as
A. Spur
B. Core
C. Island
D. Dots

6. Ridges which are significantly shorter than the average ridge

 length on the fingerprint.
A. Delta
B. Dot
C. Spur
D. Bridge

7. It is the point at which a ridge terminates.

A. Core
B. Island
C. Delta
D. Ridge Ending

8. Points at which a single ridge split into two ridges.

A. Island
B. Ridge Enclosure
C. Bifurcation
D. Bridge

9. The ridges enter from one side of the finger, rise in the center
forming an arch and then exit the other side of the finger.
A. Loop
B. Arch
C. Whorl
D. Accidental whorl

10. Ridges form circularly around a central point on the finger.

A. Radial Loop
B. Loop
C. Arch
D. Whorl

Answer:

1. D
2. C
3. A
4. A
5. D
6. B
7. D
8. C
9. B
10. D

Personal Identification Reviewer 4

1. The ridges enter from one side of the finger, form a curve and then
exit on that same side.
A. Accidental Whorl
B. Loop
C. Arch
D. Whorl

2. When is fingerprint ridges formed?

A. First to second month of fetal development
B. Second to third month of fetal development
C. Third to fourth month of fetal development
D. Fourth to fifth month of fetal development

3. It is the process of automatically matching one of many unknown

fingerprints against a database of known and unknown prints.
A. Minutiae
B. Automated Fingerprint Identification System
C. Exemplar
D. Electric Recording
4. A basic fundamental of fingerprints which say that fingerprint
never change.
A. Individuality
B. Permanency
C. Static
D. Variable

5. A basic fundamentals of fingerprint which says that no two

fingerprints are alike.
A. Individuality
B. Permanence
C. Static
D. Variable

6. One of the characteristics of a ridge, the point at which the

ridges terminate.
A. Ridge Ending
B. Bifurcation
C. Dot
D. Island

7. The Y-Shaped split of one ridge into two.

A. Ridge Ending
B. Bifurcation
C. Dot
D. Island

8. It refers to the feet and toes.

A. Palmar
B. Plantar
C. Exemplar
D. Latent

9. It refers to fingers and palms.

A. Palmar
B. Plantar
C. Exemplar
D. Latent

10. It is an impression left by the friction ridges of a human finger.

A. Dermatoglyphics
B. Latent print
C. Friction ridge
D. Fingerprint

Answer:

1. B
2. C
3. B
4. B
5. A
6. A
7. B
8. B
9. A
10. D

Personal Identification Definition of Terms

Accidental whorl - relatively rare pattern having 3 or more deltas or all the characteristics of two or more different
pattern types (excluding the plain arch). This category is used to accommodate those patterns that do not conform to
any of the fingerprint patterns.
Adhesive lifter - any of a variety of adhesive coated materials or tapes used to lift fingerprints or footwear
impressions.They are primarily used to lift powdered impressions from non-pourous surfaces.

AFIS - (automated fingerprint identification system) enables computers to make rapid and accurate comparisons
between fingerprints and the vast number of fingerprints in police records.

Alternate light source - equipment used to produce visible and invisible light at various wavelengths to enhance or
visualize potential items of evidence.

Angle - results from two or more ridges converging with one another at a point.

Anthropometry - method of identification devised by Alphonse Bertillon in the late 19th century,consisting of a set of
body measurements thought to form a unique profile.

Arch - the ridges enter from one side of the finger,rise in the center forming an arc and then exit the other side of the
finger.

Argentina - became the first country to rely solely on fingerprints as a method of individualization.

Bartillonage - a method of classifying human beings by a set of detailed body measurements, invented by Alphonse
Bertillon, a clerk in the French Surete in 1883 but rendered obsolete by fingerprinting.

Bifurcation - (fork) a single ridge splitting or forking into two branches.

Biometrics - refers to the identification of humans by their physiological/behavioral characteristics.

Bridges - a connecting friction ridge between parallel running ridges generally right angles.

Central pocket loop - a variation of the plain whorl pattern.Some ridges tend to form a loop pattern that recurves and
surround a whorl at the center.

Core - A u-turn in the ridge pattern.Approximate center of the pattern area.

Cross over/Bridge - a short ridge that runs between two parallel ridges.

Cyanoacrylate fuming - important method for the visualization of latent fingerprints.Also called "super glue fuming".

Delta - the nearest point nearest the typeline divergence,a characteristic junction in the looped ridge pattern seen in the
fingerprints of approximately 65% of people.The outer terminal point of the pattern nearest the type line divergence.A
Y-shape ridge meeting.
Dental records - a standard system for classifying a persons teeth according to distribution,displacement, and their
appearance together with any gaps or evidence of remedial work; useful for identifying bodies because of the virtual
indestructibility of the teeth.

Dermis - the layer of the skin just below the epidermis or outer layer.The dermis has a rich supply of blood
vessels,nerves, and skin structures.

Divergence - is the spreading a part of two ridges that have been running parallel or nearly parallel.

Diverging ridges - diverging ridges are parallel for some distance but then swing out away from each other.

DNA profile - consists of a set of DNA identification characteristics that permit the DNA of one person to be
distinguishable from that of another person.

Dot - a very short ridge and means exactly what the word implies.

Double loop - (twinned loop) another type of whorl.In it ,two separate loop formations are present and may surround
each other.

Enclosure,ridge - a single ridge that bifurcates and reunites shortly afterwards to continue as a single ridge.also known
as lakes.

Enhance - to develop or to bring out from a latent form.

Enlargement - a print made from a smaller negative or slide through magnification.

Epidermis - the outermost non vascular covering of the skin.

Femur - the thighbone which can be measured and used as a guide to the height of the person to whom it belong.

Fingerprint pattern type - formed by a series of lines corresponding to ridges (hills) and grooves (valleys) on the skin of
the fingertip.There are eight basic types of fingerprint patterns.

Fingerprint powder - a powder (silver,gray,black,red, or fluorescent) dusted on a latent print with a brush to enhance or
bring out the ridge details of a print.

Fingerprint recognition/Fingerprint identification - refers to the automated method of verifying a match between two
human fingerprints.
Focal point - are found within most pattern areas, usually a delta and core.

Forensic odontology - the study of teeth,dentures,and bite marks for the purpose of obtaining criminal evidence or
identifying physical remains or the source of the bite wounds.

Friction ridge skin - skin on the soles of the feet,palms of the hands, and fingers of humans ans some primates that form
ridges and valleys.Friction ridge skin forms classifiable patterns on the end joint of the finger.

Horizontal plane - is the ridge directly below an up thrusting or angular ridge in tented arch pattern,the baseline ridge
enters the pattern may rise slightly and exits on the opposite side from which it enters.

Identikit - the first packaged system for reconstructing the appearance of a suspects face based on a wide choice of
drawings of facial features.

Iodine fumes - the oldest method for visualizing latent fingerprints at a crime scene.

Island - a single small ridge inside a short ridge or ridge ending that is not connected to all other ridges.

Langer's lines - structural orientation of the fibrous tissue of the skin that forms the natural cleavage line present in all
body areas but visible only in certain areas such as the creases of the palms.

Latent print - generally used to describe any type of print found at the scene of a crime or on evidence associated with a
crime.Latent prints are normally not visible.Some means of development is generally required for their visualization.

Line of flow - imaginary line between the delta and core in the loop and whorl patterns.Line of flow is used to determine
sufficient recurve in patterns.

Loop - the ridges enter from one side of a finger,form a curve and then exit on the same side.

Major criminal prints - a recording of all of the friction ridge skin that covers the hands.Major criminal prints include
fingers,palms,tips of the fingers and middle joints of the finger on both sides.

Minutiae - the characteristics that make each fingerprint capable of being differentiated from any other print by a
different area of friction skin.Comparison of latent prints with known prints begins with the overall pattern.The ridge
detail of fingerprints including the ends of the ridges,their separations, and their relationships to one another constitute
the bases for fingerprint comparison.

Palmar zone - the elevated area just behind the fingers and above the center of the palm.This zone has no hair follicles
and thus, no apocrine or sebaceous glands.

Pattern area - is that part of the fingerprint impression used in the interpretation and classification of a finger.Is that
part of a loop or whorl in which appear the core,delta, and ridge.
Plain arch - the simplest pattern.The ridges enter on one side,rise to form a wave in the center and exit smoothly on the
opposite side.

Plain whorl - a pattern in which one or more ridges form a complete revolution around the center.Whorls generally
have two or more deltas.

Plantar - pertaining to the sole of the foot.

Radial loop - a loop formed as part of a fingerprint pattern that opens toward the thumb, recurve and then exit on the
same side

Ridge count - is the number of ridges intervening between the delta and the core.

Ridge crossing - a point where two ridge units intersect.

Ridge ending - the point of the ridge's termination.It is considered an ending ridge only if it terminates within the
pattern area.

Rojas murder case - considered the first homicide solved by fingerprint evidence.

Short ridge - a relative term used to denote a ridge that is not as long as the average ridge in that specific print.

Spur - a bifurcation with a short ridge branching off a longer ridge.also known as hooks.

Tented arch - variation of the plain arch.Ridges at the center are thrust upward in a more abrupt manner similar to the
appearance of a tent pole.

Tibia - the shin bone, often used as guide for calculating a persons height.

Tracings - are used to breakdown whorl patterns into smaller sub-groupings.

Trifurcation - one single ridge splitting into three-pronged fork-shaped pattern.

Typelines - the two innermost ridges that surround or tend to surround the pattern area.The pattern area of a loop
surrounded by two diverging ridges.

Ulnar loop - a pattern in which one or more ridges enter on the side toward the little finger, re-curve and then exit
toward the same side.
Visible print - sometimes referred to as a patent print.Made by fingers stained with colored materials such as
blood,ink,paint,grease, or dirt.

Whorls - fingerprint pattern where the ridges turn through at least one complete circuit.Ridges form circularly around a
central point of the finger.

Forensic Medicine

Forensic medicine - the science that deals with the application of medical knowledge to legal question.

Clinical Forensic Medicine - involves an application of clinical methods for the administration of justice.

Paulus Zacchias - father of legal medicine as well as father of forensic psychiatry.

Medical Ethics - deals with the moral principles which should guide members of the medical profession in their dealings
with each other, their patients and the state.

Medical Etiquette - deals with the conventional laws of courtesy observed between members of the medical
profession.A doctor should behave with his colleagues as he would have them behave with himself.

Hippocrates - father of medicine, discussed lethality of wounds and formulated medical ethics.

Forensic Pathology - deals with the study and application of the effects of violence or unnatural disease in its various
forms in or on the human body, in determining the cause and manner of death in case of violence, suspicious,
unexplained, unexpected, sudden, and medically unattended death.

Pathology - is the precise study and diagnosis of disease.

Pathologist - a medical doctor who conducts an autopsy.

Autopsy - post mortem examination of a corpse.

Other names of an autopsy

post-mortem examination

necropsy -particularly as to non human body

autopsia cadavarem

obduction

Objectives of Autopsy

1. To find out the time of death.

2. To find out the cause of death.

3. To find out the manner of death, whether

accidental, suicidal or homicidal.

4. To establish the identity of the body.

5. In new born infants, to determine live birth or

viability.

Exhumation - is the digging out of an already buried body from the grave.

Disease - is an abnormal condition affecting the body of an organism.

Cadaver - also called corpse, is a dead human body.

Carcass - dead body of an animal.

Injury - is damage to a biological organism which can be classified on various bases.

wound - is a type of injury in which the skin is torn, cut, or punctured or where blunt force trauma causes a contusion.

Classification of wound

open wound - is a break in the skin's surface resulting in external bleeding.

closed wound - the skin is not broken open and remains intact.

Classification//Categories of open wounds

incised wound - caused by a clean, sharp edged object such as a knife, razor or a glass splinter.

laceration - irregular tear like wound caused by some blunt trauma.

abrasion - (grazes) - superficial wound in which the top most layer of the skin is scraped off. Are often caused by a sliding
fall into a rough surface.

puncture wound - caused by an object puncturing the skin such as nail.

penetration wound - caused by an object such as a knife entering and coming out from the skin.

gunshot wound - caused by a bullet or similar projectile driving into or through the body. There may be two wounds,
one at the site of entry and one at the site of exit generally referred to as through and through.

Classification/Categories of closed wound

contusions - commonly known as bruises, caused by a blunt force trauma that damages tissue under the skin.

hematoma - called blood tumor, caused by damage to a blood vessel that in turn causes blood to collect under the skin.

crush injury - caused by a great or extreme amount of force applied over a long period of time.

Picture
incised wound

Picture

laceration

abrasion

abrasion

puncture wound

puncture wound

penetration wound

penetration wound

gunshot wound
gunshot wound

laceration

crushing injury

contusion

contusions

hematoma

hematoma

Ante Mortem - before death.

Post Mortem - scientific term for after death.

Cadaver tag - an identification tag attached to the cadaver containing tag number, name if identified, date/time and
place of recovery, date/time of incident, gender, other pertinent information and name of the investigator.

In articulo mortis - at the point of death.

Rigor mortis - stiffening of the body after death.

lividity - process through which the body's blodd supply will stop moving after the heart has stopped pumping it around
the inside of the deceased.

Necrophagus - this type of organism feeds directly on decomposing tissue.

37 degrees celsius or 98 degrees fahrenheit - average body temperature.

4 Categories of Death

natural causes

homicide/killing

accidental death

suicide

Vital signs -are measures of various physiological statistics often taken by health professionals in order to assess the
most basic body functions.

body temperature

pulse rate/heart rate

blood pressure

respiratory rate

Death - cessation of all biological functions that sustains a living organism.

Causes of death

old age

predation - biological interaction where a predator (organism that is hunting) feeds on its prey (the organism that is
attacked).

malnutrition

disease

accidents

injury
Signs of death

cessation of breathing

cardiac arrest - no pulse

livor mortis - settling of the blood in the lower dependents of the body.

algor mortis - reduction in body temperature following death.

rigor mortis - the limbs of the corpse become stiff and difficult to move.

decomposition - reduction into simple form of matter accompanied by strong unpleasant odor.

Cadaveric Spasm - sudden rigidity of the muscle immediately after death. A rare form of muscular stiffening that occurs
at the moment of death,persists into the period of rigor mortis and can be mistaken for rigor mortis.

Other Names of cadaveric Spasm

1. Instantaneous rigor

2. Cataleptic rigidity

3. Instantaneous rigidity

4. Death grip

5. Post Morten spasm

When does the stiffness of death begin to disappear? after 36 hours.

What is the rate of temperature change to a body after death? after one hour,body temperature drops 1 to 1 1/2
degrees per hour.

Dying Declaration - is a testimony that would normally barred as hearsay but may nonetheless be admitted as evidence
in certain kinds of cases because it constituted the last words of a dying person.

Nemo Morituros Praesumitur Mentiri - a dying person is not presumed to lie.

Zombie - an animated corpse brought back to life by mystical means such as witchcraft.

Coffin Birth - (post Morten fetal extrusion) - is the expulsion of a non viable fetus though the vaginal opening of the
decomposing body of a pregnant woman as a result of the increasing pressure of the intra abdominal gases.

Code of Hammurabi - King of Babylon (4000 to 3000 BC) is the oldest known medico legal code.

Bologna, Italy - where the first medico-legal autopsy was done.

Bartolomeo de Varignana - conducted the first medico-legal autopsy in Italy in 1302.

Fortunato Fedele - an Italian physician who in 1602 published the first book on forensic medicine.

Inquest - is the legal or judicial inquiry to ascertain a matter of fact.

Euthanasia - (mercy killing) - it means producing painless death of a person suffering from hopelessly incurable and
painful disease. It is not allowed by law in the Philippines.

Malingering/Shamming - means conscious, planned feigning or pretending disease for the sake of gain.

The Rule of Haase - is used to estimate age of fetus.The length of the fetus in cm. divided by five, is the duration of
pregnancy in months.

Forensic Entomology - is the use of insects and their arthropod relatives that inhabit decomposing remains to aid in legal
investigations.

What are the 5 stages of insect development?

1. Eggs

2. Larvae

3. Prepupae

4. Pupae

5. Adult fly

What are the 2 methods of biological forensics are concerned with? entomology and DNA.

Residence time - this defines how long an insect colony has been at a corpse.

The body farm - used for entomological experiment.This place exists at the University of Tennessee.

Forensic Medicine Definition of Terms

Abrasion - a skin injury caused by scraping off of superficial skin due to friction against a rough surface.

Adipocere - a peculiar waxy substance consisting of salts and fatty acids and formed from the decomposition of corpse
tissues, specially in moist habitats, also called grave-wax.

Aedeagus - the reproductive organ of a male insect.

Agnosia - impairment or loss associated with brain injury of the ability to recognized or comprehend the meaning of
stimuli including familiar objects and and symbols.

Airways - any part of the respiratory tract thought which air passes during breathing.
Alveolar ducts - the smallest of the lungs airways that connect terminal bronchioles and alveolar sacs, sometimes called
bronchioles.

Alveoli - microscopic air sacs in which gas exchange between the blood and the lungs occur.

Amnesia - partial or total loss of memory for past experiences.

Anarthria - loss of the ability to form words accurately caused by brain lesion or damage to peripheral nerves that carry
impulses to the articulatory muscles.

Anemia - any condition in which the number of red blood cells, the amount of hemoglobin, and the volume of packed
red blood cells per 100 ml of blood are less than normal. It may result from increased destruction of red blood cells,
excessive blood loss or decreased production of red cells.

Aplastic anemia - anemia caused by aplasia of bone marrow or its

destruction by chemical agents or physical factors.

Auto immune hemolytic - acquired disorder characterized by

premature erythrocyte destruction owing to abnormalities in the

individuals own immune system.

Hemolytic - anemia caused by hemolysis of red blood cells

resulting in reduction of normal red cell life span.

Iron-deficiency anemia - anemia resulting from a demand on

stored iron greater than can be met.

Megaloblastic anemia - anemia in which megaloblasts are found

in the blood, usually due to a deficiency of folic acid or vitamin

B12.

Microangiopathic hymolytic - a hemolytic process associated

with thrombotic thrombotic purpura, prosthetic heart valve, and

burns. It is visualized in the peripheral blood smear by

fragmentation of the red cells and other bizarre morphology.

 Pernicious - a type of megaloblastic anemia due to a deficiency of

vitamin B12, directly linked to absence of intrinsic factor.

Sickle-cell - hereditary chronic anemia in which abnormal sickle or

crescent shaped erythrocytes are present.It is due to the

presence of hemoglobin S in the red blood cells.

Antibody - a protein produced for body defense in response to an antigen.An antibody is a substance that appears in the
plasma or body fluids as a result of stimulation by an antigen and will react specifically with that antigen in some
observable way.

Anticoagulant - a substance such as EDTA that prevent coagulation or clotting of the blood.

Antigen - a foreign substance, usually a protein, capable of stimulating an antibody response for body defense.Any
substance that when introduced parenterally into an individual lacking lacking the substance,stimulates the production
of an antibody that when mixed with the antibody react with it in some observable way.

Aplasia - failure of an organ or tissue to develop normally.

Asphyxia - lack of oxygen or excess of carbon dioxide in the body.Asphyxia may lead to unconsciousness, seizures,
damage to various sensory systems and death.

Asthma - a chronic condition in which constriction (spasm) of the bronchial tubes occurs in response to irritation, allergy,
or other stimuli.

Atherosclerosis - deposition of plaques of cholesterol esters in blood vessels, resulting in the narrowing of the vessel
lumen and restricting blood flow.

Atrophy - a loss of function due to age, disuse, or disease.

Autism - mental introversion in which thinking is governed by personal needs and the world is perceived in terms of
wishes rather than reality.Extreme preoccupations with one's own thoughts and fantasies.

Autopsy - a physical examination of the corpse through dissection to determine cause of death (also necropsy and
postmortem).

Bestiality - is a sexual intercourse by a human being with a lower animal.

Biopsy - a small piece of tissue excised for the purpose of analysis.

Bite mark - a circular or oval patterned injury consisting of two opposing symmetrical.U-shaped arches separated at their
bases by open spaces.Following the periphery of the arches are a series of individual abrasions, contusions, or
lacerations reflecting the size, shape, arrangement, and distribution of the class characteristics of the contacting
surfaces of the human dentition.

Bloat - the transient phase in corpse decomposition that follows the fresh phase and is characterized by excessive
swelling, produced by gases trapped internally.

Blood group - an immunologically distinct, genetically determined class of human erythrocyte antigens, identified as A,
B, AB, and O.A classification of red blood cell surface antigens, ABO is the best known of the blood group systems.

Blood type - a way of saying which blood group antigens are present on the persons red cells.

Bloodborne pathogen - infectious, disease causing microorganism that maybe found or transported in biological fluids.

Bloodstain - liquid blood that has dried once it has come in contact with a surface.

Body bag - a heavy waterproof bag usually closed with a zipper and used to transport a corpse.

Body dump site - the location where an offender disposes of the murder victim's body.

Bondage - the combining of sadism and masochism.

Bronchi - (singular-bronchus) large divisions of the trachea that convey air to and from the lungs.

Bronchiole - a small diameter airway branching from a bronchus.

Bronchitis - inflammation of the mucus membrane of the bronchial tubes, usually associated with a persistent cough and
sputum production.

Bronchospasm - contraction of the smooth muscle of the bronchi causing the narrowing of the bronchi.This narrowing
increases the resistance or airflow into the lungs and may cause a shortness of breath typically associated with
wheezing.

Buccal coitus - (coitus per os or sin of Gomorrah) the male organ is introduced into mouth, usually of a young child.

Cadaver dog - canines specially trained to find human decomposition scent and alert their handlers to its location.

Cadaverine - malodorous chemical compound produced during decomposition.

Cause of death - an injury or disease that ultimately lead to death of the individual, generally determined by medical
examiner or coroner (pathologists).

Carrion - decaying animal flesh.

Cephalothorax - the anterior body region in some arthropods consisting of the fused head and thorax.

Cerebellum - the large brain mass located at the posterior base of the brain, responsible for balance and coordination of
movement.

Cerebral contusion - bruising of brain tissue marked by swelling and hemorrhage and resulting in loss of consciousness.

Cerebral edema - swelling of the brain caused by excessive buildup of fluid in the tissue.

Cerebral infarctions - is an ischemic stroke resulting from a disturbance in the blood vessels supplying blood to the brain.

Cerebrum - the largest portion of the brain, include the cerebral hemispheres (cerebral cortex and basal ganglia)

Chronic - persistent, prolonged, repeated.

Cirrhosis - a chronic disease of the liver marked by degeneration of cells, inflammation, and fibrous thickening of the
tissue, can be cause =d by long term alcoholism, viral infections, and metabolic disease.

Clitoris - erectile tissue in female analogous to male penis, located above the urethra and covered by the clitoral hood.

Clot - a thick mass of coagulated liquid, ex. blood.A blood clot is formed by a complex mechanism involving plasma
protein, fibrinogens, platelets, and other clotting factors.

Coagulation - the process of stopping blood flow from a wound or by which blood forms clot.

Coagulophaty - a disease affecting the blood clotting process.

Code of Hammurabi - is the oldest known medico legal code.

Coma - state of profound unconsciousness from which the patient can not be aroused.

Concussion - sudden shock to or jarring of the brain which may or may not cause a loss of consciousness.
Conjunctiva - the delicate mucous membrane that covers the exposed surface of the eyeball and lines of the eyelids.

Contact wound - a wound that results when a small weapon is fired in contact with the skin.May divided into tight or
loose contact wounds based on the amount of pressure used against the skin.

Contusion - a bruise that is either superficial or internal.An injury cause by blunt object impact without laceration with
surface discoloration due to subsurface hemorrhaging.An injury to subsurface tissue caused by a blow from a blunt
instrument that does not break the skin.

Convulsion - is a medical condition where the body muscle contract and relax rapidly and repeatedly, resulting in an
uncontrolled shaking of the body.

Cornea - the transparent membrane that cover the colored part of the eye.

Coronary artery - an artery supplying blood to the heart.

Coroner - (medical examiner) (pathologists) an officer responsible for determining the manner and cause of death.

Corpse - a dead human body, also called cadaver.

Cunnilingus - is the oral stimulation of the female genitalia.

Death - the loss of life characterized by clinically by combined failure of respiratory, cardiovascular, and nervous system
activity.

Decomposition - post mortem degenerative rotting of the corpse.Chemical breakdown, separating compounds into their
component parts, includes breakdown pf proteins by putrefaction, of carbohydrates by fermentation, and of fats by
rancidification.

Decubitus - may be seen as a bedsore that can produce an ulcer in the body caused by lying long in one position, this
pressure necrosis can be found on elderly patients.

Defense wounds - stab or incised wounds to the hands, wrists, forearms, and arms that may contain embedded
fragments of the weapon.

Delirium - extreme mental excitement marked by defective perception, impaired memory, and rapid succession of
confused and unconnected ideas, often with illusions and hallucinations.

Delusion - firm belief opposed to reality but maintained in spite of strong evidence to the contrary.

Diatoms - are microscopic, unicellular, silica coated algae. Presence of diatoms in tissue is a sign of ante-Morten
drowning.Diatoms are examined by acid digestion technique.
Dipsomania - an irresistible desire for alcoholic drinks at periodic intervals.

Durham rule - an accused person is nor criminally responsible if his unlawful act is the product of mental disease or
mental defect.

Ecchymosis - is the medical term for a subcutaneous purpura larger than 1 centimeter or a hematoma, commonly called
a bruise.

Eclampsia - an acute disorder of pregnant and puerperal women, associated with convulsions and coma.

Embolism - obstruction of a blood vessel by foreign substances or by a blood clot.

Endemic - a disease that occurs continuously in a particular population but has a low mortality rate such as measles.

Endocarditis - inflammation of the lining membrane of the heart.Maybe due to invasion of microorganisms or an
abnormal immunologic reaction.

Epidural hemorrhage - bleeding in the space between the dura matter and skull or wall of the vertebral canal around the
spinal cord.

Epistaxis - hemorrhage from the nose, nosebleed.

Erythrocytes - red blood cells.A type of blood cell that contain a nucleus in all vertebrates but man and that has
hemoglobin in the cytoplasm.

Erythroderma - intense, widespread reddening of the skin.

Esophagus - the portion of the digestive canal extending from the throat to the stomach, also referred to as gullet.

Eunuchs - male prostitutes.

Euthanasia - (mercy killing) it means producing painless death of a person suffering from hopelessly incurable and
painful disease.

Exoskeleton - a skeleton on the outside of the body whose inner walls serves as a point for the attachment of muscles.

Feces - animal solid waste material discharged from the rectum through the anus.End product of digestion after
absorption of nutrients and re-absorption of water.

Felacio - is the oral stimulation or manipulation of the penis either by the female or male.
Fetichism - sexual satisfaction by contact with articles of opposite sex.

Forensic medicine - is the application of medical knowledge in the administration of law and justice.

Forensic taphonomy - the study of post-mortem processes affecting human remains for the purposes of interpreting
forensic data.

Fortunato Fedele - an Italian physician who in 1602 published the first book on forensic medicine.

Frigidity - is the inability to start or to maintain the sexual arousal pattern in the female.

Frotteurism - contact with other persons to obtain sexual gratification.

Gangrene - death of tissue due to lack of blood supply.

Gastritis - inflammation of the stomach, characterized by epigastric pain or tenderness, nausea, vomiting, and systemic
electrolyte changes if vomiting persists.

Glaucoma - a disease of the eye characterized by abnormal and damaging high pressure in the eye, usually due to a
blockage of the channel that normally allows the outflow of fluid from the eye.

Hematology - branch of biology that deals with blood and blood forming organs.

Hematoma - accumulation of blood in the tissue due to internal hemorrhaging.A tumor of blood caused by leakage from
damage blood vessels, it contains enough blood to form a blood-filled space.

Hemolysis - destruction or dissolution of red blood cells in such a manner that hemoglobin is liberated into the medium
in which the cells are suspended.

Hemolytic anemia - Any anemia resulting from destruction of red blood cells.

Hemophilia A hereditary blood disease characterized by impaired coagulability of the blood and a strong tendency to
bleed.

Hemoptysis - Coughing and spitting of blood as a result of bleeding from any part of the respiratory tract.

Hemorrhage - Escape of whole blood from a blood vessel. Abnormal internal or external bleeding. May be venous,
arterial, or capillary from blood vessels into the tissues, or into or from the body.

Herniation - Rupture of tissue into an adjacent space due to internal pressure or swelling.

Hijrahs - castrated eunuchs.

Homosexuality - means persistent emotional and physical attraction to members of same sex.

Hymen - Thin membrane, in females, that separates the external genitalia from the vagina. The outer surface is a dry,
squamous epithelium, and the inner surface is a moist mucous membrane.

Hypothermia - Having a body temperature below normal.

Hypovolemia - Diminished blood volume.

Hypoxia - Condition in which below-normal levels of oxygen are present in the air, blood, or body tissues, short of
anoxia.

Impetigo - Highly contagious, rapidly spreading skin disorder caused by staphylococcus or streptococcus and
characterized by red blisters. Impetigo sometimes occurs as a result of poor hygiene.

Inbreeding - Reproduction between related individuals.

Incised wound - Injury produced by a sharp instrument and characterized by lack of surface abrasion and absence of
bridging vessels, nerves, and smooth margins.

Incision - A wound produced by a sharp-edged instrument or object.

Ischemia - Obstruction of blood flow (usually by arterial narrowing) that causes lack of oxygen and other bloodborne
nutrients.

Ischemia necrosis - Death of cells as a result of decreased blood flow to affected tissues.

Invertebrate - Any species of animal lacking a back bone.

Impotence - is the inability of a person to perform sexual intercourse.

Jaundice - yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes due to an accumulation of bile pigments (e.g., bilirubin) in the
circulating blood. Another cause is liver damage caused by hepatitis.

Kleptomania - an irresistible desire to steal articles of little value.

Labia majora - Outer lips to the vagina that are covered by pubic hair after menarche (onset of menstruation).

Laceration - A wound produced by a tear in the skin due to application of blunt force in crushing or shearing.

Livor mortis - A coloration of the skin of the lower parts of a corpse caused by the settling of the red blood cells as the
blood ceases to circulate.
Lymphocyte - A general class of white blood cells that are important components of the immune system of vertebrate
animals.

Maggot - The larva of a higher fly. It sheds its skin twice and has three growth instars prior to pupariation. A legless larva
without a well-developed head capsule.

Mandible - A mouth organ of invertebrates (especially in the arthropods and insects) used for seizing, biting, and
manipulating food. With vertebrate organisms, it is recognized as the lower jaw.

Manner of death - A typology of deaths according to whether they are due to homicide, suicide, accident, or natural
causes. Death occurs in one of four manners: natural, if caused solely by disease; accidental, if it occurs without
apparent intent; suicidal, if caused by the deceased; and homicidal, if someone other than the deceased caused it.

Malingering - (shamming) means conscious, planned feigning or pretending a disease for the

Masochism - opposite of sadism, derived from the name of Leopold Von Sacher-Masoch, an Austrian novelist, being
whipped by his wife used to be a stimulant for his literary work.

Medical jurisprudence - deals with the legal rights, privileges, duties and obligations of medical practitioner.

Meningitis - Brain infection involving an acute inflammation of the membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord,
characterized by drowsiness, confusion, irritability, and sensory impairments.

Mite - Any arthropod in the order Acari. These are very small to minute animals having four pairs of legs in the adult
stage, but only three pairs in the larva. All mites have chelicerated mouth parts and lack mandibles.

Mummification - The drying, shrinking, and hardening of dead flesh due to extreme dehydration.

Mutilomania - an irresistible desire to mutilate animals.

Myiasis - The invasion of any living vertebrate animal, including people, by fly larvae, especially maggots. The description
may be further refined to indicate location affected (e.g., nasal myiasis, rectal myiasis) or the predisposing cause (e.g.,
traumatic myiasis in a suppurating wound). Myiasis may be classified as either primary or secondary (facultative).

Myocardial ischemia - Insufficient oxygen supplies to meet the metabolic demands of heart muscles.

Myocarditis - Inflammation of the muscles of the heart.

Myoclonus - Involuntary spasm or twitching of a muscle or group of muscles.

Myoglobin - The oxygen-transporting, pigmented protein of muscle resembles blood hemoglobin in function.
Myotomy - Cutting of muscle; in forensic odontology, cutting facial muscles to release postmortem rigor mortis.

Necrophagia - necros - corpse, phagia - to eat.

Necrophilia - sexual intercourse with dead body.

Necrophilous - Having a dietary fondness for dead flesh.

Necrosis - Death of one or more cells or a portion of a tissue or organ.

Neoplasm - A new and abnormal formation of tissue such as a tumor or growth.

Neuropathy - A disorder of the nervous system; in contemporary usage, a disease involving the cranial or spinal nerves.

Neuroses - the patient suffer from emotional or intellectual disorder but does not loss touch with reality.

Osteoarthritis - deterioration in joint integrity connected with use-wear exacerbated by inflammation and related to
reduction in bone density.

Osteomyelitis - Inflammation of the bone especially the marrow caused by a pathogenic organism.

Osteoporosis - Increased porosity of the bone, seen most often in the elderly.

Paedophile - (pedophile) is an adult who repeatedly engages in sexual activities with children below the age of puberty.

Paraphilias - abnormal and unorthodox sex play using unusual objects or parts of the body.

Perimortem - At or near the time of death.

Petechiae - Pinhead-sized (red) dots which are minute hemorrhages found inside the eyelids and the facial skin;
considered by pathologists to be a sign of strangulation.

Phobia - it is an excessive or irrational fear of a particular object or situation.

Plasma - The liquid portion of whole blood containing water, electrolytes, glucose, fats, proteins, and gases. Contains all
the clotting factors necessary for coagulation but in an inactive form. Once coagulation occurs, the fluid is converted to
serum.

Pneumonitis - Inflammation of the lungs.

Postmortem - After death, occurring after death, or pertaining to a postmortem examination, an autopsy.
Postmortem - artifact Alteration to the body that occurs after death that is not related to antemortem injury.

Postmortem interval - The period of time between death and corpse discovery.

Priapism - painful penile erection in absence of sexual desire.

Pseudo-malingering - A phenomenon whereby a mentally ill individual feigns the mental illness he or she actually has.
The behavior is considered a temporary ego-supportive device that allows the individual to feel he or she has control
over the illness.

Psychological autopsy - An attempt to determine the mode of death (whether an accident, suicide, homicide, or natural
causes) by an examination of what was known about the deceased.

Psychopath - a person who is neither insane nor mentally defective but fails to conform to normal standards of behavior.

Psychoses - they are characterized by withdrawal from reality, living in a world of fantasy.

Pulmonary edema - Accumulation of extra vascular fluid in the lungs that impairs gas exchange; usually due to either
increased intravascular pressure or increased permeability of the pulmonary capillaries.

Putrifaction - The foul-smelling, anaerobic decomposition of moist or wet organic matter by microorganisms. The
breakdown of tissues, particularly proteins, due to enzyme action.

Pyromania - sexual stimulation while seeing flames or destruction of buildings.

Rigor mortis - The stiffness of the body after death that helps in reconstructing the time at which death occurred. The
progressive rigidity of a corpse following death, caused by an accumulation of lactic acid in dying muscle tissues. This is a
temporary condition lasting 12 to 36 h.

Sadism - sexual gratification is obtained or increased from acts of physical cruelty or causing of pain upon one's
partner.The term is derived from the name of a French nobleman Marquis de Sade, infamous for his crimes and
writings.Many of his stories were about sexuality, cruelty, and torture.

Saponification - The conversion of corpse body fat into a curdlike foul-smelling product called adipocere

Saprophagous - Feeding on dead or decaying plant or animal material, such as carrion, corpses, dung, or rotting wood.

Satyriasis - incessant sexual desire.

Scoliosis - A lateral curvature of the spine.

Scurvy - A deficiency disease characterized by hemorrhagic manifestations and abnormal formation of bones and teeth.

Sepsis - Pathologic state, usually febrile, resulting from the presence of microorganisms or their poisonous products in
the bloodstream.

Septicemia - Bacteria in the blood system with signs and symptoms of disease.

Sexual oralism - it is the obtaining of sexual pleasure from the application of the mouth to the sexual organs.

Sodomy - is anal intercourse between two males or between a male and female.It is also called buggery.It is also called
gerontophilia when the active agent is an adult and paederasty, wen the passive agent is a young boy who is known as
catamite.

Tachycardia - Rapid heartbeat (typically greater than 100 beats per minute).

Tachypnea - Rapid breathing.

Tattooing - A characteristic pattern in the skin caused by particles of

unburned and partially burned powder from a shotgun blast at very close range.Also may be called stippling.

Tetany - Condition marked by involuntary muscle contractions or spasms.

Trauma - An injury that is the result of any force such as blunt, sharp, or penetrating.

Transvestism - trans - opposite, vesta - clothing of eonism.The term is derived from the name of Chevelier d'Eon
Beamont, a Frenchman.It is usually found in the males who derived sexual pleasure by wearing female dress.

Tribadism - female homosexuality.Sexual gratification of a woman is obtained by another woman by simple lip
kissing,generalized body contact, deep kissing, manual manipulation of breast and genitalia, genital apposition, friction
of external genital organs, etc.In some case, artificial penis or phallus may be used.

Throttling - is manual strangulation.

Undinism - sexual pleasure by witnessing the act of urination.

Vasodilation - Increased diameter of the blood vessels.

Voyeurism - (scoptophilia) peeping tom, sexual enjoyment by watching.

Wheezing - Breathing noisily and with difficulty; usually a sign of spasm or narrowing of the airways.

Zenana - eunuch with intact genitalia.

Lie Detection and Interrogation

 (Polygraph)

Polygraph - popularly referred to as lie detector. - measures and records several psychological indices such as blood
pressure, pulse, respiration and skin conductivity while the subject is asked ans answers a series of questions.

- literally means "many writings".

- is derived from two Greek words "Poly"-

which means many and "Graphos"-

which means writing.

blood pressure - is the pressure exerted by circulating blood upon the walls of blood vessels and is one of the principal
vital signs.

pulse - represents the tactile arterial palpitation of the heartbeat by trained fingertips. It can also be measured by
listening to the heart directly using a stethoscope.

respiration - the transport of oxygen from the outside air to the cells within tissues and the transport of carbon dioxide
in the opposite direction.

skin conductivity - also known as Galvanic sin response - is a method of measuring the electrical conductance of the skin
which varies with its moisture level.

ohmmeter - is an electrical instrument that measures electrical resistance, the opposition to an electric current.

galvanometer - an instrument for detecting and measuring electric current.

stimuli - is applied to sensory receptor, it influences a reflex via stimulus transduction.

Personalities who contributed to the development of the polygraph machine.

Cesare Lombroso - he invented in 1895 a device to measure changers in blood pressure for police case.

John Augustus Larson - a medical student at the University of California at Berkeley, invented the polygraph in 1921.The
device record both blood pressure and galvanic skin response. Further work on this device was done by Leonarde Keeler.

Leonarde Keeler - was the co-inventor of the polygraph. He developed the so called cardio-pneumo psychogram capable
of detecting deception and worked on to produce the modern polygraph.

William Marston - an american who used blood pressure to examine german prisoners of war.

John Reid - In 1948, developed a device which recorded muscular activity accompanying changes in blood pressure. He
claimed greater accuracy could be obtained by making the recordings simultaneously with standard blood pressure,
pulse, and respiration recordings.

Two types of present day polygraph instrumentation

analog

computerized - most polygraph examiners now used this.

Types of Questions in a Polygraph Test

1. Control Question - preliminary information question

2. Irrelevant Question -

3. Relevant Question
 - In a polygraph test, the types of questions

alternates, the test is passed if the physiological

responses during the probable lie control questions

are larger than those during the relevant

question.

Lie Detection - is the practice of determining whether someone is lying.

Three Basic Approaches To The Polygraph Test

1. The Control Question Test (CQT) - this test

compares the physiological response to relevant

questions about the crime with the response to

questions relating to possible prior misdeeds. This

test is often used to determine whether certain

criminal suspects should be prosecuted or classified

as uninvolved in the crime.

2. The Directed Lie Test (DLT) - this test tries to detect

lying by comparing physiological responses when

the subject is told to deliberately lie to responses

when they tell the truth.

3. The Guilty Knowledge Test (GKT) - this test

compares physiological responses to multiple choice

type questions about the crime, one choice of which

contains information only the crime investigators

and the criminal would know about.

3 Phases Of A Polygraph Examination

1. Pre-Test Phase - the examiner discusses with the

subject the test issue, review the test questions

that will be ask during the test and assess the

subjects emotional and physiological suitability to

undergo the polygraph test.

2. Testing Phase - subjects physiological responses

are recorded as the subject answers a set of

questions reviewed earlier.

3. Post Test Phase - examiner reviews test data

 obtained and interprets the polygraph chart.

Conclusions That A Polygraph Examiner May Reach

1. Subject is telling the truth

2. Subject is not telling the truth

3. The result is inconclusive

* A polygraph test normally lasts between one and a

half hours to two and a half hours.

* Polygraph test result in the philippines is not

admissible in evidence as proof of the guilt of an

accused.

* Polygraph test is voluntary.

* The accuracy of polygraph test is about 90%

provided the examiner is competent and the

polygraph machine is in good working condition.

* Polygraph is an investigative tool.

* The principle behind a lie detection test is that when

the subject hears a questions which he or she

intends to lie, the brain interprets and triggers

automatic and uncontrollable physiological changes

captured by the polygraph.

Who Uses The Polygraph

1. Law Enforcement Agencies

2. Legal Community

3. Private Sector

Kinds of Errors in a Polygraph Test

1. False Positive - occurs when a truthful examinee

is reported as being deceptive.

2. False Negative - when a deceptive examinee is

 reported as truthful.

Causes of Polygraph Errors

1. Failure of examiner to properly prepare the

examinee for the examination.

2. Misreading of the physiological data on the

polygraph charts.

3. Defective polygraph machine.

Reactions - changes in blood pressure, pulse rate,

breathing and sweat activity.

Lie Detection and Interrogation Reviewer 1

1. A portion of rice spit from a person’s mouth revealed whether he or

she was lying. Spitting out dry rice indicated the dry mouth of a

liar.This form of lie detection originated in

A. India

B. China

C. England

D. Africa

2. During the Middle Ages, torture was used as a means of forcing a

person to tell the truth.This was prevalent in what continent?

A. Asia

B. Africa

C. South America

D. Europe

3. In the early 1700s, He was the first to move away from torture by

suggesting that deception could be evaluated by monitoring the

heart rate.

A. Ceasar Lombroso

B. Daniel DeFoe

C. William Marston

D. Ken Adler

4. In 1764, He wrote of torture, “By this method, the robust will

 escape, and the feeble be condemned.

A. Cesare Lombroso

B. Daniel DeFoe

C. Cesare Beccaria

D. William Marston

5. He became the first person to use science as a method of detecting

deception.

A. Cesare Lombroso

B. Daniel DeFoe

C. Cesare Beccaria

D. William Marston

6. The Father of Modern Criminology Cesare Lombroso, became the

first person to use science as a method of detecting deception in

the year

A. 1895

B. 1925

C. 1896

D. 1926

7. He developed a method of measuring the amount of sweat a

suspect produced during interrogation. This was determined by the

electrical conductibility of the suspect’s skin.

A. B. Sticker

B. C. Lombroso

C. D. Sticker

D. C. Beccaria

8. The first “polygraph” machine was actually a copy machine invented

in

A. 1801

B. 1803

C. 1802

D. 1804

9. In the early 1900s, He invented what he called the “ink polygraph”.

 This was used to monitor cardiovascular responses by measuring

pulse and blood pressure.

A. Ken Adler

B. Vittorio Benussi

C. James MacKenzie

D. Cesare Lombroso

10.In 1914, He used pneumatic tubing to study an individual’s

breathing rates. The device wrapped around the person’s chest and

measured depth and rate of breath.

A. Vittorio Benussi

B. Ken Adler

C. James MacKenzie

D. Cesare Lombroso

Remember the following: Lie Detection and Interrogation

1. A portion of rice spit from a person’s mouth revealed whether he or

she was lying. Spitting out dry rice indicated the dry mouth of a

liar.This form of lie detection originated in China.

2. In Europe, During the Middle Ages, torture was used as a means of

forcing a person to tell the truth.

3. In the early 1700s, Daniel DeFoe was the first to move away from

torture by suggesting that deception could be evaluated by

monitoring the heart rate.

4. In 1764, Cesare Beccaria wrote of torture, “By this

method, the robust will escape, and the feeble be condemned.

5. The Father of Modern Criminology Cesare Lombroso, became the

first person to use science as a method of detecting deception in

the year 1895.

6. Cesare Lombroso became the first person to use science as a

method of detecting deception.

7. B. Sticker developed a method of measuring the amount of sweat a

suspect produced during interrogation. This was determined by the

electrical conductibility of the suspect’s skin.

8. The first “polygraph” machine was actually a copy machine invented

in 1804.

9. In the early 1900s, James MacKenzie invented what he called the

“ink polygraph”. This was used to monitor cardiovascular

responses by measuring pulse and blood pressure.

10. In 1914,Vittorio Benussi used pneumatic tubing to study an

individual’s breathing rates. The device wrapped around the

person’s chest and measured depth and rate of breath.

Answer: Lie Detection and Interrogation

1. C

2. D

3. B

4. C

5. A

6. A

7. A

8. D

9. C

10. A

Lie Detection and Interrogation Reviewer 2

1. The First Polygraph school.

A. Keeler Institute

B. Scherers Institute

C. Marston Institute

D. Larsons Institute
2. The First Full -time professional polygraph examiner.

A. Leonarde Keeler

B. William Marston

C. John Larson

D. Ron Decker

3. It measures systolic blood pressure as a means of determining

whether a suspect was lying during an interrogation.

A. Sphygmomanometer

B. Emotograph

C. Kymograph

D. Psychogalvanometer

4. A U.S case wherein the examiner’s testimony regarding a defendant’s

fact of passing the polygraph test was not accepted in evidence.

A. U.S vs. Ohio

B. Keeler vs. U.S

C. Frye vs. U.S

D. Larson vs. U.S

5. He invented the modern polygraph machine in 1921.

A. Leonarde Keeler

B. William Marston

C. John Larson

D. Ron Decker

6. Polygraph literally means:

A. Many Writings

B. Different Writings

C. Various Writings

D. Cursive Writings

7. The first to discover the phenomenon we now know as electrodermal

response.

A. Leonarde Keeler

B. Ron Adler

C. John Larson
 D. Marie Gabriel Vigouroux

8. Cesare Lombroso was the first to experiment with a device measuring

blood pressure and pulse to detect deception in criminal

suspects. He called it:

A. Sphygmograph

B. Hydrosphygmograph

C. Cardiograph

D. Pneumograph

9. The first polygraph machine suitable for use in criminal investigation

was invented by:

A. Cesare Lombroso

B. Leonarde Keeler

C. Vittorio Venussi

D. John Larson

10. An instrument for recording variations in pressure, e.g., in sound

waves or in blood within blood vessels, by the trace of a stylus on

a rotating cylinder.

A. Kymograph

B. Galvanograph

C. Pheumograph

D. Cardiograph

Remember the following: Lie Detection and Interrogation

1. Keeler Institute - The First Polygraph school.

2. Leonarde Keeler - The First Full Time professional polygraph

examiner.

3. Sphygmomanometer - It measures systolic blood pressure as a

means of determining whether a suspect was lying during an

interrogation.

4. Frye vs. U.S - A U.S case wherein the examiners testimony

 regarding a defendants fact of passing the polygraph test was not

accepted in evidence.

5. John Larson - He invented the modern polygraphy machine in 1921.

6. Polygraph literally means "many writings".

7. Marie Gabriel Vigouroux - The first to discover the phenomenon we

now know as electrodermal response.

8. Cesare Lombroso was the first to experiment with a device measuring

blood pressure and pulse to detect deception in criminal suspects,He

called it Hydrosphygmograph.

9. The First Polygraph machine suitable for use in criminal investigation

was invented by John Larson.

10. Kymograph - This device allow the chart paper to be pulled

under the recording pens at constant speed.

11. The Following sectors uses the polygraph examination

1. Private Sector

2. Legal Community

3. Law enforcement,Military and Government

1. A

2. A

3. A

4. C

5. C

6. A

7. D

8. B

9. D

10. A

Lie Detection and Interrogation Reviewer 3

1. An Italian scientist who in 1895, theorized that when in emotional

stress or tension, blood would rush to the head.

 A. Mosso

B. Cesare Becarria

C. Cesare Lombroso

D. William Marston

2. He built a delicately balanced board with a center fulcrum.A person

lying on this board was placed under stress and blood would rush

to his head causing the board to tilt down at the head.

A. Mosso

B. Cesare Becarria

C. Cesare Lombroso

D. Dr. William Marston

3. In 1895, he used measurements of blood pressure changes during

interrogations using a water pressure apparatus.

A. Angelo Mosso

B. Cesare Becarria

C. Cesare Lombroso

D. Dr. William Marston

4. This water pressure apparatus is known today as:

A. Cardiograph

B. Cardiosphygmograph

C. Pneumograph

D. Hydrosphygmograph

5. He established in 1915 the relevance of blood pressure changes in

the systolic blood pressure.

A. Mosso

B. Cesare Becarria

C. Cesare Lombroso

D. Dr. William Marston

6. He developed the first instrument to record simultaneously a person's

blood pressure, pulse rate and respiration changes.

A. Veraguth

B. Cesare Lombroso
 C. Dr. John Larson

D. Dr. William Marston

7. He found out in 1914, that distinct changes occur in the respiratory

patterns during attempt to deceive.

A. John Larson

B. Cesare Lombroso

C. Vittorio Benussi

D. Dr. William Marston

8. He conducted experiments in lie detection by measuring and

recording the rate and depth of the subject's respiration.

A. John Larson

B. Cesare Lombroso

C. Vittorio Benussi

D. Dr. William Marston

9. An Italian physiologist accidentally discovered that a dissected frog

leg would twitch and contract spasmodically at the touch of a

scalpel charged with electricity.

A. Mosso

B. Luigi Galvani

C. Vittorio Benussi

D. Dr. William Marston

10.He had found that current or "galvanic electricity" flowed through

animal tissue.

A. Mosso

B. Luigi Galvani

C. Vittorio Benussi

D. John Larson

Remember the following:Lie Detection and Interrogation

1. Mosso - An Italian scientist who in 1895, theorized that when in

emotional stress or tension, blood would rush to the head.

2. Mosso - He built a delicately balanced board with a center

fulcrum.A person lying on this board was placed under stress and

blood would rush to his head causing the board to tilt down at the

head.

3. Cesare Lombroso - In 1895, he used measurements of blood

pressure changes during interrogations using a water pressure

apparatus.

4. This water pressure apparatus is known today as

Hydrosphygmograph

5. Dr. William Marston - He established in 1915 the relevance of blood

pressure changes in the systolic blood pressure.

6. Dr. John Larson - He developed the first instrument to record

simultaneously a person's blood pressure,pulse rate and

respiration changes.

7. Vittorio Benussi - He found out in 1914, that distinct changes

8. Vittorio Benussi - He conducted experiments in lie detection by

measuring and recording the rate and depth of the subject's

respiration.

9. Luigi Galvani - An Italian physiologist accidentally discovered that a

dissected frog leg would twitch and contract spasmodically at

10.Luigi Galvani - He had found that current or "galvanic

Electricity" flowed through animal tissue.

11. The 3 Basic components of a polygraph machine

1.Cardiosphygmograph - Records heart/blood pressure.

2.Pneumograph - Records breathing.

3.Galvanograph - Records electrical current in the skin.Known as

Galvanic skin response and Galvanic skin conductance.

Answers: Lie Detection and Interrogation

1. A

2. A

3. C

4. D

5. D

6. C

7. C

8. C

9. B

10. B

Lie Detection and Interrogation Reviewer 4

1. In 1897, He was one of the first to suggest the use of the (EDA)

Galvanic Skin Response as an indicator of deception.

A. Mosso

B. Larson

C. Sticker

D. Marston

2. He was the first to make word association test using the galvanometer.

A. Veraguth

B. Mosso

C. Sticker

D. Marston

3. Many scientist have studied human behavior in relation to lie

detection.Among them was this man who did not use an instrument

approach but many of his theories in the psychology of deception are

embodied in polygraph procedure today.

A. Veraguth

B. A. R. Luria

C. Sticker

D. Mosso

4. In 1932, He wrote, the criminal is certainly far from being indifferent to

his experience,but on the contrary,he puts himself in an active relation

 to his experience,its trauma,urging him into activity - conditions the

dynamics of his behavior.

A. Veraguth

B. A.R. Luria

C. Sticker

D. Mosso

5. He developed in 1926, the metal recording bellows. He also incorporated

the kymograph and the rolled chart paper. He used these developments

together with the cardio and pneumo components,developing the

first polygraph instrument known today.

A. Leonarde Keeler

B. Veraguth

C. Cesare lombroso

D. A.R. Luria

6. He is the father of polygraph.

A. Leonarde Keeler

B. William Marston

C. John Larson

D. Cesare Lombroso

7. He devised the first structured test questions. The test is made up

using relevant questions interspersed with irrelevant questions. The R

and I test.

A. Leonard Keeler

B. William Marston

C. Sticker

D. John Larson

8. He used Keeler's technique and after testing numerous subjects, he

found that in using that technique he was getting too many

inconclusive result and an unacceptable error rate.

A. A.R Luria

B. Mosso

C. Veraguth

D. John Reid
9.In the detection of deception,He developed a structured technique

using comparison questions.

A. A.R. Luria

B. Mosso

C. Veraguth

D. John Reid

10.He operates the National School of Lie Detection and developed

his known lie and probable lie question technique and the guilt

complex question.

A. Leonard Keeler

B. Mosso

C. John Reid

D. Dick Arther

Remember the following: Lie Detection and Interrogation

1. Sticker - In 1897, He was one of the first to suggest the use of the

(EDA) Galvanic Skin Response as an indicator of deception.

2. Veraguth - He was the first to make word association test using the

galvanometer

3. A. R. Luria - Many scientist have studied human behavior in relation to

lie detection.Among them was this man who did not use an instrument

approach but many of his theories in the psychology of deception are

embodied in polygraph procedure today.

4. A.R. Luria - In 1932, He wrote, the criminal is certainly far from being

indifferent to his experience,but on the contrary,he puts himself in an

active relation to his experience,its trauma,urging him into activity -

conditions the dynamics of his behavior.

5. Leonard Keeler - He developed in 1926, the metal recording

bellows.He also incorporated the kymograph and the rolled chart

 paper.He used these developments together with the cardio and

pneumo components,developing the first polygraph instrument known

today.

6. Leonard Keeler - He is the father of polygraph.

7. Leonard Keeler - He devised the first structured test questions.The

test is made up using relevant questions interspersed with irrelevant

questions.The R and I test.

8. John Reid - He used Keeler's technique and after testing numerous

subjects,he found that in using that technique he was getting too

many inconclusive result and an unacceptable error rate.

9. John Reid - .In the detection of deception,He developed a structured

technique using comparison questions.

10.Dick Arther - He operates the National School of Lie Detection and

developed his known lie and probable lie question technique and the

guilt complex question.

Answers: Lie Detection and Interrogation

1. C

2. A

3. B

4. B

5. A

6. A

7. A

8. D

9. D

10. D

Lie Detection and Interrogation Reviewer 5

1. He introduced the symptomatic question or myth to

disclose whether or not an outside issue is bothering the subject.

 A. Dick Arther

B. Leonarde Keeler

C. John Reid

D. Cleve Backster

2. Manufactured the first commercial polygraph instrument

for Leonarde Keeler.

A. Associated Press Inc.

B. Associated Research Inc.

C. Associated Manufacturing Inc.

D. Associated Detection Inc.

3. The name of the first manufactured polygraph instrument.

A. Keeler polygraph instrument

B. Associated Detecting instrument

C. Larson polygraph instrument

D. Marston polygraph instrument

4. If a subject looked down and moved his toe in a circular motion while

being interrogated, he was taught to be deceptive. This ancient

deception detection is known as:

A. Nervous behaviorism

B. The ordeal of the sacred donkey

C. The ordeal of rice

D. The sacred ass

5. If the suspect's tongue was not burned, he was judged innocent.

If the suspect's tongue was burned, he was judged guilty. This

ancient deception detection is known as:

A. The hot iron test

B. Bear the hot iron test

C. The ordeal of the hot iron

D. The ember test

6. What company is the leader in the manufacture of polygraph?

A. Lafayette Instrument Company

B. Axciton
 C. Stoelting

D. Limestone

7.Where is the largest polygraph market in the world?

A. Russia

B. Ukraine

C. U.S.A

D. Georgia

8. Depending on the complexity of the case and the number of issues

being tested a polygraph examination generally takes______.

A. 1-2 hours

B. 3-4 hours

C. 2-3 hours

D. 4-5 hours

9. What is the longest phase of the polygraph examination?

Ans. Pre-test interview

10.Who is the most prominent polygraph examiner of all time?

A. Leonarde Keeler

B. John Larson

C. William Marston

D. Cleeve Backster

Remember the ff: lie detection and interrogation

1. Cleve Backster - He introduced the symptomatic question or myth

to disclose whether or not an outside issue is bothering the subject.

Now Known as Backster Zone Comparison technique.

2. Associated Research Inc. - Manufactured the first commercial

polygraph instrument for Leonard Keeler.

3. Keeler polygraph instrument - The name of the first

manufactured polygraph instrument.

4. If a subject looked down and moved his toe in a circular motion while

being interrogated, he was taugh to be deceptive.This ancient

deception detection is known as Nervous behaviorism.

5. If the suspect's tongue was not burned,he was judged innocent.

If the suspect's tongue was burned,he was judged guilty.This

ancient deception detection is known as The ordeal of the hot

iron.

6. Lafayette instrument company is the leader in the manufacture of

polygraph instrument.

7. The largest polygraph market in the world is Ukraine.

8. Depending on the complexity of the case and the number of issues

being tested a polygraph examination generally takes 2 to 3 hours.

9.The longest phase of the polygraph examination is the

Pre-test interview.

10.The most prominent polygraph examiner of all time is

Leonard Keeler.

11. Present day manufacturers of polygraph instrument

1. lafayette

2. stoelting

3. Axciton

4. Limestone

1. D

2. B

3. A

4. A

5. C

6. A

7. B

8. C
9.

10. A

Forensic Ballistics

Forensic ballistics - is the science of analyzing firearms usage in crimes. It involves analysis of bullets and bullets impact
to determine information of use to a court or other part of legal system. Separately from the ballistics information,
firearm and tool mark examinations also involves analyzing firearm, ammunition and tool mark evidence in order to
established whether a certain firearm or tool was used in the commission of crime.

Ballistics -(ballein "to throw") - is the science of mechanics that deals with the flight, behavior and effects of projectiles
especially bullet, gravity bombs, rockets or the like.

Ballistic missile - is a missile, only guided during the relative brief initial powered phase of flight whose course is
subsequently governed by the laws of classical mechanics.

Flight - is the process by which an object moves through an atmosphere by generating aerodynamic lift, propulsive
thrust, aerostatically using buoyancy or by ballistic movement without any direct solid mechanical support from the
ground.

Firearms identification - the identification of fired bullets, cartridge cases or other ammunition components as having
been fired from a specific firearm.

Rifling - is the process of making helical grooves in the barrel of a gun or firearm which imparts a spin to a projectile
around its long axis. This spin stabilize the projectile, improving its stability and accuracy.

Projectile - is any object projected into space by the exertion of a force.

Trajectory - is the path that a moving object follows through space as a function of time.

Firearm - is a weapon that launches one or many projectiles at high velocity through confined burning of a propellant.

Ballistic fingerprinting - involves analyzing firearm, ammunition and tool mark evidence in order to establish whether a
certain firearm or tool was used in the commission of a crime.

Gun ballistic - is the work of projectile from the time of shooting to the time of impact with the target.

Four categories of gun ballistics

Internal/interior ballistic - the study of the processes originally accelerating the projectile. example - the passage of a
bullet through the barrel of a rifle.
Transition/intermediate ballistic - the study of the projectiles behavior when it leaves the barrel and the pressure behind
the projectile is equalized.

External/exterior ballistic - the study of the passage of the projectile through a medium, most commonly the earths
atmosphere.

Terminal ballistic - is the study of the interaction of a projectile with its target.

Colonel Calvin Hooker Goddard - father of forensic ballistic.

Some Factors to be Considered in designing a Firearm

1. reliability of firing

2. accuracy of projectile

3. force of projectile

4. speed of firing

Characteristics of a Muzzle Loader Firearm

1. powder and bullet loaded from top of the barrel

2. smooth bore with a round lead ball.

3. limited range and accuracy

Accuracy is Increased

1. by longer bore or length of metal tube

2. putting spiral grooves in the bore (riffling)

Breech loading firearm - is a firearm in which the cartridge or shell is inserted or loaded into a chamber integral to the
rear portion of a barrel.

Sir Hiram Maxim - an American inventor of the machine gun or the maxim gun.

Richard Gatling - inventor of the Gatling gun, a machine gun with a six barrel capable of firing 200 rounds per minute at
the earliest stages of development.

Gatling Gun - a hand driven, crank operated multi barrel machine gun.

note: velocities of bullets are increased with the use of a jacket of a metal such as copper or copper alloys that covers a
lead core and allow the bullet to glide down the barrel more easily than exposed lead. Such bullets are less likely to
fragment on impact and are more likely to traverse through a target while imparting less energy.

Fouling - deposits of unburned powder residue in the bore of a gun.

What is the indispensable tool of the firearm examiner? comparison microscope.

Firearms Terminology

1. Action - the part of the firearm that loads, fires,

and ejects a cartridge.Includes lever action,pump

action, bolt action,and semi-automatic.The first

three are found in weapons that fire a single shot.

Firearms that can shoot multiple rounds "repeaters"

include all these types of actions but only the semi-

automatic does not require manual operation

between rounds.A truly automatic action is found

on a machine gun.

2. Barrel - the metal tube through which the bullet

is fired.

3. Black Powder - the old form of gun powder

invented over a thousand years ago and consisting

of nitrate,charcoal,and sulfur.

4. Bore - the inside of the barrel.

5. Breech - the end of the barrel attach to the action

6. Bullets - is a projectile propelled by firearm,sling,

airgun.They are shaped or composed differently for

a variety of purposes.

round nose - the end of the bullet is blunted.

hollow point - there is a central cavity in the bullet nose not covered by a metal jacket that creates expansion when a
target is struck, creating more damage.

action 4 - hollow point projectile made of non fragmenting brass with radiopaque plastic tip.

hydra-Shock - hollow point projectile with soft deformable anterior and hard posterior core.

Jacketed - the soft lead is surrounded by another metal, usually copper, that allows the bullet to penetrate a target more
easily.

wad-cutter - the front of the bullet is flattened.

semi-wad-cutter - intermediate between round nose and wad-cutter.

7. Butt or Buttstock - the portion of the gun which

is held or shouldered.

8. Caliber - the diameter of the bore measured from

land to land , usually expressed in hundredths of an

inch (.22 cal) or in millimeters (9mm).

9. Cartridge - also called a round - packages the

bullet, propellant and primer into a single unit within

a containing metallic case that is precisely made to

fit within the firing chamber of a firearm.

Parts of a cartridge

a. bullet

b. case/shell

c. powder

d. primer

10. Centerfire - the cartridge contains the primer in

the center of the base where it can be struck by

firing pin of the action.

11. Chamber - the portion of the action that holds

the cartridge ready for firing.

12. Choke - a constriction of a shotgun bore at the

muzzle that determines the pattern of the fired

shot.

13. Double Action - Pulling the trigger both cocks

the hammer and fires the gun.

14. Double Barrel - two barrels side by side or one

on top of the other usually on a shotgun.

15. Gauge - refers to the diameter of the barrel on a

shotgun in terms of the number of lead balls the

size of the bore it would take to weigh one pound

(10 gauge,12 gauge etc) "410" gauge really refer

to caliber,but it is worded as such to refer to a

shotgun.

16. Hammer - a metal rod or plate that typically

drives a firing pin to strike the cartridge primer to

detonate the powder.

17. Ignition - the way in which powder is ignited.Old

muzzle loading weapons used flintlock or

percussion caps.Modern guns use primers that are

rimfire or centerfire.

18. Lands and Grooves - lands are the metal inside

 the barrel left after the spiral grooves are cut to

produce the rifling.

19. Magazine - this is a device for storing cartridges

in a repeating firearm for loading into the chamber.

20. Magnum - for rifles and handguns, an improved

version of a standard cartridge which uses the

same caliber and bullets,but has more powder,

giving the fired bullet more energy.For shotgun

loads,magnum shells have more powder and may

have increased length with more shot pellets.

21. Muzzle - the end of the barrel out of which the

bullet comes.

22. Pistol - synonym for a handgun that does not

have a revolving cylinder.

23. Powder - modern gun cartridges use smokeless

powder that is relatively stable,of uniform quality,

and leaves little residue when ignited.For centuries

black powder was used and was quite volatile

(ignited at low temperature or shock),was

composed of irregularly sized grains,and left a

heavy residue after ignition,requiring frequent

cleaning of bore.

24. Primer - a volatile substance that ignites when

struck to detonate the powder in a cartridge.

Rimfire cartridges - have primer inside the base.

Centerfire cartridges - have primer in a hole in the middle of the base of the cartridge case.

25. Revolver - handgun that has a cylinder with

holes to contain the cartridges.The cylinder

revolves to bring the cartridge into position to be

fired.This is a single action when the hammer must

be cocked before the trigger can fire the weapon.

It is double action when pulling the trigger both

cock and fires the gun.

26. Riffling - the spiral grooves cut inside a gun

barrel that give the bullet a spinning motion.The

metal between the grooves is called a land.

27. Rimfire - the cartridge has the primer distributed

 around the periphery of the base.

28. Safety - a mechanism of an action to prevent

firing of the gun.

29. Shotgun - a gun with a smooth bore that shoots

cartridges that contain "shot" or small metal pellets

of lead or steel as the projectiles.

30. Smoothbore weapons - have no riflings,

typically shotguns.Most handguns and rifles have

riflings.

31. Sights - the device on top of the barrel that allow

the gun to be aimed.

32. Silencer - a device that fits over the muzzle of

the barrel to muffle the sound of a gunshot.Most

work by baffling the escape of gases.

33. Single Action - the hammer must be manually

cocked before the trigger can be pulled to fire the

gun

34. Smokeless Powder - refers to modern gun

powder which is not really powder but flakes or

nitrocellulose and other substances.Not really

smokeless but much less so than black powder.

35. Stock - a wood,metal,or plastic frame that holds

the barrel and action and allows the gun to be held

firmly.

Composition of Gunpowder

1. Sulfur

2. Charcoal

3. Saltpeter (potassium nitrate)

- gun powder first appeared in china but used

primarily in firecrackers.

Different Firing Mechanisms of Firearm

1. Matchlock - employed a burning wick on a spring

that was "locked" back and released into a pan of

powder upon pulling a trigger. The powder in the

pan then ignited, sending flame through a small

 hole into the barrel chamber of the weapon,

igniting a larger powder charge in the chamber and

sending the projectile (bullet) forward.

2 Wheellock - in the early 16th century, improvement

included the wheellock mechanism in which a

spinning wheel against a metal plate showered

sparks into the pan holding the priming powder.

3. Flintlock - developed in the early 17th century,

flint is released by the trigger mechanism that

strikes a steel plate to shower sparks into the pan

filled with powder.

4. Percussion - evolved in the 19th century,

consisted of a hammer that was locked and when

released, struck a cap containing a volatile

"primer" that ignites on impact, sending a flame

 through a small tube into the barrel chamber.

- next, inventors combined the individual components

including the bullet, powder charge and primer all in

a single cartridge which could be introduced directly

into the chamber.

Forensic Ballistics Definition Of Terms

Acetone - The simplest ketone. A solvent for gun powder.A highly flammable,water-soluble solvent.

Action - the action of the gun consists of all the moving parts that facilitate

the loading,firing,discharging of the empty case and unloading of the gun.

Action, revolver - a firearm,usually a handgun with a cylinder having several chambers so arrange as to rotate around an
axis and be discharge successively by the same firing mechanism.

Action, semi-automatic - a repeating firearm requiring a separate pull of the trigger for each shot fired and which uses
the energy of discharge to perform a portion of the operating or firing cycle (usually the loading portion).

Actuator - part of the firing mechanism in certain automatic firearms that slides forward and back in preparing each
cartridge to be fired.Also called trigger actuator.

Ammunition - one or more loaded cartridges consisting of a primed case,propellant and with one or more projectiles.

Anvil marks - microscopic marks impressed on the forward face of the rim of a rimfire cartridge case as it is forced
against the breech end of the barrel by the firing pin.These marks are characteristic of the breech under the firing pin
and have been used to identify firearm.

AP - abbreviation for armor-piercing ammunition.

Apogee - the maximum altitude a projectile will reach when shot in the air.

Assault rifle - automatic weapon designed to be fired by one man.Ammunition is fed from a magazine.

Automatic - a firearm capable of ejecting a cartridge casing following discharge and reloading the next cartridge from
the magazine.

Automatic action - a firearm design that feeds cartridges,fires, and ejects cartridge cases as long as the trigger is fully
depressed and there are cartridges available in the feed system.

Auto-safety - a locking device on some firearms designed to return to the on or safe position when the firearm is
opened.

Azo dye - a result of the Griess test where nitrates from gunpowder residues are converted to an orange-red dye.

Ball ammunition - military small arms ammunition with full metal jacket bullets,also known as hard ball.

Ballistics - the study of a projectile in motion,following the projectile travel from primer ignition to barrel exit,to target
entry and until motion is stopped.

Ballistics,exterior - The study of the motion of the projectile after it leaves the barrel of the firearm.

Ballistics,Interior - the study of the motion of the projectile within the firearm from the moment of ignition until it
leaves the barrel.

Ballistics,terminal - the study of the projectiles impact on the target.

Barium - alkaline earth metal with chemical symbol Ba,atomic number 56.Present as barium nitrate in the primer.

Barium nitrate - a common oxidizer of the primer compound used in gun cartridges.

Barrel - that part of a firearm through which a projectile travels under the impetus of powder gases,compressed air, or
other like means,may be rifled or smooth.

BB - air rifle projectile of 0.177 in. diameter or a shotgun pellet of 0.18 in. diameter.

BBB shot - shotgun pellet of 0.19 in. diameter.

Beretta - is an Italian firearms manufacturer.It is the oldest active firearms manufacturer in the world.
Beveling - (external or internal) defects that occur when a projectile passes through a flat bone.The perforation in the
bone is typically larger and more cone shaped as the bullet passes from the entrance through the bone to the exit.

Bipod - is an attachment for a weapon that creates a steady plane for whatever it may be attached.

A two-legged rest or stand as for rifle or machine gun.

Black powder - the earliest form of propellant.It is a mechanical mixture of potassium nitrate or sodium nitrate,charcoal
and sulfur.

Blasting cap - a small explosive charge triggered by lighting a safety fuse or applying an electric current used to detonate
high explosives.

Blunderbuss - is a muzzle-loading firearm with a short,large caliber barrel which is flared at the muzzle and frequently
throughout the entire bore and used with shot and other projectiles of relevant quantity and/or caliber.

Bolt action - is a type of firearm action in which the weapons bolt is operated manually by opening and closing of the
breech (barrel) with a small handle most commonly placed on the right hand side of the weapon for (right hand users).

A firearm in which the breech closure is in line with the bore at all times.It is manually reciprocated to
load,unload and cock and is locked in place by breech-bolt lugs and engaging abutments usually in the receiver.

Bore - the interior of a barrel,forward of the chamber.

Bore brush - A brush usually having brass,nylon,or plastic bristles which is used to clean deposits from the bore of a
firearm.

Bore diameter - in a rifled barrel,it is the minor diameter of a barrel which is the diameter of a circle formed by the tops
of the lands.In a shotgun,it is the interior dimensions of the barrel forward of the chamber but before the choke.

Brass - a slang term sometimes used for fired cartridge cases.

Breech - the part of the firearm at the rear of the bore into which the cartridge of propellant is inserted.

Breech block - the locking and cartridge head-supporting mechanism of a firearm that does not operate in line with the
axis of the bore.

Breech blot - the locking and cartridge head-supporting mechanism of a firearm that operates in line with the axis of the
bore.

Breech face - that part of the breech block or breech bolt that is against the head of the cartridge case or shot shell
during firing.
Breech face markings - negative impression of the breech face of the firearm found on the head of the cartridge case
after firing.

Breech-loading weapon - is a firearm in which the cartridge or shell is inserted or loaded into a chamber integral to the
rear portion of a barrel.

Broach - rifling tool consisting of a series of circular cutting tools mounted on a long rod.The rifling is cut in on pass of
the broach through the gun barrel.

Browning arms co. - is a maker of firearms founded in Utah in 1927.

Buckshot - lead pellet ranging in size from 0.20 in. to 0.36 in. diameter.

Bullet - is a projectile propelled by a firearm,sling,or air gun.

Bullet-bearing surface - that part of the outer surface of a bullet that comes into direct contact with the interior surface
of the barrel.

Bullet creep - the movement of a bullet out of the cartridge case due to the recoil of the firearm and the inertia of the
bullet.Also called bullet starting.Also known as popping.

Bullet,frangible - a projectile designed to disintegrate upon impact on a hard surface in order to minimize ricochet or
spatter.

Bullet jacket - usually a metallic cover over the core.

Bullet,lead - a standard lead bullet having a harder metal jacket over the nose formed from a lead alloy,also known as
metal-point bullet.This non spherical projectiles is for use in a rifled barrel.

Bullet recovery system - any method that will allow the undamaged recovery of a fired bullet.Water tanks and cotton
boxes are most commonly in use.

Bullet wipe - a dark ring-shaped mark made up of lead,carbon,oil and dirt brushed from a bullet as it enters the skin and
found around the entry wound.The discolored area on the immediate periphery of a bullet hole,caused by bullet
lubricant,lead,smoke bore debris or possibly,jacket material.Sometimes called burnishing or leaded edge.

Burr striations - a roughness or rough edge especially one left on metal in casting or cutting.A tool or device that raises a
burr.

Butt - in handguns,the buttom part of the grip frame.In long guns,it is the rear of shoulder end of the stock.
Caliber - the approximate diameter of the circle formed by the tops of the lands of a rifled barrel.

Cannelure - a circumferential groove generally of a knurled or plain appearance in a bullet or the head of a rimless
cartridge case.

Carbine - a rifle of short length and lightweight originally designed for mounted troops.

Cartridge - is also called a round, packages the bullet,propellant (usually smokeless powder or gun powder) and primer
into a single unit within a containing metallic case that is precisely made to fit within the firing chamber of the firearm.

Cartridge case head - the base of the cartridge case which contains the primer.

Cartridge,centerfire - any cartridge that has its primer central to the axis in the head of the case.

Cartridge,rimfire - a flange-headed cartridge containing the priming mixture inside the rim cavity.

Center of impact - the points of impact of the projectiles being dispersed about a single point.

Chamber - the rear part of the barrel bore that has been formed to accept a specific cartridge.Revolver cylinders are
multi-chambered.

Chamber mark - individual microscopic marks placed upon a cartridge case by the chamber wall as a result of any or all
of the following 1. chambering 2. expansion during firing 3. extraction.

Choke - (shotgun) the constriction of the barrel of a shotgun to reduce the spread of shot as it leaves the gun to increase
its effective range.

Clip - a separate cartridge container used to rapidly reload the magazine of a firearm.Also called stripper.

Coefficient of form - a numerical term indicating the general profile of a projectile.

Combination gun - a multiple-barreled firearm designed to handle different sizes or types of ammunition.

Concentric fractures - patterns of cracks in glass pierced by a missile like a bullet which runs between the radial fractures
and which originate on the side of the glass from which the impact came.

Copper-clad steel - a composite structure of copper and steel used for the manufacture of certain bullet jackets.Metallic
element with the chemical symbol Cu and atomic number 29 that commonly comprises "cartridge brass" that is typically
70% copper and 30% zinc (Zn)
Centerfire - is a cartridge with a primer located in the center of the cartridge case head.Unlike rimfire cartridges,the
primer is a separate and replaceable component.

Chamber - is that portion of the barrel or firing cylinder in which the cartridge is inserted prior to being fired.

Clay pigeon shooting - (clay target shooting) formally known as inanimate bird shooting is the art of shooting at special
flying targets known as clay pigeons or clay targets with a shotgun or any type of firearm.

Cylinder - rotating chambered breech of a revolver. Damascus barrel - an obsolete barrel-making process.The barrel is
formed by twisting or braiding together steel and iron wires or bars.The resulting cable is then wound around a mandrel
and forged into a barrel tube.This type of barrel is also called a laminated barrel.

Decant - the process of pouring off the supernatant during separation from a pellet after a mixture has been centrifuged
or left to settle.

Derringer - the generic term applied to many variations of pocket size pistols either percussion or cartridge made by
manufacturers other that Henry Derringer up to present time.

Discharge - to cause a firearm to fire.

Disconnector - a device to prevent a semi-automatic firearm from firing full automatic.Some pump action shotguns also
have disconnectors.

Distance determination - the process of determining the distance from the firearm, usually the muzzle, to the target
based upon pattern of gunpowder or gunshot residues deposited upon that target.Where multiple projectiles such as
shot have been fired,the spread of those projectiles is also indicative of distance.

Double action - a gun action where the pulling of trigger to fire a round recocks the gun so that the next round is ready
to be fired.

Drawback effect - the presence of blood in the barrel of a firearm that has been drawn awkward due to the effect
created by discharged gasses.This is seen frequently in close-range contact gunshot injuries.

Driving edge,fired bullet - the driving edge of a fired bullet with a right twist is the left edge of the groove impression or
the right edge of the land impression.The driving edge of a fired bullet with left twist is the right edge of the groove
impression or the left edge of the hand impression.

Ejection - the act of expelling a cartridge or cartridge cases from a firearm.

Ejection pattern - the charting of where a particular firearm ejects fired cartridge cases.

Ejector - a portion of a firearms mechanism that ejects or expels cartridges or cartridge cases from a firearm.
Ejector marks - tool marks provided upon a cartridge or cartridge case on the head,generally at or near the rim from
contact with the ejector.

Extractor - a mechanism for withdrawing a cartridge or cartridge case from the chamber of a firearm.

Extraction mark - tool mark produced upon a cartridge or cartridge case from contact with the extractor.These are
always found on or just ahead of the rim.

Firearm identification - a discipline of forensic science that has as its primarily concern determining whether a
bullet,cartridge case or other ammunition component was fired by a particular firearm.

Firing pin - that part of a firearm mechanism that strikes the primer of a cartridge to initiate ignition.Sometimes called
hammer nose or striker.

Firing pin drag marks - the tool mark produced when a projecting firing pin comes into contact with a cartridge case or
shot-shell during the extraction and ejection cycle.

Firing pin impression - the indentation in the primer of a centerfire cartridge case or in the rim of a rimfire cartridge case
caused when it struck by the firing pin.

Flash hole - vent leading from the primer pocket to the body of the cartridge case.

Fouling - the residual deposits remaining in the bore of a firearm after firing.Fouling can change the character of the
identifiable striations imparted to the projectile from one shot to another.

Fragment - a piece of solid metal resulting from an exploding or exploded bomb or a piece of projectile from a firearm.

Gauge - the interior diameter of the barrel of a shotgun expressed by the number or spherical lead bullets fitting it that
are required to make a pound.Thus a 12 gauge in the diameter of a round lead ball using 1/12 of a pound.

Gas cutting - an erosive effect in a firearm caused by the high velocity,high temperature propellant gases.

- The erosion that occurs from the hot gases on the bearing surface and base of a fired bullet.

General rifling characteristics - the number,width and direction of twist of the rifling grooves in a barrel of a given
caliber firearm.

Granules - the individual particles of propellant powder.

Griess test - a chemical test for the detection of nitrates.It is used by firearms examiners to develop patterns of
gunpowder residues (nitrates) around bullet holes.
Grips - a pair of pieces designed to fit the frame of a weapon providing a form fit gripping,usually plastic or wood.

Groove diameter - the major diameter in a barrel that is the diameter of a circle circumscribed by the bottom of the
grooves in a rifled barrel.

Grooves - spiral cuts along the bore of a firearm that cause a projectile to spin as it travels through the barrel providing
stability in flight.

Gun cotton (nitrocellulose) - the principal ingredient of a single base and double base gunpowders. Also known as
cellulose hexanitrate.

Gunpowder - any various powder used in firearms as a propellant charge.

An explosive consisting of a powdered mixture of saltpeter,sulfur,and charcoal.

Gunpowder patterns - the spatial distribution of gunpowder residues deposited upon a surface.

- the test firing of a firearm for a muzzle to target distance determination.

Gunpowder residue - unburned gunpowder,partially burned gunpowder,and smoke from completely burned
gunpowder.Gunpowder residues are the largest part of gunshot residues.

Gunshot residue - the total residues resulting from the discharge of a firearm.It includes both gunpowder and primer
residues plus metallic residues from projectiles,fouling etc.

Gyroscopic stability - the ability of a fired bullet to remain stable in flight due to its spin.

Firearm - an assembly of a barrel and action from which a projectile is propelled by products of combustion.

Flash suppressor - also known as a flash guard,flash eliminator,flash hider, or flash cone, is a device attached to the
muzzle of a rifle or other gun that reduces the chances that the shooter will be blinded in dark conditions.

Frame or stock - The frame is the basic structure of the gun to which the other major parts are attached.The stock is for
rifles and

shotguns.Handguns do not have a stock but rather what is called a grip.

Game - is any animal hunted for food or not normally domesticated.

Griess test - is a chemical analysis test which detects the presence of organic nitrate compounds.

Half-cock - the position of the hammer of a firearm when about half retracted and held by the sear so that it can not be
operated by a normal pull of the trigger.
Hammer - a component part of the firing mechanism that gives impulse to the firing pin or primer.

Handguard - a wooden,plastic,or metal type of forend/forearm that generally encircles the forward portion of the barrel
to protect the hands from heat when firing.

Handgun - a firearm designed to be held and fired with one hand.

Head,(cartridge case head) - the base of the cartridge case that contains the primer.

Headspace - the distance from the face of the closed breech of a firearm to the surface in the chamber on which the
cartridge case bears.

Headspace Gage - an instrument for measuring the distance from the breech face of a firearm to the portion of the
chamber against which the cartridge bears.

Headstamp - numeral,letters,and symbols or combinations thereof stamped into the head of a cartridge case or shot-
shell to identify the manufacturer,caliber,gauge,or give additional information.

Heel - the part of a rifle or shotgun stock at the top of the butt end.

- The rear portion of the bullet or its base.

Hinge frame - any of a large array of pistols,revolvers,shotguns,and rifles whose frames are hinge to facilitate loading
and ejection.Generally the barrel pivots downward.

Holster stock - a holster,usually made of wood that attaches to the rear of the pistol grip of certain handguns and serves
as a shoulder stock.

Hydrochloric acid - a chemical reagent used in the sodium rhodizonate test for lead and other primer residues.

IBIS (integrated ballistics information system) - a database used for acquiring,storing ,and analyzing images of bullets
and cartridge casings. Jacket - cylinder of steel covering and strengthening the breech end of a gun;the envelope
enclosing the lead core.

Kinetics - a dynamic process involving motion.

Lacquer - a sealant used by some ammunition manufacturers to seal the primer and/or bullet in the cartridge case.It is
used as a waterproofing agent.

Land - the raised portion between the grooves in a rifled bore.

Land and groove impressions (right and left turn) - the negative impressions on the surface of a bullet caused by the
rifling in the barrel from which it was fired.
Lead - element with the chemical symbol (Pb) and atomic number 82.Used in the fabrication of bullet and shot for its
formability and lubrication properties.

Leading - The accumulation of lead in the bore of a firearm from the passage of lead shot or bullets.Also called metal
fouling.

Lever action - is a type of firearm action which uses a lever located around the trigger guard area (often including the
trigger guard itself) to load fresh cartridges into the chamber of the barrel when the lever is worked.

Luger - a German semi-automatic pistol widely used in Europe as a military sidearm,manufactured in various calibers
most commonly 7.65 mm and 9 mm.

Machine gun - Bipod or tripod mounted or handheld automatic weapon whose ammunition is fed from a magazine or a
belt.

Magazine - is an ammunition storage and feeding device within or attached to a repeating firearm.

Magazine clip - a container for cartridges that has a spring and follower to feed the cartridges into the chamber of a
firearm.

Mannlicher type bolt - a bolt-action rifle that was designed for the receiver bridge;has a gap at the top to allow passage
of the bolt handle.

Mercury bath - a process using mercury for the removal of lead residue from a barrel.

Metal fouling - metallic bullet material left in the bore after firing.

Microscopic marks - striae or patterns on minute lines or grooves in an object.In firearm and toolmark
identification,these marks are characteristics of the object that produced them and are the basis for identification.

Misfire - failure of the primer mixture to ignite.

Mushroom - used to describe the expansion of a projectile upon impacting a target.

Musket - is a muzzle-loading,smooth-bore long gun fired from the shoulder.

Muzzle - is the end of the barrel from which the projectile will exit.

Obliteration/Obliterated - most often used to refer to serial numbers of firearms that are no longer readable.

Obturation - the act of sealing or preventing the escape of propellant gasses from the breech of a gun.
Orient - the aligning of two bullets that were fired from the same barrel on the comparison microscope so that the land
and groove impressions on those bullets which were produced by the same lands and grooves in the barrel are opposite
each other.Sometimes called phasing or indexing.

Parabellum - a Latin term meaning "for war" used as a cartridge designation.

Pattern - the distribution of a series of shots fired from one gun or a battery of guns under conditions as nearly identical
as possible to that which occured at the crime scene.

Pellet - common name for the smooth,spherical projectiles loaded into shot-shells, also referred to as shot.Also a non
spherical projectile used in airguns.

Percussion cap - a small metal cap with a priming mix that is placed on the nipple of a percussion lock.

Philadelphia derringer - is a small percussion handgun designed by Henry Derringer and a a popular concealed carry
handgun of the era.

Pinfire - is an obsolete type of metallic cartridge in which the priming compound is ignited by striking a small pin which
protrudes radially from hust above the base of the cartridge.

Pistol - (automatic,semi-automatic,single-shot) a small firearm having a stock that fits in the hand and contains a short
barrel.A firearm designed to be fired with one hand and with a chamber that is integral to the barrel.

Pistol Whipping - is the act of using a handgun as a blunt weapon,wielding it as if it were a club.

Pitch,rifling - the angle at which the rifling is cut in relationship to the axis of the bore.It is usually stated as the number
of inches required for one revolution.Also known as rate of twist.

Primer - the ignition component of the cartridge;any igniter that is used to initiate the burning of a propellant.

Primer cratering - the extrusion of the primer into the firing pin hole,this phenomenon can produce identifiable
marks.Also known as primer flowback.

Primer/Fuse - any igniter that is used to initiate the burning of a propellant.

Proof mark - a stamp applied at or near the breech of a firearm after it has passed a proof test.

Proof test - the firing of a deliberate overload to test the strength of a firearm barrel and/or action.

Proof load - a cartridge loaded to specified pressure higher than service loads to test firearms barrels during
manufacture but before assembly,sometimes called blue pill.
Propellant - the chemical composition which when ignited by a primer,generates gas.The gas propels the projectile.Also
called powder,gunpowder,powder,or smokeless.

Propellant gases - the gases created by the burning powder that force the projectile from the gun.

Pump-action - is a rifle or shotgun in which the hand-grip can be pump back and forth in order to eject a spent round of
ammunition and to chamber a fresh one.

Rate of trust - the distance required for the rifling to complete one revolution.

Recoil - the backward movement of thrust of a gun caused by the pressure of the propellant gases in the process of
pushing the projectile forward through the bore.

Recoil operation - an operating principle of automatic and semi-automatic firearms.When the weapon is fired,the barrel
and breechblock initially recoil together.After traveling a short distance,the barrel and breechblock unlock and the
breechblock continues to travel to the rear,extracting and ejecting the expended cartridge.

Reference collections - a collection of various types of firearms and ammunition used by the firearms examiner for the
purpose of test firing weapons for identification of ammunition and firearms.

Reload - a cartridge that has been reassembled with a new primer powder,projectile,or other components.Also,to place
fresh ammunition into the firearm.

Revolver - a type of pistol with a revolving cylinder in the breech chamber to hold several cartridges so that the revolver
may be fired in succession without reloading.

Ricochet - the deflection of a projectile after impact.

Rifle - a firearm having rifling in the bore and designed to be fired from the shoulder.

Rifle slug - a single projectile with spiral grooves and hollow base intended for use in shotguns.The theory of the grooves
is that after leaving the gun barrels muzzle,the slug will rotate and this reach its target much more accurately.

Rifling - is the process of making helical grooves in the barrel of a gun or firearm which imparts a spin to a projectile
around its long axis.

Rim - the flanged portion of the head of a rimfire cartridge,certain types of centerfire rifles and revolver cartridges and
shot-shells.The flanged portion is usually larger in diameter than the cartridge or shot-shells body diameter and provides
a projecting lip for the extractor to engage.In rimfire cartridge,the rim provides a cavity into which the priming mixture is
placed.
Rimfire - is a type of firearm cartridge.It is called a rimfire because instead of the firing pin of a gun striking the primer
cap at the center of the base of the cartridge to ignite it,the pin strikes the base's rim.

Sabot - a device that ensures the correct positioning of a bullet or shell in the barrel of a gun.

- a device,"shoe" which enables a sub-caliber projectile to be fired in a larger caliber barrel.

Safety - a type of device that locks a weapon to prevent accidental discharge.

Seating lines - the circumferential striae parallel to the axis of the projectile generated on the surface of the bullet by the
cartridge case.

Semi-automatic/Self-loading firearm - is a weapon which perform all steps necessary to prepare the weapon to fire
again after firing assuming cartridges remain in the weapons feed device or magazine.

- a firearm that uses the forces of combustion to extract and eject a cartridge and to
chamber a new cartridge from the ammunition source with each pull of the trigger.

Shot - a spherical pellet used in loading shot-shells or cartridges.

Shot spread - the diameter of a shot pattern.

Shotgun - a smooth-bore shoulder firearm designed to fire shot-shells containing numerous pellets or sometimes a
single projectile.

Shot-shell - a cartridge containing projectile designed to be fired in a shotgun.The cartridge body maybe metal,plastic,or
paper.

Signatures - in forensic ballistics,represents the location of each feature and mark on an image from the bullet or
cartridge case.The acquired signatures can then be correlated with the IBIS correlation engine.These signatures which
are mathematical representations of the images are sent along with compressed images and demographics to a server
for correlation.

Silencer - a tubular device attached to the muzzle of a firearm to reduce the sound of the report.

Single-action - a type of revolver that needs to be cocked before each shot by pulling back the hammer.Requires the
firing mechanism (hammer or firing pin) to be cocked before pressure on the trigger will release the mechanism.

Skeet shooting - is a recreational and competitive activity where the participants,using shotguns attempt to break clay
discs automatically flung in the air from two fixed stations at high speed from a variety of angles.

Skid marks (slippage marks) - rifling marks formed on the bearing surface of bullets as they enter the rifling of the barrel
before rotation of the bullets starts.Skid marks are typically produced by revolvers and have the appearance of a
widening of the land impression at their beginning point.
Slippage - mark on the surface of a fired bullet made when the bullet slides along the tops of the lands on the
riflings.Slippage marks appear when the rifling is worn or when a sub-caliber bullet is fired.

Slug - is a heavy lead projectile that may have pre-cut rifling intended for use in a shotgun and often used for hunting
large game.

- a term applied to a single projectile for shot-shells.

Smokeless powder - propellant composed of nitrocellulose (single-base powders) or nitrocellulose plus nitroglycerine
(double-base powders) Smokeless powders contain additives that increase shell life and enhance performance.They are
made in variety of shapes (rods,perforated rods,

spheres,disks,perforated disks,and flakes.

Smooth-bore - is one in which the gun barrel or bore is without a rifling.

Sporting clays - is a form of clay pigeon shooting often describe as a golf with a shotgun because a typical course
includes from 10 to 15 different shooting stations laid out over natural terrain.

Stabilizer - additive to smokeless powder that reacts with acidic breakdown products of nitrocellulose and
nitroglycerine.Diphenylamine and ethyl centralite are common stabilizers.

Stippling - disposition of fragments of gunshot powder residue into the skin as the result of a gunshot wound of
relatively close range.

Striae - in firearms/toolsmarks - these are lines or grooves in an object that are characteristics of the object that
produced them and are the basis for an identification.

Sulfur - a non-metallic yellow element.A constituent of blackpowder,burns easily when in powder form.

Tattooing - a characteristic pattern in the skin caused by particles of unburned and partially burned powder from a gun
blast at very close range.Also called stippling.

Test bullet - a bullet fired into a bullet recovery system in a laboratory for comparison or analysis.

Test cartridge case - a cartridge case obtained while test-firing a firearm in a laboratory that is to be used for
comparison or analysis.

Test firing - the term used to designate the actual firing of a firearm in a laboratory to obtain representative bullet and
cartridge case for comparison or analysis.Also used to test the functionality of a firearm.

TNT (trinitrotoluene) - a high explosive used as a component of some priming mixture.

Tracer bullet - a bullet that contains a pyrotechnic component ignited by the powder charge burn,leaving a visible trail of
the flight path.

Trailing edge - the edge of a land or groove impression in a fired bullet that is opposite to the driving edge of that same
land or groove impression.Also called the "following edge" when used in conjunction with the term leading edge.

Trajectory - the path of a projectile after leaving the muzzle of a firearm.

Trap shooting - is a shotgun shooting activity in which the gunner shoots at clay target discs launch single or doubly from
one location but at various angle into the range field.

Trigger guard - a protective device consisting of a curved framework surrounding the trigger.

Trigger pull - amount of force applied to the trigger of a firearm to cause it to discharge.

Trigger pull gauge - the mechanism used to release the firing pin of a firearm by applying pressure using a finger.

- instrument used to measure the needed amount of force to be applied to the trigger of a firearm to
cause it to fire.

Twist of rifling - inclination of the spiral grooves to the axis of the bore of a weapon;it is expressed as the number of
calibers of length in which the rifling makes one complete turn.

Velocity - the speed of a projectile at a given point along its trajectory.

Wad, base - a cylindrical component that is assembled into the head end of a shot-shell.

Wad, shot protector - various designs of shot cups made of plastic and designed to reduce pellet deformation during
barrel travel.

Walker test - the original chemical test for the detection of the spatial distribution of nitrates in gunpowder residue.

Yaw - the angle between the longitudinal axis of a projectile and a line tangent to the trajectory at the center of gravity
of the projectile.

Yaw angle - angle between the axis of a bullet and its trajectory.

Zwilling - European term for a double-barreled shoulder arm with one rifled barrel and one smooth-bored barrel.

Forensic Ballistics Reviewer 1

1. The science of mechanics that deals with the flight, behavior and

effects of projectiles.

A. Ballistics

B. Forensic Ballistics

C. Ballistic missile
 D. Ballistic Fingerprinting

2. It involves the analysis of bullet impacts to determine information of

use to a court or other part of the legal system.

A. Ballistics

B. Forensic Ballistics

C. Ballistic missile

D. Ballistic Fingerprinting

3. It involves analyzing firearm,ammunition,and toolmark evidence in

order to establish whether a certain firearm or tool was used in the

commission of crime.

A. Ballistics

B. Forensic Ballistics

C. Ballistic Missile

D. Ballistic Fingerprinting

4. It is a missile guided only during the relative brief initial powered phase

of flight whose course is subsequently governed by the laws of

classical mechanics.

A. Ballistics

B. Forensic Ballistics

C. Ballistic Missile

D. Ballistic Fingerprinting

5. The study of the processes originally accelerating the projectile.

A. Internal Ballistic

B. Transition Ballistic

C. External Ballistic

D. Terminal Ballistic

6. The study of the passage of the projectile through a medium.

A. Internal Ballistic

B. Transition Ballistic

C. External Ballistic

D. Terminal ballistic
7. The study of the projectiles behavior when it leaves the barrel and

the pressure behind the projectile is equalized.

A. Internal Ballistics

B. Transition Ballistics

C. External Ballistics

D. Terminal Ballistics

8. It is also called a round.

A. Bullet

B. Shell

C. Primer

D. Cartridge

9. Employed a burning wick on a spring that was locked back and

released into a pan of powder upon pulling a trigger.

A. Matchlock

B. Wheellock

C. Flintlock

D. Percussion

10.Consists of a hammer that was locked and when released, struck a

cup containing a volatile primer that ignited on impact sending a flame

through a small tube into the barrel chamber.

A. Matchlock

B. Wheellock

C. Flintlock

D. Percussion

Remember the following definition of terms:

1. Ballistics - The science of mechanics that deals with the

flight,behavior and effects of projectiles.

2. Forensic Ballistics - It involves the analysis of bullet impacts to

determine information of use to a court or other part of the legal

system.
3. Ballistic Fingerprinting - It involves analyzing firearm, ammunition

and toolmark evidence in order to establish whether a certain

firearm or tool was used in the commission of crime.

4. Ballistic Missile - It is a missile guided only during the relative brief

initial powered phase of flight whose course is subsequently

governed by the laws of classical mechanics.

5. Internal Ballistic - The study of the processes originally

accelerating the projectile.

6. External Ballistic - The study of the passage of the projectile

through a medium.

7. Transition Ballistics - The study of the projectiles behavior when it

leaves the barrel and the pressure behind the projectile is

equalized.

8. Cartridge - It is also called a round.

9. Matchlock - Employed a burning wick on a spring that was locked

back and released into a pan of powder upon pulling a trigger.

10. Percussion - Consists of a hammer that was locked and when

released, struck a cup containing a volatile primer that ignited on

impact sending a flame through a small tube into the barrel chamber.

Answers: Forensic Ballistics

1. A

2. B

3. D

4. C

5. A

6. C

7. B

8. D

9. A
10. D

Forensic Ballistics Reviewer 2

1. Developed in the early 11th century, flint is released by the trigger

mechanism that strikes a steel plate to shower sparks into the pan

filled with powder.

A. Matchlock

B. Wheellock

C. Flintlock

D. Percussion

2. In the early 16th century, improvement included the wheellock

mechanism in which a spinning wheel against a metal plate showered

sparks into the pan holding priming powder.

A. Matchlock

B. Wheellock

C. Flintlock

D. Percussion

3. One of the following is not a characteristic of a muzzle loader gun.

A. Spiral grooves in the bore

B. Powder and bullet loaded from top of the barrel

C. Smooth bore with a round lead ball

D. Limited range and accuracy

4. A German gunsmith who developed a reliable small caliber

automatic pistol in 1866.

A. Carl Walther

B. Hiram Maxim

C. Georg Luger

D. Richard Gatling

5. He designed the 9 mm cartridge introduced in 1902 for the Luger

semi-automatic pistol.

A. Carl Walther

B. Hiram Maxim

C. Georg Luger
 D. Richard Gatling

6. An American born inventor of the Maxim machine gun.

A. Carl Walther

B. Hiram Maxim

C. Georg Luger

D. Richard Gatling

7. An American inventor of the first successful machine gun, named

after him.

A. Carl Walther

B. Hiram Maxim

C. Georg Luger

D. Richard Gatling

8. He invented the Johnson model 1941 rifle, one of the most

innovative rifles during its period.

A. Robert Johnson

B. Albert Johnson

C. Melvin M. Johnson Jr.

D. Calvin M. Johnson

9. He pioneered the making of the first handheld machine gun.

A. Oliver Fischer Winchester

B. John T. Thompson

C. Daniel "Carbine" Williams

D. Daniel B. Wesson

10.He manufactured the Winchester repeating rifle which was a much

re-designed descendant of the Volcanic rifle of some years earlier.

A. Oliver Fischer Winchester

B. Daniel Williams

C. John Fischer Winchester

D. Daniel B. Wesson

Remember the following: Forensic Ballistics

1. Flintlock - Developed in the early 11th century, flint is released by

the trigger mechanism that strikes a steel plate to shower sparks

into the pan filled with powder.

2. Wheellock - In the early 16th century, improvement included the

wheellock mechanism in which a spinning wheel against a metal

plate showered sparks into the pan holding priming powder.

3. Characteristics of a muzzle loader gun

a. Powder and bullet loaded from top of the barrel

b. Smooth bore with a round lead ball

c. Limited range and accuracy

4. Carl Walther - A German gunsmith who developed a reliable small

caliber automatic pistol in 1866.

5. Georg Luger - He designed the 9 mm cartridge introduced in 1902

for the Luger semi-automatic pistol.

6. Hiram Maxim - An American born inventor of the Maxim machine

gun.

7. Richard Gatling - An American inventor of the first succesful machine

gun, named after him.

8. Melvin M. Johnson Jr. - He invented the Johnson model 1941 rifle,

one of the most innovative rifle during its period.

9. John T. Thompson - He pioneered the making of the first handheld

machine gun.

10.Oliver Fischer Winchester - He manufactured the Winchester

repeating rifle which was a much re-designed descendant of the

Volcanic rifle of some years earlier.

Answers: Forensic Ballistics

1. C

2. B

3. A

4. A

5. C

6. B

7. D

8. C

9. B

10. A

Forensic Ballistics Reviewer 3

1. The Father of modern ballistics.He invented the comparison

microscope and helixometer.

A. Col. Calvin Goddard

B. Col. Alvin Goddard

C. Col. Kevin Goddard

D. Col. Darwin Goddard

2. He pioneered the breech loading single shot rifle.

A. John Browning

B. Henry Derringer

C. Samuel Colt

D. Patrick Ferguson

3. A famous 19th century maker of pocket pistol.

A. Patrick Ferguson

B. John Browning

C. Samuel Colt

D. Henry Derringer

4. He designed his own rifle which was one of the first breech loading

rifles to be widely tested by the British military.

A. John Browning

B. Samuel Colt

C. Patrick Ferguson

D. Henry Derringer
5. He was a Scottish Presbyterian clergyman who invented the

percussion ignition.

A. John Marlin

B. Daniel Williams

C. Alexander Forsyth

D. Henry Derringer

6. He invented the Uzi sub-machine gun.

A. John Marlin

B. Daniel Williams

C. Uziel Gamal

D. Uziel Gal

7. He is the father of the semi-automatic US rifle cal. 30 M1.

A. John Garand

B. Eliphalet Remington

C. James Garand

D. Daniel Williams

8. Russian designer of the the AK-47 assault rifle.

A. Mike Kalashnikov

B. John Marlin

C. Mikhail Kalashnikov

D. Patrick Ferguson

9. Founder of Marlin Firearms Company. Famous for the Marlin cal. 22 carbine.

A. James Mahon Marlin

B. John Mahon Marlin

C. Jack Marlin

D. Jones Marlin

10.He is one of the first rifle makers. He is a blacksmith who made a

revolutionary sporting rifle using a firing mechanism bought from a

dealer producing the barrel himself.

A. Benjamin Robins

B. Elisha King Root

 C. Eliphalet Remington

D. Roger Bacon

Remember the following: Forensic Ballistics

1. Col.Calvin Goddard - The Father of modern ballistics.He invented

the comparison microscope and helixometer.

2. John Browning - He pioneered the breech loading single shot rifle.

3. Henry Derringer - A Famous 19th century maker of pocket pistol.

4. Patrick Ferguson - He designed his own rifle which was one of the

first breech loading rifles to be widely tested by the British

military.

5. Alexander Forsyth - He was a Scottish Presbyterian clergyman

who invented the percussion ignition.

6. Uziel Gal - He invented the Uzi sub-machine gun.

7. John Garand - He is the father of the semi automatic US rifle cal.

30 M1.

8. Mikhail Kalashnikov - Russian designer of the the AK-47 assault

rifle.

9. John Mahon Marlin - Founder of Marlin Firearms Co.Famous for

the Marlin cal. 22 carbine.

10.Eliphalet Remington - He is one of the first rifle makers.He is a

blacksmith who made a revolutionary sporting rifle using a firing

mechanism bought from a dealer producing the barrel himself.

Answers: Forensic Ballistics

1. A

2. A

3. D

4. C

5. C

6. D

7. A

8. C

9. B

10. C

Forensic Ballistics Reviewer 4

1. One of the first to state a sound ballistic theories.

A. Elisha King Root

B. Berthold Schwartz

C. Roger Bacon

D. Benjamin Robins

2. Helped Samuel colt synthesize the manufacturing of firearms.

A. Elisha King Root

B. Berthold Schwartz

C. Roger Bacon

D. Benjamin Robins

3. He is considered as the first European to describe a mixture

containing the essential ingredient of gun powder.

A. Elisha King Root

B. Berthold Schwartz

C. Roger Bacon

D. Benjamin Robins

4. Partner of Horace Smith in making revolver.

A. Daniel Wesson

B. Benjamin Wesson

C. Craig Wesson

D. Samuel Wesson
5. He is the maker of the first known carbine firearms.

A. Daniel "Carbine" Williams

B. Darwin "Carbine" Williams

C. John "Carbine" Williams

D. Mike "Carbine" Williams.

6.The large ring surrounding the breech end of the barrel which

provides a connection between the barrel and the recoil system.

A. Trigger guard

B. Anvil

C. Trigger spring

D. Yoke

7. Form on the bearing surface of bullets as they enter the rifling of

the barrel before the bullet engages the rifling.

A. Shearing

B. Proof marks

C. Provisional proof

D. Slippage mark

8. It is the examination and testing of firearms by a recognized

authority according to certain rules and stamped with a mark to

indicate that they are safe for sale and used by the public.

A. Shearing

B. Provisional proof

C. Proof marks

D. Slippage mark

9. An internal metal component in a boxer primer assembly against

which the priming mixture is crushed by the firing pin blow.

A. Shearing

B. Trigger guard

C. Anvil

D. Trigger spring

10.A flanged metallic cup used in shot-shell primer assemblies that

 provide a rigid support for the primer cup and anvil.

A. Paper disc

B. Battery cup

C. Primer mixture

D. Primer cup

Remember the following:

1. Benjamin Robins - He wrote an influential treatise on gunnery,

for the first time introducing Newtonian science to military men,

was an early enthusiast for rifled gun barrels.

2. Elisha King Root - Helped Samuel colt synthesize the

manufacturing of firearms.

3. Roger Bacon - He is considered as the first European to

describe a mixture containing the essential ingredient of gun

powder.

4.Daniel Wesson - Partner of Horace Smith in making revolver.

5. Daniel "Carbine" Williams - He is the maker of the first known

carbine firearms.

6 Yoke - The large ring surrounding the breech end of the barrel

which provides a connection between the barrel and the recoil

system.

7. Slippage mark - Form on the bearing surface of bullets as they

enter the rifling of the barrel before the bullet engages the rifling.

8. Proof marks - It is the examination and testing of firearms by a

recognized authority according to certain rules and stamped

with a mark to indicate that they are safe for sale and used by

the public.
9.Anvil - An internal metal component in a boxer primer assembly

againsts which the priming mixture is crushed by the firing pin

blow.

- The breech end of the chamber in a rim-fire firearm.

10.Battery cup - A flanged metallic cup used in shot-shell primer

assemblies that provides a rigid support for the primer cup and

anvil.Also called battery pocket.

Answers: Forensic Ballistics

1. D

2. A

3. C

4. A

5. A

6. D

7. D

8. C

9. C

10. B

Forensic Ballistics Reviewer 5

1. The controlled expansion of a bullet upon impact with a

target.

A. Palm Swell

B. Mushrooming

C. Pedestalled

D. Parkerizing

2.The cutting of metal from the surface of a bullet due

to cylinder misalignment in a revolver.

A. Abrasion marks

B. Shaving

C. Abrasive machining

D.Rolling block
3.Form on the bearing surface of bullets as they enter the rifling of

the barrel before the bullet engages the rifling.

A. Skidmarks

B. Action marks

C. Slide

D. Anvil marks

4.The escaping of gases in a fired bullet while the bullet is still in

the barrel.

A. Backspatter

B. Bearing surface

C. Barrel extention

D. Blowby

5. The accumulation of lead or bullet jacket material in the bore of

a firearm due to the passage of bullets.

A. Leading

B. Ballistite

C. Blowback

D.Frizzen

6. A piece of cloth used with a rod to clean the bore of a firearm.

A. Fulminate of mercury

B. Nitro wad

C. Patch

D.Press forging

7. An action requiring the manual cocking of the hammer before

sufficient pressure on the trigger releases the firing mechanism.

A. Single-Action

B. Automatic

C. Double-action

D. Semi-automatic

8. An inert cartridge which cannot be fired.

A. Dummy ammunition

B. Disintegrating bullet
 C. Conoidal bullet

D. Mushroom bullet

9. The air that is compressed and moves out spherically from a

firearm’s muzzle after firing a projectile.

A. Bullet splash

B. Muzzle wave

C. Choke

D. Bunter

10.A device at or in the muzzle end of a barrel that uses the

emerging gas behind the projectile to reduce recoil.

A. Climb

B. Muzzle Brake

C. Latch

D.Lock plate

Remember the ff: Forensic Ballistics

1. Mushrooming - The controlled expansion of a bullet upon impact

with a target.

2. Shaving - (shearing) The cutting of metal from the surface of a

bullet due to cylinder misalignment in a revolver.

3.Skidmarks - (slippage) Form on the bearing surface of bullets as

they enter the rifling of the barrel before the bullet engages the

rifling.Skid marks are typically produced by revolvers and have the

appearance of widening the land impressions at the nose of the

bullet.

4. Blowby - The escaping of gases past a fired bullet while the

bullet is still in the barrel.

5. Leading - (metal fouling) The accumulation of lead or bullet

jacket material in the bore of a firearm due to the passage of

 bullets.

6. Patch - A piece of cloth used with a rod to clean the bore of a

firearm.

7. Single-Action - An action requiring the manual cocking of the

hammer before sufficient pressure on the trigger releases the

firing mechanism.

8. Dummy ammunition - An inert cartridge which cannot be fired.

9. Muzzle wave - The air that is compressed and moves out

spherically from a firearm’s muzzle after firing a projectile.

10.Muzzle Brake - A device at or in the muzzle end of a barrel that

uses the emerging gas behind the projectile to reduce recoil.

Answers: Forensic ballistics

1. B

2. B

3. A

4. D

5. A

6. C

7. A

8. A

9. B

10. B

Forensic Ballistics Reviewer 6

1.When the first chamber of a jacketed bullet expands and the rear

chamber holds together for penetration.

A. Convex

B. Correlations

C. Cordite
 D. Controlled expansion

2. A plastic, paper, or fiber disk used to keep ammunition components

in place or separated.

A. Card Wad

B. Vent

C. Tumble

D. Wad

3. Marks produced by the random imperfections or irregularities of tool

surfaces.

A. Inter-comparison

B. Individual characteristics

C. Impressions

D. Headstamp

4. A thin card-like disc used in shot-shells as overshot wad,

undershot wad and over-powder wad.

A. Card wad

B. Filler wad

C. Wad

D. Cup wad

5. A plastic or paper insert surrounding the shot charge in a

shot-shell to reduce distortion.

A. Card wad

B. Filler wad

C. Shot collar

D. Cup wad

6. Circular disc of various thicknesses used to adjust the volume of

the contents of a shot-shell.

A. Card wad

B. Filler wad

C. Vent

D. Cup wad
7. A powder and shot separator of very shallow cup design, which

when loaded with lips down acts to help seal powder gases and

so protect the rear of the shot column.

A. Card wad

B. Filler wad

C. Wad

D. Cup wad

8. Various designs of shot cups made of plastic and designed to

reduce pellet deformation during barrel travel

A. Shot protector wad

B. Filler wad

C. Combination Wad

D. Cup wad

9. One piece of multi-piece plastic wad which may combine the

following items: shot protector, filler wad, and over-powder wad.

A. Shot protector wad

B. Filler wad

C. Combination Wad

D. Cup wad

10. A bullet with a deep base cavity.

A. Hollow base bullet

B. Incendiary bullet

C. Hollow point bullet

D. Jacketed bullet

Remember the following: Forensic ballistics

1. Controlled expansion - When the first chamber of a jacketed

bullet expands and the rear chamber holds together for

penetration.

2.Wad - A plastic,paper,or fiber disk used to keep ammunition

components in place or separated.

3.Individual characteristics - Marks produced by the random

imperfections or irregularities of tool surfaces.

4. Card wad - A thin card-like disc used in shotshells as Overshot

wad,Undershot wad and over powder wad.

5.Shot collar - A plastic or paper insert surrounding the shot charge

in a shotshell to reduce distortion.

6.Filler wad - Circular disc of various thicknesses used to adjust the

volume of the contents of a shotshell.

7.Cup wad - A powder and shot separator of very shallow cup

design,which when loaded with lips down acts to help seal

powder gases and so protect the rear of the shot column.

8.Shot protector wad - Various designs of shot cups made of

plastic and designed to reduce pellet deformation during barrel

travel.

9.Combination wad - One piece of multi-piece plastic wad which

may combine the following items: shot protector, filler wad, and

over-powder wad.

10. Hollow base bullet - a bullet with a deep base cavity.

Answers: Forensic Ballistics

1. D

2. D

3. B

4. A

5. C

6. B

7. D

8. A

9. C

10. A
Forensic Ballistics Reviewer 7

1. A collection and cataloging of test-fired bullets and cartridge cases

from known firearms.

A. Classifying

B. Bullet comparison

C. Known standards

D. Collected standards

2. The number, width, and direction of twist of the rifling grooves

in a barrel of a given caliber firearm.

A. General Rifling Characteristics

B. Gross forming

C. Groove diameter

D. Intercomparison

3. A discipline of forensic science which has as its primary concern to

determine if a bullet, cartridge case, or other ammunition component

was fired by a particular firearm.

A. Ballistic examination

B. Firearms identification

C. Ballistics

D. Toolmark identification

4. A discipline of forensic science which has as its primary concern

to determine if a toolmark was produced by a particular tool.

A. Ballistic examination

B. Firearms identification

C. Forensic Ballistics

D. Toolmark identification

5. Contour variations, generally microscopic, on the surface of an

object caused by a combination of force and motion where the

motion is approximately parallel to the plane being marked.

A. Striations

B. Class characteristics

C. Sub-class characteristics
 D. Toolmarks

6. Discernible surface features of an object which is more restrictive

than class characteristics.

A. Striations

B. Class characteristics

C. Sub-class characteristics

D. Toolmarks

7. Measurable features of a specimen which indicate a restricted group

source. They result from design factors, and are therefore

determined prior to manufacture.

A. Striations

B. Class characteristics

C. Sub-class characteristics

D. Toolmarks

8. Marks produced by the random imperfections or irregularities of tool

surfaces. These random imperfections or irregularities are produced

incidental to manufacture and/or caused by use, corrosion, or

damage.

A. Individual characteristics

B. Class characteristics

C. Sub-class characteristics

D. Toolmarks

9. Striae or patterns of minute lines or grooves in an object. In firearm

and toolmark identification these marks are characteristics of the

object which produced them and are the basis for identification.

A. Individual characteristics

B. Toolmarks

C. Microscopic marks

D. Class characteristics

10. The process of determining whether or not the details of striated

marks or impressions on two objects correspond, such as fired and

unfired cartridge cases and shot-shell cases.

 A. Pattern matching

B. Land and Groove identification

C. Pattern Identification

D. Toolmark identification

Remember the ff: Forensic Ballistics

1. Known standards - A collection and cataloging of test-fired bullets

and cartridge cases from known firearms. Also known as Fired

standards.

2. General Rifling Characteristics - the number,width, and

direction of twist of the rifling grooves in a barrel of a given caliber

firearm.

3. Firearms identification - A discipline of forensic science which

has as its primary concern to determine if a bullet, cartridge case,

or other ammunition component was fired by a particular firearm.

4. Toolmark identification - A discipline of forensic science which has

as its primary concern to determine if a toolmark was produced

by a particular tool.

5. Striations - Contour variations, generally microscopic, on the

surface of an object caused by a combination of force and motion

where the motion is approximately parallel to the plane being

marked.

6. Subclass characteristics - Discernible surface features of an

object which are more restrictive than class characteristics.

7. Class characteristics - Measurable features of a specimen which

indicate a restricted group source. They result from design factors,

and are therefore determined prior to manufacture.

8. Individual characteristics - Marks produced by the random

 imperfections or irregularities of tool surfaces.These random

imperfections or irregularities are produced incidental to

manufacture and/or caused by use, corrosion, or damage.

9. Microscopic marks - Striae or patterns of minute lines or grooves

in an object. In firearm and toolmark identification these marks are

characteristic of the object which produced them and are the basis

for identification.

10.Pattern matching - The process of determining whether or not

the details of striated marks or impressions on two objects

correspond,such as fired and unfired cartridge cases and shot-shell

cases.

Answers: Forensic Ballistics

1. C

2. A

3. B

4. D

5. A

6. C

7. B

8. A

9. C

10. A

Forensic Ballistics Reviewer 8

1. The earliest known tool mark comparison case involving firearms

occurred in London in ______.

A. 1835

B. 1837

C. 1836

D. 1838

2. Published the first work describing wounds resulting from small

caliber firearms.
 A. Henry Goddard

B. John Sedgwick

C. Monsieur Noilles

D. Stonewall Jackson

3. A firearm with long barrel and for-end or forearm extending nearly to

the muzzle.

A. Rifle

B. Remington rifle

C. Whitwoth rifles

D. Musket

4. A portion of a firearm's mechanism which ejects or expels cartridges

or cartridge cases from a firearm.

A. Ejector

B. Breech face

C. Extractor

D. Firing pin

5. The negative impressions on the bearing surface of a bullet caused

by the rifling in the barrel from which is was fired.

A. Lapping

B. Land and Groove impressions

C. Obturation

D. Parkerizing

6. The ignition component of a cartridge.

A. Priming mixture

B. Priming powder

C. Priming Charge

D. Primer

7. The locking and cartridge head support mechanism of a firearm

that does not operate in line with the axis of the bore.

A. Frame

B. Breechblock

C. Mandrel
 D. Box lock

8. Developed the helixometer, a magnifier probe used to examine

the interior of firearm barrels and accurately measure the

pitch of rifling.

A. Goddard and Waite

B. Goddard and Gravelle

C. Doddard and Fisher

D. Waite and Fisher

9. Essentially two microscopes connected to an optical bridge

which allows the viewer to observe two objects simultaneously

with the same degree of magnification.

A. Compound microscope

B. Comparison microscope

C. Dual microscope

D. Complex microscope

10.He is considered by many firearm examiners to be the "father" of

firearm and toolmark identification.

A. Calvin H. Goddard

B. John H. Fisher

C. Colonel H. W. Todhunter

D.Philip O. Gravelle

Remember the ff: Forensic Ballistics

1. The earliest known toolmark comparison case involving firearms

occurred in London in 1835 .

2. Monsieur Noilles - Published the first work describing wounds

resulting from small caliber firearms.

3. Musket - A firearm with long barrel and forend or forearm

extending nearly to the muzzle.

4. Ejector - A portion of a firearm's mechanism which ejects or

expels cartridges or cartridge cases from a firearm.

5. Land and Groove impressions - The negative impressions on

the bearing surface of a bullet caused by the rifling in the

barrel from which is was fired.

6. Primer - The ignition component of a cartridge.

7. Breechblock - The locking and cartridge head support

mechanism of a firearm that does not operate in line with

the axis of the bore.

8. Goddard and Fisher - Developed the helixometer, a magnifier

probe used to examine the interior of firearm barrels and

accurately measure the pitch of rifling.

9. Comparison microscope - Essentially two microscopes connected

to an optical bridge which allows the viewer to observe two

objects simultaneously with the same degree of magnification.

10.Calvin H. Goddard - He is considered by many firearm examiners

to be the "father" of firearm and toolmark identification.

Answers: Forensic Ballistics

1. A

2. C

3. D

4. A

5. B

6. D

7. B

8. C

9. B

10. A
Forensic Ballistics Reviewer 9

1. The curve taken by the bullet while in flight is called:

A. rifling curves

B. effective range

C. drift

D. maximum distance

2. A mechanism in a revolver that connects pivot between the frame

and cylinder.

A. trigger spring

B. trigger guard

C. yoke

D. anvil

3. Proof Marks - It is the examination and testing of firearms by a

recognized authority according to certain rules and stamped with

a mark to indicate that they are safe for sale and used by the

public.

A. Provisional Proof

B. Proof Marks

C. Skid Marks

D. Slippage Marks

4. Among the following, which is a long smooth bored firearm that

is designed to prepare a single shot?

A. Shotgun

B. Musket

C. Carbine

D. Caliber

5. It is the soft guiding metal which serves as the container of

priming mixture, paper disc and anvil.

A. Primer cup

B. Primer mixture

C. Paper disc

D. Battery cup
6. An automatic weapon that can fire from 400 to 1,600 rounds of

ammunition each minute.

A. Armalite

B. Uzi

C. Machine gun

D. Glock

7. Historians considered that the age of gunpowder began with its

first use as a propellant for a projectile on

A. 1313

B. 1413

C. 1280

D. 1350

8. One from Hartford, Connecticut, who produced the first practical

revolver and became famous for its .45 caliber.

A. Samuel Colt

B. Carl Walther

C. Oliver Winchester

D. John C. Garand

9. It includes rocket launchers and such mounted guns as howitzers,

mortars, anti-aircraft guns, and naval guns.

A. Gunnery

B. Artillery

C. Musketry

D. Ballistics

10. That part of the handgun designed in a metal tube through which

the bullet is fired.

A. Grip

B. Frame

C. Barrel

D. Rifling

Answers: Forensic Ballistics Reviewer 9

1. C

2. C

3. B

4. B

5. A

6. C

7. A

8. A

9. B

10.C

Forensic Ballistics Reviewer 10

1. The shape metal while hot and plastic by hammering or by a

forging process, either by hand or by machine.

A. Forging

B. Casting

C. Blanking

D. Shearing

2. To cut sheet or bar metal between two blades which pass

immediately to each other.

A. Forging

B. Casting

C. Blanking

D. Shearing

3. Cutting or pressing a piece of metal from a sheet. In ammunition

manufacture, the usable part of a blanking operation is the

material removed from the hole, usually a disk.

A. Forging

B. Casting

C. Blanking

D. Shearing

4. An object at or near finished shape which is produced by

solidification of a substance in a mold.Pouring molten metal into

 a mold to produce an object of desired shape.

A. Forging

B. Casting

C. Blanking

D. Shearing

5. To cut out, bend or form with a stamp or die.

A. Extrusion

B. Hammer Forging

C. Drawing

D. Stamping

6.A process of using dies and punches to simultaneously reduce the

diameter and extend the length of a cup-shaped metal part.

Used for both cartridge cases and bullet jackets.

A. Extrusion

B. Hammer Forging

C. Drawing

D. Stamping

7. The process of forming the interior and/or exterior shape of the

barrel of a firearm by hammering.

A. Extrusion

B. Swagging

C. Drawing

D. Stamping

8.This process is generally performed in a

hydraulic press, lead wire used in bullet making is extruded.

Impact extrusion can be used to make bullet jackets and

cartridge cases.

A. Extrusion

B. Swagging

C. Drawing

D. Stamping

9. Cutting holes in metal with a twist drill.

 A. Abrasive machining

B. Broaching

C. Reaming

D. Drilling

10.It refers to the process of widening the opening of a hole, enlarging

or dressing -out a hole with a reamer, or to enlarge the bore of a gun.

A. Abrasive machining

B. Broaching

C. Reaming

D. Drilling

11.Finishing surfaces by drawing or pushing a cutter

called a broach entirely over and past the surface. A broach

has a series of cutting teeth arranged in a row or rows, graduated

in height from the teeth that cut first to those that cut last.

A. Abrasive machining

B. Broaching

C. Reaming

D. Drilling

12.The use of abrasives rather than high-speed

steel or tungsten carbide cutting tools.

A. Abrasive machining

B. Broaching

C. Reaming

D. Drilling

13. The use of metal-cutting machine in which the work piece is firmly

attached to a horizontal table that moves back and forth under a

single-point cutting tool. The tool-holding device is mounted on a

cross-rail so that the tool can be fed (moved) across the table in

small, discrete, side-ward movements at the end of each pass

of the table.

A. Planing

B. Boring

C. Milling
 D. Turning

14. Producing smooth and accurate holes in a work piece by

enlarging existing holes with a bore, which may bear a single

cutting tip of steel, cemented carbide, or diamond or may be a

small grinding wheel.

A. Planing

B. Boring

C. Milling

D. Turning

15. Cutting metal by feeding against a rotating cutting tool

called a milling cutter; milling machines cut flat surfaces, grooves,

shoulders, inclined surfaces, dovetails, and T-slots. Various

form-tooth cutters are used for cutting concave forms and convex

grooves, for rounding corners, and for cutting gear teeth.

A. Planing

B. Boring

C. Milling

D. Turning

16.Turning operations involve cutting excess metal, in the

form of chips, from the external diameter of a work piece and

include turning straight or tapered cylindrical shapes, grooves,

shoulders, and screw threads, and facing flat surfaces on the

ends of cylindrical parts.

A. Planing

B. Boring

C. Milling

D. Turning

17.Shaping and planing operations involve the machining

of flat surfaces, grooves, shoulders, T-slots, and angular surfaces

with single-point tools.

A. Planing

B. Boring

C. Milling
 D. Shaping

Answers: Forensic Ballistics

1. A

2. D

3. C

4. B

5. D

6. C

7. B

8. A

9. D

10. C

11. B

12. A

13. A

14. B

15. C

16. D

17. D

Questioned Document

Questioned Document - is any signature, handwriting, typewriting or other mark whose source or authenticity is in
dispute or doubtful.

Graphology - study of the handwriting to determine personality traits.

Simulation - an attempt to disguise one's handwriting or copy someone Else's.

The following trait are considered in handwriting analysis:

letter form which includes curve, connections, slants, size and angle.

line quality which indicated the amount of pressure used by the author.

Arrangement which refers to spacing, formatting and alignment.

Characteristics which indicate that a handwriting sample has been forge.

shaky lines

dark, thick starts and finish

numerous pen lifts

But they may also be the result of nervousness, alcohol impairment or other factors.

The content of what a person writes is analyzed by handwriting expert. Grammatical, style, punctuation and word choice
are included in the analysis of handwriting.

The speed or how fast a person write is not considered in handwriting analysis though speed may affect their formatting
and letter and line forms.

Calligraphy - decorative handwriting or handwritten lettering. The art of producing decorative handwriting or lettering
with a pen or brush. From Greek "Kallos"-beauty and "Graphe"-writing.

Three Stages in the Process of Handwriting Examinations

1. Analysis - the questioned and the known items are

analyzed and broken down to directly perceptible

characteristics.

2. Comparison - the characteristics of the questioned

item are then compared against the known

standard.

3. Evaluation - similarities and differences in the

compared properties are evaluated and this

determines which ones are valuable for a

conclusion. This depends on the uniqueness and

frequency of occurrence in the items.

Handwriting Exemplar - known standards - is a piece of writing that can be examined forensically as in a handwriting
comparison.

Two Types of Handwriting Exemplars

1. Request Writings - obtained from individual

specifically for the purpose of conducting a

handwriting comparison.

2. Collected Writings -samples the individual produced

for some other unrelated reason generally in the

course of their day to day activities.

Common Questioned Documents

1. Forgery

2. Counterfeiting
3. Mail Fraud

4. Kidnapping

5. embezzlement

6. Theft

7. Robbery

8. Sex Crime

9. Murder

10.Homicide

Historical Dating - work involving the verification of age and worth of a document or object.

Indicators of Forgery

1. Blunt starts ans stops

2. Pen lifts and hesitations

3. Tremor

4. Speed and Pressure

5. Patching

Questioned Documents Definition of Terms

Alignment defect - characters that write improperly in the following respect: a twisted letter, horizontal misalignment,
vertical misalignment, or a character "off its feet" these defects can be corrected by special adjustments to the type bar
and type block of a type bar machine.

Allograph - a writing or signature made by one person for another or a style (block capital, print script, or cursive form)
of one of the 26 graphemes of the English alphabet or of the ligatures or other symbols that accompany it.

Altered document - a document that contains a change either as an addition or a deletion.

Ample letter - that which encompasses more than the standard inner space in a given letter.Characterized by
fulsomeness and expanded ovals and loops.

Archive - collection of documents and records purposely stored for a defined period of time.

Assisted writing - the result of a guided hand, produced by the cooperation of the two minds and two hands of two
persons.

Ball point pen - a writing instrument having as its marking tip a small, freely rotating ball bearing that rolls the ink into
the paper.Many of these pens use highly viscous, non aqueous ink but in recent years construction of some pens have
been adopted to use water-based inks.

Baseline - the ruled or imaginary line upon which the writing rests.
Big Floyd - the FBI super computer that contains software allowing it to search criminal records and draw conclusions
from the available information in the hunt for those responsible for an individual crime.

Bindle paper - clean paper folded used to contain trace evidence, sometimes included as part of the packaging for
collecting trace evidence.Most of the time, white paper is used and has the consistency of butcher paper, the paper
used in deli markets.

Bitmap - a mosaic of dots or pixels defining an image, including dot matrix imprints.The smoothness of the image
contour depends upon the fineness of resolution and the number of dots or pixels per inch.

Blobbing - the accumulation of ink on the exterior of the point assembly of a ball-point pen that drops intermittently to
the surface being written upon.

Blunt ending - the effect produce on commencement and terminal strokes of letters, both upper and lower case, by the
application of the writing instrument to the paper prior to the beginning of any horizontal movement.

Boat - a dish-shape figure consisting of a concave stroke and a straight line sometimes forming the base of letters.

Body - that portion of a letter, the central part that remains when the upper and lower projections, the terminal and
initial strokes and diacritics are omitted.

Boustrophedun - writing in which alternate lines are written in opposite directions and even have the posture as well as
the direction of reversal letters.

Bow - a vertical curve stroke as in capitals D and C.

Braille - a system of representing letter, numerals etc. by raised dots that a visually impaired person can read by touch.

Burring - a division of a written line into two or more, more or less equal portions by a non-linked area generally running
parallel to the direction of line generation but moving away from the radius of a curving stroke.Sometimes referred to as
splitting.

Carbon copy - a copy of a typewritten document made by means of carbon paper.An exact replica;duplicate.

Carbon ink - (India ink) one of the oldest form of writing ink commonly referred to as India ink even though the ink was
first used in China.In its simplest form carbon ink consists of amorphous carbon shaped into a solid cake with glue.It is
converted into a liquid for writing by grinding the cake and suspending the articles in a water-glue
medium.Occasionally,a pigmented dye is added to improve the color.

Case file - a collection of documents comprising information concerning a particular investigation.

Case records - all notes, reports, custody records, charts, analytical data, and any correspondence generated in the
laboratory pertaining to a particular case.

Character - any typed or handwritten mark, sign or insignia, abbreviation, punctuation mark, letter, or numeral whether
legible, blurred or indistinct.

Charred document - a document that has become blackened and brittle through burning or through exposure to
excessive heat.

Class characteristics - not all characteristics encountered in document examination are peculiar to single person or thing
and one that is common to a group may be described as a class characteristic.Traits that define a group of items
collectively.

Clogged (dirty) typeface - over prolonged use, the typeface becomes filled with lint, dirt, and ink particularly in letters
with closed loops such as p and g.If these condition is allowed to continue without cleaning, the printed impression will
actually print with the clogged areas shaded or solid black.

Cloth ribbon - a type of ribbon used in some models of typewriter.

Collected standards - a sample of writing made during the normal course of business or social activity not necessarily
related to the matter in dispute.

Conjoined letters - two letters that have been written in the common manner such that the terminal stroke of the first is
the initial stroke of the second.

Connecting stroke - an expression commonly used to refer to the fusion of the terminal stroke of one lower case cursive
letter and the initial stroke of another having no identifiable or describable entity of its own.

Connection subtypes

Supported - the body of the letter rests against or retraces the stem.

Looped - the initial stroke forms a loop with the stem of the letter.

Unsupported - the body of the letter does not follow or retrace the stem.

Contraction - a form of word abbreviation wherein one or more letters are omitted.

Cursive - a form of continuous writing in which letters are connected to one another and designed according to some
commercial system;the most common allograph of a grapheme.

Decipher - to determine the meaning of, as hieroglyphics or illegible writing, or to translate from cipher into ordinary
characters, or to determine the meaning of anything obscure.

Defect - any abnormality of maladjustment in a typewriter that is reflected in its work and leads to its individualization
or identification.
Diacritical mark or point - a sign added to a letter or symbol to give it a particular phonetic value.An accent.Sometimes
used to refer to the dots over the letter i and J.

Didot system - a typographic measuring system used in Europe and based on the didot point, similar to the U.S.,English
Pica system.

Digraph - a group of two successive letters representing a single sound or a complex sound that is not a combination of
the sounds ordinarily represented by each in another occurrence.ex. ph in digraph and ch in chin.

Diphthong - the combination of two vowels in succession, the sound of which begins with one and ends with the
other.ex. oil,boy,out.

Disguised writing - a deliberate attempt to alter handwriting in hopes of hiding one's identity.

Disputed document - a term suggesting that there is an argument or controversy over a document.Disputed document
and Questioned document can be used interchangeably to signify a document that is under special scrutiny.

Document - any material that contains marks, symbols, or signs either visible, partially visible, or invisible that may
ultimately convey a meaning or message to someone.

Document examiner - an individual who scientifically studies the details and elements of documents in order to identify
their source or to discover other facts concerning them.Documents examiners are often referred to as handwriting
identification experts.

Documentation - written notes, audio/video tapes, printed forms, sketches, or photographs that form a detailed record
of the scene, evidence recovered, and actions taken during the search of the crime scene.

Erasure - the removal of writing, typewriting, or printing from a document.It may be accomplished by either of two
means, a chemical eradication in which the writing is removed or bleached by chemical agents (liquid ink eradicator,
abrasive erasure in which the writing is effaced by rubbing with a rubber eraser) or scratching out with a knife.

Exemplar - a specimen of an identified source acquired for the purpose of comparison with an evidence sample.An
example of a person's writing, a standard for use in comparisons, a collected or a request specimen.

Facsimile - an image of printed matter that has been transmitted electronically.

Fiber-tip pen - (porous-tip pen) a modern writing instrument in which the marking element or point consists of a porous
material through which the ink can flow.

Flow-back - an increase in the density of an ink line caused by the run of excess ink along the finish of a stroke, occurring
when the pen is lifted from the paper.

Fluctuation - alternating changes of direction, positions, or conditions (ex.alternating acceleration and deceleration of
writing speed) or alternating expansion and contraction of the writing pattern.
Fluency - freedom and other like terms, referring to a generally higher grade of line quality that is smooth, consistent,
and without any evidence or tremor or erratic changes in direction of pen pressure.

Flying finish - the diminishing taper of a terminal stroke when the motion of the instrument does not stop at the
completion of a word.

Flying start - the growing taper of an initial stroke or the delicate initial hook that appears where the motion of the
instrument precedes actual writing.

Font - a complete set or collection of letters, figures, symbols, punctuation marks, and special characters that are of the
same design and size for a particular typeface.

Forced hand - a person's signature or writing executed while the hand was under the physical compulsion or control of
another person.

Forgery - (free hand imitation) a legal term that involves not only a non-genuine signature or document but also intent
on the part of its "marker" to defraud.

Fountain pen - a modern nib pen containing a reservoir of ink in a specially designed chamber or cartridge.After
complete filling,the pen maybe used to write a number of pages without refilling.

Fraudulent signature - a forged signature.It involves the writing of a name as signature by someone other than the
person without his/her permission, often with some degree of imitation.

Freehand simulation - a fraudulent signature that is produced by copying or imitating the style and size of genuine
signature without the use of physical aids or involving a tracing process.

Gooping - the accumulation of excessive amount of ink on the exterior of the point assembly of a ball-point pen as a
result of the rotation of the ball, usually transferred to the paper surface immediately after the direction of rotation is
substantially changed.

Graphoanalysis - a registered trade name that identifies the system of handwriting analysis taught by the international
graphoanalysis society inc.

Graphology - the art of attempting to interpret the character of personality of an individual from his handwriting, also
called grapho-analysis.

Graphometry - a method of characterizing a handwriting by measurement of the proportionate values of the angle and
ratio of the heights and widths of letters.

Graphonomics - the study of the science and technology of handwriting and other graphic skills (coined in 1982) or the
scientific study concerned with the systematic relationship involved in the generation and analysis of writing and
drawing movements and the resulting traces of writing and drawing instruments either on conventional media such as
paper and blackboard or on electronic equipment.

Guided-hand signature - a signature that is executed while the writer's hand or arm is steadied in any way, also known
as assisted signature.Assisted signatures are most commonly written during a serious illness or in deathbed.

Habit - a persistently repeated element or detail of writing that occurs when the opportunity allows.

Hand lettering - (hand printing) any disconnected style of writing in which each letter is written separately.

Haplography - the unintentional omission in writing or copying of one or more adjacent and similar letters, syllables,
words,or lines.

Hiatus - a gap in writing stroke of a letter formed when the instrument leaves the paper.An opening, an interruption in
the continuity of a line.

Holographic document - any document completely written and signed by one person.

Indented writing - writing impressed into the surface of a page of paper of pressure exerted upon the writing instrument
when used on a previous page.

Inert hand - an execution of writing in which the person holding the writing instrument exercises no motor activity
whatsoever,conscious or unconscious.The guide leads the writing instrument through the medium of the hand of the
first person.The writer may be feeble or a complete illiterate.

Infrared examination - the examination of documents employing invisible radiation beyond the red portion of the visible
spectrum.Infrared radiation can be recorded on specially sensitized photographic emulsions or it can be converted by
means of an electronic viewing device into visible light for an on the scene study of the evidence.

Infrared luminescence - a phenomenon encountered with some dyes used in inks and colored pencils that when
illuminated with a narrow band of light in the blue-green portion of the spectrum give off luminescence that can be
detected in the far red or near infrared range.The technique is useful in distinguishing between certain inks and colored
pencils and in detecting or deciphering erasures.

Ink eradicator - a chemical solution capable of bleaching ink.

Inorganic pigment - a natural or synthetic metal oxide, sulfide or other salt used as a coloring agent for paints, plastics,
and inks.

Insertion - the addition of writing and other material within a document such as between lines and paragraphs or the
addition of whole pages to a document.

Interlineation - the act of inserting writing or typewriting between two lines of writing.
Iron-gallotannate ink - this ink is found in fountain pens, was used as early as the 8th century and with substantial
improvement, is still in use today.

Joint or Juncture - the point or position at which two or more strokes meet within a letter.

Kerning - the spacing of two letters closer together than customary when their designs leave too much intercharacter
white space.

Known standard - a specimen of an identified source acquired for the purpose of comparison with an evidence sample,
synonymous with exemplar.

Lateral expansion - the horizontal dimension of writing produced by the width of letters, the space between letters and
words, and the width of margins.

Lateral writing - writing characterized by wide letters and spacing.

Left-handed curve - a stroke that is made in a counterclockwise direction.

Left-handed or wrong-handed writing - any writing executed with the opposite hand from that normally
used.Sometimes referred to as "writing with the awkward hand" it is an attempt to disguise handwriting.

Legibility - the ease with which a reader recognizes individual letter and character shapes.

Letter - any drawn, written, printed, or typed character, lower case or uppercase that can be recognized as an allograph
of the alphabet of any language.

Lexical - pertaining or related to the words of a language.

Ligature - a group of connected characters treated typographically as a single character, sometimes a stroke or bar
connecting two letters.

Line quality - appearance of a written stroke determined by a combination of factors such as speed, shading, pen
position, and skill, ranges from smooth and legible to tremulous and awkward

Machine defect - any defect in typewriting resulting from the malfunctioning of the machine rather than the typebar or
type element.

Manual typewriter - a machine whose operation depends solely upon the mechanical action set in motion by striking a
letter or character key.

Manuscript writing - a disconnected form of script or semi-script writing.This type of writing is taught to young children
in elementary schools as the first step in learning how to write.

Mirror writing - writing that runs in the opposite direction to the normal pattern, starts on the right side of the page and
proceeds from right to left with reversed order in spelling and turning of the letter images.
Moire - the impression with which the habits of the writer are executed on repeated occasions or the divergence of one
execution from another in an element of an individual's writing that occurs invariably in the graph but may also occur in
the choice of the allograph or normal or usual deviations found between repeated specimens of any individual's
handwriting or in the product of any typewriter or other record making machine.

Movement - an important element in handwriting.It embraces all the factors related to the motion of the writing
instrument, skills, speed, freedom, hesitation, rhythm, emphasis, tremor, and the like.The manner in which the writing
instrument i moved.

Natural writing - any specimen of writing executed normally without an attempt to control or alter its identifying habits
and its usual quality of execution.It is the typical writing of an individual.

Nonaqueous ink - ink in which the pigment or dye is carried in any vehicle other than water.Inks of this class are found in
ball-point pens, typewriter ribbons, and stamp pads and are widely used in the printing industry.

Nodule - a small, rounded mass or lump of ink caused by an excessive deposit, the result of gooping in some ball-point
pens.

Nonce word - a word coined to fit a special situation.

Notes - the documentation of procedures, standard, controls and instruments used, observation made, results of test
performed, charts, graphs, photos, and other documents generated that are used to support the examiner's conclusion.

Oblique lighting examination - an examination with the illumination so controlled that it grazes or strikes the surface of
the document from one side at a very low angle, also referred to as side light examination.

Orthography - the principles by which the alphabet is set into correspondence with the speech sounds.The art of
spelling.

Patching - retouching or going back over a defective portion of a writing stroke.Careful patching is a common defect in
forgeries.

Pen - any writing instrument used to apply ink to the paper.

Pen lift - an interruption in a stroke caused by removing the writing instrument from the paper.

Pen position - the relationship between the pen point and the paper.Specifically, the angle between the nib of the pen
and the line of writing and between the pen point and the paper surface are the elements of pen position.

Pencil - a writing instrument in which the marking position consists of a compressed stick of graphite or colored marking
substance usually mixed with clays and waxes.

Pencil grade - a qualitative description of the hardness or softness of a pencil.

Pencil lead - not really lead but a mixture of various types of waxes, clays, graphite, and carbon.

Permanent defect - any identifying characteristic of a typewriter that can not be corrected by simply cleaning the
typeface or replacing the ribbon.

Pica - a unit of measure of printer's type approximately1/6 in. or 12 points, typically used for vertical measurement.Also
a term used to denote conventional monotone typewriter typeface that has a fixed character width of 10 to the inch.

Point - the basic typographic unit of measurement of fonts, line spacing, rules, and borders, there are 12 points to a pica
and 72 points to the inch, typically used for vertical dimensions.

Pressure - the amount of force exerted on the point of the writing instrument, technically termed point load.

Proportional-spacing typewriter - a modern form of typewriting resembling printing in hat letters, numerals, and
symbols do not occupy the same horizontal space as they do with a conventional typewriter.

Questioned document - any document about which some issue has been raised or that is under scrutiny.

Reference collection - collections of typewriting, check-writer specimens, inks, pens, pencils, paper, etc., compiled and
organized by the document examiner as standards of the products.

Request standards - writing samples written at the request of another person.

Restoration - any processed in which erased writing is developed or brought out again on the document itself.

Retouching - going back over a written line to correct a defect or improve its appearance, synonymous with patching.

Retracing - any stroke that goes back over another writing stroke.In natural handwriting there may be many instances in
which the pen doubles back over the same course but some retracing in fraudulent signatures represents a reworking of
a letter form or stroke.

Rhythm - the element of the writing movement marked by regular or periodic recurrences.It maybe classed as smooth,
intermittent, or jerky in its quality.

Ribbon condition - cloth or multiple-use typewriter ribbons gradually deteriorate with use and the degree of
deterioration is a measure of the ribbon condition.

Ribbon impression - typewriting made directly through a cloth or carbon film ribbon.Original typewriting is made in this
way.

River - gaps in the writing or printing pattern that form a straggling white stream down the page.

Roller pen - a type of ball-point pen that uses aqueous ink.

Script - handwriting as distinguished from printing or lettering, cursive writing.

Secret ink - a material used for writing that is not visible until treated by a developing process, also referred to as
sympathetic ink.

Sequence of strokes - the order in which writing strokes are placed on he paper.

Serrations - roughness along the edges on an ink line seen under a microscope.

Shading - a widening of the ink stroke due to added pressure on a flexible pen point or to the use of the stub pen.

Signatory - a signer with another or others.A person whose name is being inscribe on a document who requires
assistance in doing so.

Signature - the name of a person or mark representing it as written by himself/herself.

Significant writing habit - any characteristic of handwriting that is sufficiently uncommon and well fixed to serve as a
fundamental point in the identification.

Single-element typewriter - typewriters using either a type ball or type wheel printing device>The IBM selectric machine
was the first modern typewriter of the group.

Skill - evidence of the writer's proficiency.

Slant - the angle or inclination of the axis of letters relative to the baseline.

Smeared-over writing - an obliteration accomplished by covering the original writing with an opaque substance.

Spiral - that portion of a letter executing a spiral formation, popular designs of commencement and termination in older
styles of writings.

Splicing - a term used by document examiners to denote the slight overlapping of two strokes after an interruption in
the writing.It may be part of imitated, fraudulent signatures that are prepared one or two letters at a time.

Splitting - the division of an ink line into two or more, ,ore or less equal portions by a non inked area running generally
parallel to the direction of the stroke, sometimes called burring.

Spurious signature - a fraudulent signature in which there was no apparent attempt at simulation or imitation.It is
common form of forgeries encountered in investigations of fraudulent checks where the person passing the checks
depends on the surrounding circumstances rather than upon the quality of the signature for his success.
Synthetic dye inks - any ink consisting simply of a dye dissolved in water together with the necessary preservatives.

Traced forgery - any fraudulent signature executed by actually following the outline of a genuine signature with a writing
instrument.

Transitory defect - an identifying typewriter characteristic that can be eliminated by cleaning the machine or replacing
the ribbon.Clogged typefaces are the most common defects of this class.

Trash mark - mark left on a finished copy during photocopying, results from imperfections or dirt on the cover glass,
cover sheet, drum, or camera lens of a photocopy machine.

Tremor - lack of smoothness due to lack of skill, consciousness of the writing act, deliberate control of the instrument in
copying or tracing or an involuntary, roughly rhythmic, and sinusoidal movement.Wavy back and forth movement on a
written line.

Twisted letter - each character is designed to print at a certain fixed angle to the base line.Wear and damage to the type
bar and the type block may cause some letters to become twisted so that they lean to the right or left of their correct
slant.

Type ball - a device containing a complete set of typeface of some single-element typewriters.

Typeface - the printing surface of the type block or type element.The name of a particular design of printed characters
and symbols.

Typeface defect - any peculiarity in typewriting resulting from actual damage to the typeface metal.

Typewriting system - typewriting device consisting of a machine, ribbon, and font.

Versal letter - those that mark important parts of the text, used for headings and words written at the beginning of
books or chapters, often distinguished by size, color, and ornamentation which tends towards curves and flourishes.

Watermark - a translucent design impressed in certain papers during the course of their manufacture.This is
accomplished by passing a wet map of fibers across a dandy roll, which is a metal cylinder containing patches of specific
pattern designs.The design patches are generally of two types, wire or screen.

Whirl - the curving upstroke usually of letters that have long loops but also on some styles of the capital "W".

Wrong-handed writing - any writing executed with the opposite hand from that normally used, often referred to as
writing with the awkward hand.

Xerox - a positive photocopy made directly on plain paper.

Z-twist - a right-handed yarn twist in which the spiral slants like the middle part of the letter "Z".
Questioned Document Reviewer 1

1. The art of determining individual characteristic traits of a person

based on his or her handwriting is called.

A. Calligraphy

B. Graphlogic

C. Graphology

D. Caligrapher

2. The art of writing letters and words with decorative strokes is

called

A. Calligraphy

B. Graphlogic

C. Graphology

D. Caligrapher

3. Handwriting samples made at the request and under the

supervision of lawyers, the police, document examiners and

investigators for the purpose of comparison with questioned

writing.

A. Collected writings

B. Stolen writings

C. Requested writings

D. Forced writings

4. Samples the individual produced for some other unrelated reason

generally in the course of their day to day activities.

A. Collected writings

B. Stolen writings

C. Request writings

D. Forced writings

5. An attempt to disguise one's handwriting or copy someone else's i

A. Simulated

B. Evaluated

C. Disguised
 D. Compared

6. Any signature, handwriting, typewriting or other mark whose source

or authenticity is in dispute or doubtful.

A. Requested Document

B. Disputed Document

C. Collected document

D. Questioned document

7. Any abnormal repetitive shaking movement of the body usually the

hand which affects handwriting.

A. Tremor

B. Epilepsy

C. Convulsion

D. Parkinson

8. One of the following is not an indicator of forgery.

A. Smoothness of paper

B. Penlifts and hesitation

C. Tremor

D. Patching

9. The action producing a copy of a document, signature,

banknote, or work of art with intent to deceive.

A. Counterfeiting

B. Simulation

C. Forgery

D. Deceiving

10.Made in exact imitation of something valuable or important with

the intention to deceive or defraud.

A. Counterfeiting

B. Simulation

C. Forgery

D. Imitating

Answers:Questioned Document
1. C

2. A

3. C

4. A

5. A

6. D

7. A

8. A

9. C

10. A

Remember the following:

1. Graphology - The art of determining individual characteristic

traits of a person based on his or her handwriting is called.

2. Calligraphy - The art of writing letters and words with decorative

strokes.

3. Request writings - Handwriting samples made at the request and

under the supervision of lawyers, the police, document examiners

and investigators for the purpose of comparison with questioned

writing.

4. Collected writings - Samples the individual produced for some

other unrelated reason generally in the course of their day to

day activities.

5. Simulated - An attempt to disguise one's handwriting or copy

someone Else's.

6. Questioned document - Any signature,handwriting,typewriting

or other mark whose source or authenticity is in dispute or

doubtful.

7. Tremor - Any abnormal repetitive shaking movement of the body

 usually the hands which affects handwriting.

8. Indicators of forgery

1. Blunt starts and stops

2. Penlifts and hesitation

3. Tremor

4. Speed and Pressure

5. Patching

9. Forgery - The action producing a copy of a document, signature,

banknote, or work of art with intent to deceive.

10.Counterfeiting - Made in exact imitation of something valuable

or important with the intention to deceive or defraud.

Questioned Document Reviewer 2

1. The place where the writer grasps the barrel of the pen and the

angle at which he holds it is called:

A. Pen lift

B. Pen hold

C. Print script

D. Pen pressure

2. One that is executed in accordance with the Code of Commerce

or any Mercantile Law, containing disposition of commercial

rights or obligations.

A. Commercial document

B. Holographic wills

C. Notarial wills

D. Private document

3. The term "insertion" and "interlineations" include the addition of

writing and other material between lines or paragraphs or the

addition of whole page to a document.

A. Insertion or interlineations

B. Integration

C. Obliteration
 D. None of these

4. In questioned document examination, what is an "OFF-HAND

OPINION"?

A. A conclusion that is not based on scientific examination

B. A mere speculation of facts contained in the document

C. A scientific findings as to the content of document

D. All of these

5. It is a kind of handwriting that is characterized by being connected

in which one letter is joined to the next.

A. Script

B. Block

C. Vigorous

D. Cursive

6. A writer may deliberately try to alter his usual writing habits in

hopes of hiding his identity. The results, regardless of their

effectiveness are termed as ___.

A. Down stroke

B. Gestalt

C. Disguised writing

D. Graphology

7. The element of the writing movement which is marked by regular

or periodic recurrences. It may be classed as smooth, intermittent,

or jerky in its quality.

A. Shading

B. Simplification

C. Slope slant

D. Rhythm

8. What do we call the series of lines or curves written in a single

letter; one of the lines of an alphabet or series of lines or curves

within a single letter; the path traced by the pen on the paper?

A. Pen lift

B. Slope
 C. Delta

D. Stroke

9. One is not a type of handwriting "Standards"

A. Collected standards

B. Requested standards

C. Post litem motam exemplars

D. None of these

10. The act/process of making the content/s of a document not the

intended content.

A. falsification

B. counterfeiting

C. forgery

D. erasure

11. The study of handwriting to determine one's personality traits

is called

A. handwriting analysis

B. graphology

C. dactyloscopy

D. fecalysis

Answers: Questioned Document

1. B

2. A

3. A

4. A

5. D

6. C

7. D

8. D

9. B

10. A

11. B
Forensic Chemistry Reviewer 1
1. Considered the father of the crime laboratory.
A. Albert Osborne
B. Walker Mc Crone
C. Hans Gross
D. Edmond Locard.

2. Considered the father of microscopic forensics.

A. Albert Osborne
B. Walker Mc Crone
C. Hans Gross
D. Edmond Locard

3. Considered the father of forensic publications.

A. Albert Osborne
B. Walker Mc Crone
C. Hans Gross
D. Edmond Locard

4. The Father of Document Examination.

A. Albert Osborne
B. Walker Mc Crone
C. Hans Gross
D. Edmond Locard

5. The Father of Bloodstain Identification.

A. Calvin Goddard
B. Leone Lattes
C. Francis Galton
D. Alphonse Bertillon

6. The Father of Anthropometry.

A. Calvin Goddard
B. Leone Lattes
C. Francis Galton
D. Alphonse Bertillon

7. The Father of Fingerprinting.

A. Calvin Goddard
B. Leone Lattes
C. Francis Galton
D. Alphonse Bertillon

8. The father of Toxicology.

A. Mathiew Orfila
B. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
C. Hans Gross
D. Walter Mc Crone

9. Popularized Scientific Crime Detection methods through his

fictional character Sherlocke Holmes.
A. Mathiew Orfila
B. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
C. Hans Gross
D. Sir William Herscel

10.The application of scientific techniques in collecting and

analyzing physical evidence in criminal cases.
A. Ballistics
B. Criminalistics
C. Forensics
D. Criminal Investigation

Remember The Following:

1. Edmond Locard - Considered the father of the crime laboratory.
2. Walker Mc Crone - Considered the father of microscopic
forensics.
3. Hans Gross - Considered the father of forensic publications.
4. Albert Osborne - The Father of Document Examination.
5. Leone Lattes - The Father of Bloodstain Identification.
6. Alphonse Bertillon - The Father of Anthropometry.
7. Francis Galton - The Father of Fingerprinting.
8. Mathiew Orfila - The father of Toxicology.
9. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle - Popularized Scientific Crime Detection
methods through his fictional character Sherlocke Holmes.
10.Criminalistics - The Application of Scientific Techniques in
collecting and analyzing physical evidence in criminal cases.

Answers: Forensic Chemistry

1. D
2. B
3. C
4. A
5. B
6. D
7. C
8. A
9. B
10. B

Forensic Chemistry Reviewer 2

1. Is an organic fluid that may contain spermatozoa.
A. Blood
B. Urine
C. Semen
D. Saliva

2.The mature motile male sex cell of a male organism by which the
ovum is fertilized, typically having a compact head and one or more
long flagella for swimming.
A. Spermatozoa
B. Protozoa
C. Plagella
D. Semen

3. A slender thread like structure especially a microscopic whiplike

appendage that enables many protozoa, bacteria, spermatozoa
to swim
A. Spermatozoa
B. Protozoa
C. Plagella
D. Semen.

4. A phylum or group of phyla that comprises the single celled

microscopic animals which includes amebas, flagellates,ciliates,
spocozoans and many other forms.
A. Spermatozoa
B. Protozoa
C. Plagella
D. Semen

5. The haploid cell that is the male gamete.

A. Spermatozoa
B. Protozoa
C. Sperm Cell
D. Semen

6. An unborn or unhatched offspring in the process of development.

A. Zygote
 B. Gamete
C. Embryo
D. Sperm

7. A single cell with a complete set of chromosomes that normally

develops into an embryo.
A. Zygote
B. Gamete
C. Embryo
D. Sperm

8. The sex chromosome that is present in both sexes.Singly in males

and doubly in females.
A. Zygote
B. X chromosome
C. Gamete
D. Y chromosome

9. The sex chromosome that is carried by men.

A. Zygote
B. X chromosome
C. Gamete
D. Y chromosome

10. Father of micro biology and considered to be the first

microbiologists.
A. Antonie Philips Van Leeuwenhoek
B. Bridgett Bardot
C. Andy Warhol
D. Emma Stone

Remember the Following:

1.Semen - Is an organic fluid that may contain spermatozoa.

- the male reproductive fluid containing spermatozoa in
suspension.

2. Spermatozoa - The mature motile male sex cell of a male organism

by which the ovum is fertilized, typically having a compact head and
one or more long flagella for swimming.

3. Plagella - A slender thread like structure especially a microscopic

whip-like appendage that enables many protozoa, bacteria,
spermatozoa to swim.

4. Protozoa - A phylum or group of phyla that comprises the single

celled microscopic animals which includes amebas,
flagellates,ciliates,spocozoans and many other forms.

5. Sperm cell - The haploid cell that is the male gamete.

- the male reproductive cell.
6. Embryo - An unborn or unhatched offspring in the process of
development.
- An unborn human baby especially in the first 8 weeks
from conception, after implantation but before all organs are
developed.

7. Zygote - A single cell with a complete set of chromosomes that

normally develops into an embryo.

8. X chromosome - The sex chromosome that is present in both

sexes.Singly in males and doubly in females.Human females normally
have two X chromosomes.

9.Y chromosome - The sex chromosome that is carried by men.Human

males normally have one X chromosome and one Y chromosome.
10.Antonie Philips Van Leeuwenhoek - Father of micro biology and
considered to be the first microbiologists.

Answers: Forensic Chemistry

1. C
2. A
3. C
4. B
5. B
6. C
7. A
8. B
9. D
10. A
Criminalistics Review Questions 1
1. There is freehand invitation and is considered as the most skillful
class of forgery
A. simulated or copied forgery
B. simple forgery
C. traced forgery
D. carbon tracing

2. Condensed and compact set of authentic specimen which is

adequate and proper, should contain a cross section
of the material from known sources.
A. disguised document
B. questioned document
C. standard document
D. requested document

3. Specimens of hand writing or of typescript which is of known

origin.
A. Letters
B. Samples
C. Exemplars
D. Documents

4. A document which is being questioned because of its origin, its

contents or the circumstances or the stories of its production.
A. disputed document
B. standard document
C. requested document
D. questioned document

5. The art of beautiful writing is known as:

A. Drafting
B. Calligraphy
C. Art appreciation
D. Gothic

6. Any written instrument by which a right or obligation is

established.
A. Certificate
B. Subpoena
C. Warrant
D. Document

7. A type of fingerprint pattern in which the slope or downward

flow of the innermost sufficient recurve is towards the
thumb of radius bone of the hand of origin.
A. ulnar loop
B. tented arch
C. accidental whorl
D. radial loop

8. The forking or dividing of one line to two or more branches.

A. Ridge
 B. Island
C. Delta
D. Bifurcation

9. The point on a ridge at or in front of and nearest the center of

the divergence of the type lines.
A. Divergence
B. Island
C. Delta
D. Bifurcation

10.The following are considerations used for the identification

of a loop except one:
A. Delta
B. Core
C. a sufficient recurve
D. a ridge count across a looping bridge

11.The process of recording fingerprint through the use of

fingerprint ink.
A. Pathology
B. Fingerprinting
C. Dactyloscopy
D. Printing press

12.The fingerprint method of identification.

A. Pathology
B. Fingerprinting
C. Dactyloscopy
D. Printing press

13.Two lines that run parallel or nearly parallel, diverge and

surround the pattern area.
A. Ridges
B. Delta
C. Type line
D. Bifurcation

14.A part of the whorl or loop in which appear the cores, deltas
and ridges.
A. type line
B. bifurcation
C. pattern area
D. furrow

15.Fingerprints left on various surfaces at the crime scene which are

not clearly visible.
A. plane impressions
B. visible fingerprints
C. rolled impressions
D. latent fingerprints

16.The impressions left by the patterns of ridges and depressions on

various surfaces.
A. kiss marks
B. finger rolls
C. thumb marks
D. fingerprints

17.Which among the following is not considered as a basic fingerprint pattern?

A. Arch
B. Accidental
C. Loop
D. Whorl

18.The minimum identical characteristics to justify the identity

between two points.
 A. Eighteen
B. Fifteen
C. Twelve
D. Nine

19.A fingerprint pattern in which the ridges form a sequence of

spirals around core axes.
A. whorl
B. double loop
C. central pocket loop
D. accidental

20.A fingerprint pattern which one or more ridges enter on either side
of the impression by a recurve, and terminate on the same side
where the ridge has entered.
A. Loop
B. radial loop
C. ulnar loop
D. tented arch

21.A person allowed who gives his/her opinion or conclusion on a

given scientific evidence is considered:
A. interrogator
B. expert witness
C. prosecutor
D. judge

22.The application of scientific knowledge and techniques in the

detection of crime and apprehension of criminals.
A. Law Enforcement Administration
B. Forensic Administration
C. Criminal Psychology
D. Criminalistics

23.Lens that is characterized by a thicker center and thinner sides.

A. concave lens
B. convex lens
C. negative lens
D. positive lens

24.The normal developing time of a paper or film.

A. 30-60 minutes
B. 20-30 minutes
C. 5-10 minutes
D. 1- 2 minutes

25.This part of a camera is used to allow light to enter the lens for
a predetermined time interval.
A. holder of sensitized material
B. view finder
C. shutter
D. view finder

26.A lens with a focal length of less than the diagonal of its negative
material.
A. telephoto lens
B. long lens
C. normal lens
D. wide angle lens

27.Chemical used as an accelerator in a developer solution.

A. Potassium Bromide
B. Sodium Carbonate
C. Sodium Sulfite
D. Hydroquinone

28.A part of a camera used in focusing the light from the subject
 A. view finder
B. lens
C. shutter
D. light tight box

29.A component of the polygraph instrument which records the

breathing of the subject.
A. Cardiosphygmograph
B. Pneumograph
C. Galvanograph
D. Kymograph

30.A component of the polygraph instrument which records the

blood pressure and the pulse rate of the subject.
A. Cardiosphygmograph
B. Pneumograph
C. Galvanograph
D. Kymograph

31.A component of the polygraph instrument which is a motor that

drives or pulls the chart paper under the recording pen
simultaneously at the rate of 6 or 12 inches per minute.
A. Cardiosphygmograph
B. Pneumograph
C. Galvanograph
D. Kymograph

32.The following are specific rules to be followed in the formulation of

the questions in a polygraph test except one.
A. Questions must be clear and phrased in a language the
subject can easily understand.
B. Questions must be answerable by yes or no.
C. Questions must be as short as possible.
D. Questions must all be in the form of accusations

33. In “ polygraph examination”, the term “ examination” means a

detection of
A. Forgery
B. Emotion
C. the mind
D. deception

34. It refers to an emotional response to a specific danger, which

appears to go beyond a person’s defensive power.
A. Fear
B. Stimuli
C. Response
D. Reaction

35. The primary purpose of pre-test interview.

A. Prepare subject for polygraph test
B. Obtain confession
C. Make the subject calm
D. Explain the polygraph test procedures

36. The deviation from normal tracing of the subject in the relevant
question.
A. positive response
B. specific response
C. normal response
D. reaction

37. The study of the effect of the impact of a projectile on the

target.
A. Terminal Ballistics
B. Internal Ballistics
C. External Ballistics
 D. Forensic Ballistics

38. The unstable rotating motion of the bullet is called:

A. Trajectory
B. Yaw
C. Velocity
D. Gyroscopic action

39. The part of the mechanism of a firearm that withdraws the shell
or cartridge from the chamber.
A. Extractor
B. Ejector
C. Striker
D. Trigger

40. The pattern or curved path of the bullet in flight.

A. Yaw
B. Range
C. Velocity
D. Trajectory

41. This refers to the deflection of the bullet from its normal path
after striking a resistant surface.
A. Misfire
B. Mushroom
C. Ricochet
D. Key hole shot

42. A type of primer with two vents or flash holes.

A. Bordan primer
B. Berdan Primer
C. Baterry Primer
D. Boxer Primer

43. This refers to the helical grooves cut in the interior surface of
the bore.
A. swaging
B. ogive
C. rifling
D. breaching

44. It refers to the unstable rotating motion of the bullet.

A. Trajectory
B. Yaw
C. Velocity
D. Gyproscopic action

45. It is the measurement of the bore diameter from land to land.

A. Calibre
B. Mean diameter
C. Gauge
D. Rifling

46. He is known as the Father of Ballistics.

A. Hans Gross
B. Charles Waite
C. Albert Osborne
D. Calvin Goddard

47. A document in which some issues have been raised or is under

scrutiny.
A. Void Document
B. Illegal Document
C. Forged Document
D. Questioned Document

48. The following are characteristics of forgery except one:

 A. Presence of Natural Variation
B. Multiple Pen Lifts
C. Show bad quality of ink lines
D. Patchwork Appearance

49. Standards which are prepared upon the request of the

investigator and for the purpose of comparison with the
questioned document.
A. relative standards
B. collected standards
C. extended standards
D. requested standards

50. Any stroke which goes back over another writing stroke.
A. natural variation
B. rhythm
C. retracing
A. shading

51. The name of a person written by him/her in a document as a sign

of acknowledgment.
A. Opinion
B. Document
C. Signature
D. Handwriting

52. A kind of document which is executed by a private person

without the intervention of a notary public, or of
competent public official, by which some disposition of
agreement is proved.
A. commercial document
B. official document
C. public document
D. private document

53. An instrument that can be legally used in comparison with a

questioned document, its origin is known and can be proven.
A. simulated document
B. forged document
C. standard document
D. compared document

54. The process of making out what is illegible or what has been
effaced.
A. Comparison
B. Collation
C. Obliteration
D. Decipherment

55. A document which contains some changes either as an

addition or deletion.
A. inserted document
B. altered document
C. disputed document
D. obliterated document

56. A kind of erasure by using a rubber eraser, sharp knife, razor

blade or picking instrument.
A. mechanical erasure
B. electronic erasure
C. magnetic erasure
D. chemical erasure

57. It is the periodic increase in pressure, characterized by

widening of the ink stroke.
A. Shading
B. pen lift
 C. pen emphasis
D. pen pressure

58. A kind of document executed by a person in authority and by

private parties but notarized by competent officials.
A. private document
B. commercial document
C. public document
D. official document

59. The detection and identification of poisons.

A. Bacteriology
B. Posology
C. Toxicology
D. Chemistry

60. The specimen that is preferably used in the determination of

abused drugs in the body.
A. blood
B. saliva
C. body fluid
D. urine

61. A forensic chemist is tasked to examine the chemical nature

and composition of the following except one:
A. Fingerprint
B. Explosives
C. Blood
D. Body fluids Answer: A

62. Who qualifies a forensic chemist as expert?

A. defense lawyer
B. judge
C. prosecutor
D. the chemist himself/herself Answer: B

63. Methamphetamine hydrochloride is commonly known as

A. Coke
B. LSD
C. Heroin
D. “shabu” Answer: D

64. An area surrounding the place where the crime occurred.

A. crime scene
B. police line
C. area of operation
D. area of responsibility Answer: A

65. The body of the crime.

A. Evidence
B. body of the victim
C. criminology
D. corpus delicti Answer: D

66. One of the following is a derivative of the opium poppy.

A. Demerol
B. Caffeine
C. Morphine
D. nicotine Answer: C

67. Number restoration is necessary in determining whether there is

tampering of serial number in _______.
A. typewriter
B. firearm
C. prisoners
D. bank notes Answer: B
68. In forensic examination, a tip of the hair is examined to
determine if it was
A. Bend
B. Folded
C. Stretched
D. Cut Answer: D

69. All of the following are accurate tests for the presence of alcohol
in the human body except one:
A. Saliva test
B. Harger Breath Test
C. Fecal test
D. Blood test Answer: C

70. The application of chemical principles and processes in the

examination of evidence.
A. Forensic Medicine
B. Forensic Evidence
C. Criminalistics
D. Forensic Chemistry Answer: D

71. Volatile poisons may be isolated by means of this process.

A. Dialysis
B. Dilution
C. Distillation
D. Extraction Answer: C

72. The process in reproducing physical evidence by plaster moulds.

A. Casting
B. Cementing
C. Moulage
D. Sticking Answer: C

73. The test used to determine the presence of semen particularly

in stained clothing.
A. Florence Test
B. Barberio’s Test
C. Microscopic Test
D. Ultra-Violet Test Answer: A

74. The test used to determine the presence of blood in stained

material.
A. Florence Test
B. Barberio’s Test
C. Takayama Test
D. Phenolphtalein Test Answer: C

75. It is the major component of a glass.

A. Lime
B. Soda
C. Silica
D. Gel Answer: C

76. Poisons which produce stupor and less feeling.

A. Narcotics
B. Irritants
C. Depressants
D. Stimulants Answer: A

77. A supercooled liquid which possess high viscosity and rigidity.

A. dry ice
B. cartridge case
C. gel
D. glass Answer: D

78. The study and identification of body fluids.

A. Pharmacology
 B. Serology
C. Posology
D. Immunology Answer: B

79. The test to determine whether blood is of human origin or not.

A. Blood typing
B. Precipitin Test
C. Confirmatory Test
D. Preliminary Test Answer: B

80. The circulating tissue of the body.

A. Blood
B. Cells
C. Muscles
D. Liver Answer: A

81. The complete, continuous, persistent cessation of respiration,

circulation and almost all brain functions of an organism.
A. Apparent death
B. Molecular death
C. Cellular Death
D. Somatic death Answer: D

82. The approximate time for the completion of one case for DNA
Testing.
A. minimum of eight weeks
B. minimum of six weeks
C. minimum of four weeks
D. minimum of two weeks Answer: C

83. DNA stands for

A. Deonatural Acid
B. Deoxyribonucleic Acid
C. Denaturalized Acid
D. Deoxy Nucleic Acid Answer: B

84. The Geneticist from Great Britain who pioneered DNA testing and
fingerprinting.
A. Alec Jeffries
B. Lowell C. Van Berkom
C. William Reynolds
D. Henry Van Dyke Answer: A

85. The cause of death of a person who immediately died because of

lack of oxygen for around 3 to five minutes.
A. Stroke
B. Asphyxia
C. Stupor
D. Exhaustion Answer: B

86. The most serious burn involving skin, nerves, muscles and bones,
causing death due to loss of fluids and electrolytes in
the body and massive infection.
A. First Degree Burn
B. Second Degree Burn
C. Third Degree Burn
D. Sunburn Answer: C

87. A discoloration of the body after death when the blood tends
to pool in the blood vessels of the most dependent portions
of the body and starts 20 to 30 minutes after death and is
completed by 12 hours.
A. livor mortis
B. primary flaccidity
C. maceration
D. rigor mortis Answer: A
88. A wound which if inflicted in the body so serious that it will
endanger one’s life.
A. mortal wound
B. trauma
C. coup injury
D. superficial wound Answer: A

89. A wound produced by a blunt instrument such as club and stone.

A. incised wound
B. hack wound
C. lacerated wound
D. punctured wound Answer: C

90. A displacement of the articular surface of the bone without

external wounds.
A. Hematoma
B. Fracture
C. Sprain
D. Dislocation Answer: D

91. A condition of exposure to cold temperature of certain parts of

the body which produces mechanical disruption of cell structure
characterized by cold stiffening and diminished body.
A. immersion foot
B. trench foot
C. frostbite
D. gangrene Answer: C

92. A condition of women who have had one or more sexual

experience but not had conceived a child.
A. virgo-intacts
B. demi-virginity
C. moral virginity
D. physical virginity Answer: A

93. Fixed discoloration of the blood clot inside the blood vessels
or has diffused to different parts of the body.
A. hypostatic lividity
B. diffusion lividity
C. hyper lividity
D. rigor mortis Answer: B

94. Things used by a person in the commission of a crime, or objects

left in a crime scene which are the subjects of criminalistics.
A. testimonial evidence
B. hearsay evidence
C. circumstantial evidence
D. physical evidence Answer: D

95. The science dealing with the motion of a projectile and the
conditions governing that motion.
A. Ballistics
B. Forensic Ballistics
C. Terminal Ballistics
D. External Ballistics Answer: A

96. The application of medical knowledge in the solution of crimes.

A. Forensic Science
B. Forensic Chemistry
C. Forensic Ballistics
D. Legal Medicine Answer: D

97. The science or art of obtaining images in scientific materials by

the action of electro magnetic radiation rays.
A. Polygraphy
B. Dactyloscopy
C. Photography
 D. Chemistry Answer: C

98. Instrument used in the measurement of temperature.

A. Endometer
B. Barometer
C. Thermometer
D. ananometer Answer: C

99. The scientific detection of deception.

A. Polygraphy
B. Dactyloscopy
C. Toxicology
D. Chemistry Answer: A

100. The test conducted to determine the presence of gunpowder

residue in the hands of a suspect.
A. diphenylamine test
B. ultra violet test
C. paraffin test
D. Simon’s Test
Answer: C

Answers: Criminalistics Review Questions

1. A 26. A 51. C
2. C 27. B 52. D
3. C 28. B 53. C
4. D 29. B 54. D
5. B 30. A 55. B
6. D 31. D 56. A
7. D 32. D 57. D
8. D 33. D 58. C
9. C 34. A 59. C
10. B 35. A 60. D
11. B 36. A
12. C 37. A
13. C 38. B
14. C 39. B
15. D 40. D
16. D 41. C
17. B 42. D
18. D 43. D
19. A 44. B
20. C 45. A
21. B 46. D
22. D 47. D
23. A 48. A
24. C 49. D
25. C 50. C

Criminalistics Review Questions 2

1. The following are types of medical evidence, except:
A. Photographic evidence
B. Experimental evidence
C. Testimonial evidence
D. Autoptic evidence

2. The art of identification by comparison of fingerprint is called:

A. Dactylography
B. All of these
C. Dactyloscopy
D. Palmistry

3. Some scientific methods of identification are the following, except:

A. Fingerprinting
B. Handwriting
C. Dental identification
 D. Identification by close friends and relatives

4. The greater the number of points of similarities and dissimilarities of

two persons compared, the greater the probability for the
conclusion to be correct is found in the
A. Law of Municipality of Evidence in Identification
B. All of the these
C. Identification by Comparison and Exclusion
D. Law of Super Imposition

5. In the strict sense of the word, Forensic Medicine means:

A. application of medicine to legal cases
B. application of medical science to elucidate legal problems
C. knowledge of law in relation to practice of medicine
D. none of the above
E. all of the above

6. The different test to determine peripheral circulation are the

following, except
A. Magnus test
B. Diaphanous test
C. I card’s test
D. Winslow’s test

7. The following officials of the Philippine Government are authorized to

conduct death investigation, except -
A. Public Prosecutor
B. Judges of the Regional Trial Court
C. Director, PNP
D. SOCO team

8. The following statements are important in death determination.

Which is not valid?
A. Civil personality of a natural person is extinguished by
death.
B. Civil property of a person is transmitted to the heirs, if
not, to the government.
C. The death of the partner is one of the causes of
dissolution of partnership agreement.
D. The criminal liability of a person is extinguished by death.

9. The following are kinds of death, which one is not?

A. Somatic or Clinical Death
B. State of Suspended Animation
C. Cellular or Molecular Death
D. Regulated Death

10. Of the following kinds of death, which one is relevant to organ

transportation?
A. Somatic or Clinical Death
B. State of Suspended Animation
C. Molecular Death
D. Cellular Death

11. To find out the truth is an essential requirement for the

administration of justice. Which of the following is the commonly
used method of deception detection?
A. Lie detection method
B. Hypnotism
C. Use of drugs
D. Confession

12. In molecular or cellular death, death of individual cells is within:

A. 3-6 minutes
B. 3-6 hours
C. 20-30 minutes
D. 20-30 hours
13. Post-mortem lividity has the following mechanisms:
A. Hypostatic pressure
B. Diffusion
C. Gravitational pressure
D. All of the above

14. Hanging is asphyxia due to the constriction of the neck as a result

of suspension in which the weight of the body pulls upon the
ligature. What differentiates it from strangulation by a ligature
therefore is:
A. The factor of suspension
B. Hanging raises a presumption of suicide
C. Strangulation is usually homicidal
D. All of the above
E. None of the above

15. Distinctions between ante-mortem from post-mortem clot are the

following. Which one is not valid?
A. Ante-mortem clot is firm in consistency
B. Clot is homogenous in construction so it cannot be
stripped into layers
C. Clot with varied colors
D. Surface of the blood vessels are raw after the clots are
removed

16. Post-mortem lividity may be due to any of the following, except:

A. Hypostasis
B. Autolysis
C. Diffusion
D. Suggillation

17. Comprehensive study of dead body, performed by a trained

Physician, to determine the cause of death:
A. Autopsy
B. Biophsy
C. Dissection
D. Physicians

18. Articles and materials found in the crime scene:

A. Physical evidence
B. Associative evidence
C. Evidence
D. Tracing evidence

19. Circumscribed extravasation of blood or subcutaneous tissue or

underneath the mucous membrane.
A. Contusion
B. Petecchiae
C. Abrasion
D. All of them

20. Among the following, which has the greatest value in scientific
examination/identification?
A. Dental examination
B. Fingerprinting
C. Photography
D. Pictures Parle

21. One is a condition that can approximate the time of death.

A. Cadaver
B. Magnus test
C. Rigor mortis
D. None of these

22. The means sanctioned by the law, of ascertaining the judicial

power/proceeding, the truth respecting the matter of fact.
 A. Polygraph
B. Evidence
C. Lie detector
D. All of these

23. Determination of individuality of a person or thing:

A. Description
B. Perception
C. Identification
D. All of these

24. Types of fingerprint patters, except:

A. Arches
B. Ordinary
C. Loop
D. Whorl

25. It is any unusual pattern of sexual behavior including habitual,

preference and completing need for sexual gratification by any
means except sexual intercourse which results to bodily
excitement
A. Virginity
B. Sexual intercourse
C. Prostitution
D. Sexual deviation

26. An open wound produced by a sharp-pointed instrument and is

characterized by a small opening of the wound.
A. Gunshot wound
B. Stab wound
C. Shrapnel wound
D. Punctured wound Answer: D

27. A physical injury wherein the offended victim is incapacitated for

work or requires medical assistance for 10 days or more but not more than 30 days.
A. Slight physical injury
B. Mutilation
C. Serious physical injury
D. Less serious physical injury Answer: D

28. It is the type of burn due to gamma rays and which is difficult to
remedy:
A. Thermal burn
B. Electric burn
C. Chemical burn
D. Radiation burn Answer: D

29. The metal tube through which the bullet is fired is called
A. Bore
B. Barrel
C. Baretta
D. Bromet Answer: B

30. The old form of gunpowder invented over a thousand years ago
and consisting of nitrate, charcoal, and sulfur.
A. Chinese Powder
B. Black Powder
C. Gray Powder
D. All of these Answer: B

31. The inside of the barrel is generally termed as:

A. Bore
B. Barrel
C. Rifling
D. Primer Answer: A

32. The portion of the gun which is held or shouldered is called

 A. Buckle
B. Buttstock
C. Handle
D. End joint Answer: B

33. In a gun, the portion of the "action" that holds the cartridge ready
for firing is called:
A. Gas tube
B. Chamber
C. Double-action
D. Trigger Answer: B

34. A metal rod or plate that strikes the cartridge primer to detonate
the powder.
A. Spring
B. Trigger guard
C. Hammer
D. Revolver Answer: C

35. This is a device for storing cartridges in a repeating firearm for

loading into the chamber. Also referred to as a "clip".
A. Clipper
B. Holder
C. Pin or pinhead
D. None of these Answer: D

36. A device that fits over the muzzle of the barrel to muffle the
sound of a gunshot. Most work by baffling the escape of gases.
A. Buffer
B. Silencer
C. Magazine
D. Hanger Answer: B

37. Under the management of Lt. Darby during the American

occupation in the Philippines, a modern and complete fingerprint
file has been established for the Philippine commonwealth. In 1937,
the first Filipino fingerprint technician employed by the Phil.
Constabulary was
A. Mr. Generoso Reyes
B. Mr. Amado Delos Santos
C. Mr. Calixto Solis
D. None of these Answer: A

38. The first leading judicial decision in the Philippine jurisprudence on

the science of fingerprinting was the case of
A. People vs Medina
B. People vs Pineda
C. People vs Amador
D. People vs. Rosas Answer: A

39. What is the intermediate and the thickest layer of the hair and is
composed of elongated, spindle-shaped fibrils which cohere? They
contain pigment granules in varying proportion depending on the
type of hair.
A. Medulla
B. Cortex
C. Core
D. Cuticle Answer: B

40. Who was the noted British Examiner of questioned documents said
that an intelligent police investigator can detect almost 75% of all
forgeries by careful inspection of a document with simple
magnifiers and measuring tools?
A. Dr. Arthur Stoll
B. Dr. Aristotle Curt
C. Dr. William Harrison
D. Dr. Benjamin Jones Answer: C
41. In police photography studies, what are called the thin, gelatinous,
light-sensitive coatings on film that react chemically to capture
the color and shadings of a scene?
A. Films
B. Emulsions
C. Chemical Coatings
D. None of these Answer: B

42. A medium that divert or absorb light, but does not allow lights to
pass though, they absorb most of the light while reflecting some of
it is called
A. Opaque object
B. Convection
C. Visible light
D. Prisms Answer: A

43. In the practice of polygraphy, what do you call questions

unrelated to the matter under investigation but are of similar
nature although less serious as compared to those relevant
questions under investigation?
A. Irrelevant questions
B. Relevant questions
C. Control questions
D. Interrogative questions Answer: C

44. What test is given if a subject of interrogation is not yet informed

of the details of the offense for which he is being interrogated by
the investigation, or by other persons or from other sources like
the print media?
A. Peak of Tension test
B. Control test
C. IQ Test
D. Guilt Complex Test Answer: A

45. In fingerprinting, the space between shoulders of a loop, free of

any appendage, and a butting at right angle.
A. Complete curve
B. Sufficient Recurve
C. Straight arrow
D. Core Answer: B

46. The term use to refer to a single recurving ridge enclosing one or
more rods or bars of a fingerprint.
A. None of these
B. Envelope
C. Furrows
D. Bifurcation Answer: B

47. These are depressions or canals between the ridges of a

fingerprint which maybe compared with the low area in a tire
tread.
A. None of these
B. Envelope
C. Furrows
D. Bifurcation Answer: C

48. In the study of questioned documents, what do you call the

quality of paper that does not allow light to pass through or which
prevents dark objects from being seen through the paper?
A. Opacity
B. Watermarks
C. Skid marks
D. Invisibility Answer: A

49. What is the oldest ink material known?

A. Ball point pen ink
 B. Chinese Ink
C. Aniline Ink
D. White Ink Answer: B

50. It is the art of extracting and working on metals by the application

of chemical and physical knowledge.
A. Cryptography
B. Metallurgy
C. Casting
D. Matalisky Answer: B

51. The branch of geology that deals with the systematic

classification and identification of rocks, rock forming minerals and
soil.Also includes study of dust, dirt, safe insulation, ceramics and
other such materials, both natural and artificial.
A. Petrography
B. Serology
C. Anthropology
D. Ecology Answer: A

52. In a fire, the presence of reddish brown smoke indicates

A. Nitrocellulose
B. Sulfuric acid
C. Nitric acid
D. All of these Answer: D

53. The bending of light around an object gives rise to the

phenomenon called
A. attraction
B. diffraction
C. light curve
D. light fingerprint Answer: B

54. Under the law of reflection, The angle of reflection depends upon
the angle of the light striking the material, which is referred to as
the
A. angle of incidence
B. angle of biometry
C. angle of light
D. none of these Answer: A

55. In ballistics, what is the pressure generated within the chamber

erroneously called breeched pressure?
A. Chamber Pressure
B. Barrel Pressure
C. Gunpowder
D. None of these Answer: A

56. The ratio of the weight of the powder charge to the weight of the
projectile is called:
A. Power to speed ratio
B. Charge weight to bullet weight ratio
C. Firing pin stroke ratio
D. All of these Answer: B

57. Chemical rearrangement of molecules into gas instead of solids to

cause the high explosives to exert full power of shock. The speed
varies in different explosive but in some it is as high as 7000 yards
in a second. This refers to:
A. Energy
B. Gas
C. Detonation
D. Gun powder Answer: C

58. What occurs when a cartridge fails to explode on time or delayed

in firing?
A. Knocking Power
 B. Hang fire
C. Recoil
D. None of these Answer: B

59. In China, fingerprint is called ___. It was valued for purposes of

identification since time immemorial as found on a Chinese clay
seal made not later than the 3rd Century B.C.
A. Hua Chi
B. Mah Whang
C. Wong Cho
D. Tiang Hin Answer: A

60. Who has given the fame title as “Father of Dactyloscopy”?

A. Johannes Purkinje
B. Leonard Keeler
C. Charles Darwin
D. Sir Francis Galton Answer: A

61. In Hoogly, district of Bengal, India, he used fingerprints to prevent

fraudulent collection of army pay account and for identification of
other documents. He was known as the Father of Chiroscopy.
A. William Herschel
B. Francis Galton
C. Gilbert Thompson
D. Alphonse Bertillon Answer: A

62. A noted British anthropologist who began observation which led to

the publication in 1882 of his book “Fingerprints.” That
established the individuality of classifying fingerprint patterns.
A. Francis Galton
B. Gilbert Thompson
C. Wayne Kate
D. Alphonse Bertillon Answer: A

63. The notorious gangster and a police character, who attempted to

erase his fingerprints by burning them with acid but as time went
by the ridges were again restored to their “natural” feature.
A. John Fielding
B. Johanes Curie
C. John Dillinger
D. Billy the Kid Answer: C

64. What is the science of palm print identification?

A. Chiroscopy
B. Poroscopy
C. Podoscopy
D. Astrology Answer: B

65. A single ridge which splits into two ridges forming a “Y” shape
formation or structure is commonly known as
A. Diverging ridges
B. Bifurcating ridges
C. Loop
D. Delta Answer: B

66. Symbolized by letter W in the fingerprint classification. It is a

fingerprint pattern which there are two deltas and in which at
least one ridge makes a turn through one complete circuit.
A. Plain whorl
B. Central pocket loop whorl
C. Accidental loop
D. Ulnar loop Answer: A

67. Father of Criminalistics.

A. Dr. Hans Gross
B. Dr. Cesare Lombroso
C. Dr. John Reid
 D. Dr. John Larson Answer: A

68. Which evidence offers least resistance to decomposition?

A. Semen
B. Urine
C. Hair
D. Blood Answer: C

69. One in which the facts appearing therein may not be true, and are
contested either in whole or part with respect to its authenticity,
identity, or origin.
A. Questioned document
B. Illegal document
C. Falsified document
D. Disputed facts Answer: A

70. Are condensed and compact set of authentic specimens which,

if adequate and proper, should contain a cross section of the
material from a known source for questioned document
examination.
A. Basis products
B. Standards
C. Handwriting
D. Signatures Answer: B

71. A term used by some document examiners and attorneys to

characterize known material.
A. Basis
B. Exemplar
C. Xerox copies
D. Reproduced Answer: B

72. When a document is issued and notarized by a notary public or

competent public official with solemnities required by law, it is
called
A. Official document
B. Public document
C. Commercial document
D. Private Document Answer: B

73. What is known as the blotting out or shearing over the writing to
make the original invisible to as an addition?
A. Obliteration
B. Obscuration
C. Forged
D. None of these Answer: A

74. In legal language, it refers to the document examiner's conclusion.

In Court, he may not only express it but demonstrates the
reasons for arriving at his conclusion.
A. Remarks
B. Testimony
C. Opinion
D. Reasoning Answer: C

75. In this kind of document examination, the document is viewed with

the source of illumination behind it and the light passing through
the paper.Documents are subjected to this type of examination to
determine the presence of erasures, matching of serrations and
some other types of alterations.
A. Microscopic examination
B. Ultra violet examination
C. Photographic examination
D. Transmitted light examination Answer: D

76. Ultraviolet radiation is invisible and occurs in the wave lengths just
below the visible blue-violet end of the spectrum (rainbow). These
 visible rays react on some substances so that visible light is
reflected, a phenomenon known as
A. Prism
B. Fluorescence
C. Infrared
D. Radiation Answer: B

77. It is the result of a very complicated series of facts, being used as

whole, combination of certain forms of visible mental and muscular
habits acquired by long, continued painstaking effort.Some
defined it as “visible speech.”
A. Typewriting
B. Money Bills
C. Handwriting
D. All of these Answer: C

78. In document examination, what is the relation of parts of the

whole of writing or line of individual letters in words to the
baseline?
A. Proportion
B. Alignment
C. Lining
D. Letter forms Answer: B

79. Any property or mark which distinguishes and in document

examination commonly called to as the identifying details si called
A. Standard
B. Characteristics
C. Attribute
D. Form Answer: B

80. The act of setting two or more items side by side to weigh their
identifying qualities; it refers not only a visual but also the mental
act in which the element of one item are related to the
counterparts of the other.
A. Collation
B. Analysis
C. Comparison
D. Recording Answer: C

81. In the study handwriting, the movement of the pen toward the
writer is called
A. Downstroke
B. Backstroke
C. Sidestroke
D. None of these Answer: A

82. It is a signature, signed at a particular time and place, under

particular conditions, while the signer was at particular age, in a
particular physical and mental condition, using particular
implements, and with a particular reason and purpose for recording
his name.
A. Fraudulent Signature
B. Freehand forged signature
C. Guided Signature
D. Evidential Signature Answer: D

83. It is the crime of making, circulating or uttering false coins and

banknotes. Literally, it means to make a copy of; or imitate; to
make a spurious semblance of, as money or stamps, with the
intent to deceive or defraud.
A. Counterfeiting
B. Falsification
C. Forgery
D. Fake money bills Answer: A

84. A fluid or viscous marking material used for writing or printing.

 A. Pen
B. Ink
C. Coal
D. Chalk Answer: B

85. In 1884, who was this insurance agent in New York who patented
the first practical fountain pen containing its own ink reservoir
A. Lewis Waterman
B. John Loud
C. Peter Reynolds
D. Henry Ball Answer: A

86. What do you called the type of instrument used in measuring pitch
of rifling firearms
A. Pinometer
B. Helixometer
C. Thermometer
D. Caliper Answer: B

87. This valuable instrument is specially designed to permit the

firearms examiner to determine the similarity and dissimilarity
between two fired bullets or two fired shells, by simultaneously
observing their magnified image in a single microscopic field.
A. Magnetic field device
B. Compound microscope
C. Bullet comparison microscope
D. Photographic microscope Answer:C

88. Consist of a wooden box, 12 “x”12”x 96, with a hinged to cover

and with one end open. This long box is filled with ordinary cotton
and separated into sections by cardboard petitions use in
ballistics.
A. Firing point box
B. Bullet recovery box
C. Slug collection box
D. All of these Answer: B

89. Photographic films maybe classified according to their forms and

types. What are the films that are sensitive to radiation?
A. Chrome Films
B. X-Ray Films
C. B&W Films
D. Colored Films Answer: B

90. Which film is suitable for general use in the preparation of black
and white photography because it produces the most natural
recording of colors?
A. Panchromatic film
B. Chrome Films
C. X-Ray Films
D. Color Films Answer: A

91. One film maybe rated ISO – 100, and another film ISO- 200. This
means that the 200 films are twice as fast (twice more sensitive
to light) than the ISO-100 film. This statement is
A. true
B. false
C. partly true
D. partly false Answer: A

92. Among the following speed of film, which has the fastest speed?
A. ISO – 25
B. ISO – 100 to ISO – 200
C. ISO – 400
D. ISO – 1000 and up Answer: D

93. Chromatic aberration is the failure of different colored light rays to

 focus after passing through a lens, focusing of light of different
colors at different points resulting in a blurred image.
A. Astigmatism
B. Bended light
C. Chromatic aberration
D. Pragmatic rays Answer: C

94. What is the defect in which the light coming from an off-axis
object point is spread along the direction of the optic axis? If the
object is a vertical line, the cross section of the refracted beam at successively greater distances from the lens
is an ellipse that
collapses first into a horizontal line, spreads out again, and later
becomes a vertical line.
A. Astigmatism
B. Bended light
C. Chromatic aberration
D. Pragmatic rays Answer: A

95. Depth of field is the range in front of and behind a sharply focused
subject in which details also look sharp in the final photographic
image.
A. Focus
B. Depth of field
C. Camera trick
D. Aperture Answer: B

96. In photography, what determines how effectively a moving object

can be stopped, that is, how sharply it can be reproduced without
blurring, or streaking in the final image?
A. Focus
B. Shutter speed
C. Aperture
D. Lens Answer: B

97. What makes a bullet spin? Without spin, a bullet would not stay
pointed forward in flight, but would tumble over and over. The
spinning motion increases the accuracy of a bullet.
A. Bore
B. Gunpowder
C. Rifling
D. Shell Answer: C

98. What component of the polygraph machine records the changes in

the breathing of the subject?
A. Pneumograph
B. Cardiograph
C. Galvanograph
D. Kymograph Answer: A

99. In fingerprinting, it refers to the process of counting the

intervening ridges that touch or cross an imaginary line drawn
between the core and the delta.
A. Ridge counting
B. Ridge tracing
C. Delta tracing
D. All of these Answer: A

100.For many years the most commonly used preliminary test for blood
A. Plasma count
B. Serum test
C. Benzidine test
D. Barberio’s test Answer: C

Answers:Criminalistics
1. B 26. D
2. C 27. B
3. D 28. D
4. A 29. B
5. B 30. B
6. C
7. B
8. B
9. D
10. A
11. A
12. A
13. D
14. E
15. C
16. B
17. A
18. A
19. A
20. B
21. C
22. B
23. C
24. B
25. D