MATHEMATICS MATRICESAND DETERMINANTS

MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

DEFINITION OF MATRIX
A system of m × n numbers arranged in the form of an ordered set of m rows and n columns is
called an m × n matrix. It can be read as m by n matrix. It is represented as A = [aij]m × n and can be

 a 11 a 12 . . . a 1n 
 a a . . . a 2n 
written in expanded form as A   21 22
    
 a m1 a m 2 . . . a mn 

2 1 0 
1 1 3 
e.g.,   is a 3by 3 matrix.
 6 5  1 

DIFFERENT TYPES OF MATRICES

Rectangular matrix and square matrix. If in an m n matrix m  n then it is a rectangular
matrix

 1  3
0 5 
But if m =n , it is a square matrix. e.g  is a rectangul ar matrix, whi le
  6 9 

1  3 4
0 2 5
 
6 8 7 

is a square matrix.
Column Matrix: A matrix which has only one column and m rows is called a column
matrix of length m.

 1 
 3 
e.g. x  is a column matrix of length 4.
 2 
 
 1
Row Matrix: A m atri x whi ch has only one row and n columns is called a row
matrix of length n
e.g., [2 –1 3 0]1×4 is a row matrix of length 4.

Diagonal Matrix:A square matrix of any order wit h zero elements ev ery where,
except on the main diagonal, is called a diagonal matrix.

3 0 0 
0 5 0 
e.g.   is a diagonal matrix of order 3.
 0 0 1

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Scalar matrix : A matrix whose diagonal elements are all equal and other entries

k 0 0
are zero, is called a scalar matrix e.g. A   0 k 0
0 0 k 
 
Identity or Unit Matrix : A square matrix in which all t he elements al ong the
mai n di agonal (el ements of the f rom a ii ) are unity is call ed
an ident ity matri x or a uni t matrix. An i denti ty m atrix of
order n is denoted by In.

1 0 0
 
e.g. I3 =  0 1 0 
 0 0 1 

Null or Zero Matrix : The matrix whose all elements are zero is called null matrix or zero
matrix. It is usually denoted by O.

0 0 0
e.g. O 33  0 0 0
0 0 0

Triangular Matrix: A square matrix whose elements above the main diagonal or below
the main diagonal are all zero is called a triangular matrix.

Note: (i) [aij]n × n is said to be upper triangular matrix if i > j  aij = 0,

(ii) [aij]n × n is said to be lower triangular matrix if i < j  aij = 0.

1 2 1 3 
0 2 1 0 
e.g.  is an upper triangular matrix.
0 0 3 1
 
0 0 0 3

Sub Matrix : A m atrix obt ained by omitti ng some rows or som e columns or
both of a given matrix A is called a sub matrix of A.

2 0 4 
 2 0
e.g., If A   5 6 8  , then   is a submatrix of A which
5 6
 3 2 29 

is obtained by omitting third row and third column of A.

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Horizontal Matrix : Any matrix in which the number of columns is more than the number
of rows is called a horizontal matrix.

2 3 4 5 
e.g.  8 9 7  2  is a horizontal matrix.
 2 2 3 4 

Since here number of columns > number of rows.

Vertical Matrix : Any matrix in which the number of rows is more than the number
of columns is called column matrix.

2 3
4 5 

e.g. 6 7 is a column matrix.
 
8 9

Since here number of rows > number of columns.

EQUALITY OF TWO MATRICES

Two matrices A = [aij] and B = [bij] are said to be equal if they are of the same order and their
corresponding elements are equal. If two matrices A and B are equal, we write A = B.

OPERATION ON MATRICES.
ADDITION OF MATRICES
If A and B are two matrices of the same order m × n, then their sum is defined to be the matrix of
order m × n obtained by adding the corresponding elements of A and B.

 a11 a12 a13   b11 b12 b13 

 a 23  and B   b 21
 b 23  ,
e.g. If A  a 21 a 22 b 22
 a 31 a 32 a 33   b31 b32 b33 

 a 11  b11 a 12  b12 a 13  b13 


then A  B  a 21  b 21 a 22  b 22 a 23  b 23 

 a 31  b31 a 32  b 32 a 33  b 33 

SUBTRACTION OF TWO MATRICES

If A and B are two matrices of the same order then the sum A +(-B) , Written as A- B,
is the the matrix obtained by subtracting B from A.

PROPERTIES OF MATRIX ADDITION

If A, B, C are three matrices of the same order then
(i) A + B = B + A (commutative law of addition)
(ii) A + (B+C) = (A+B) +C (associative law of addition )

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(iii) A + O = O + A = A
(iv) A B  AC  B  C
(v) A + ( -A) = (-A) + A = O.

Illustration 1:
If  is an imaginary cube root of unity, show that

1  2    2 1   2 1 
     
 2 1    2 1   1  2 
is a null matrix.
 2 1    1  2    2 1 

Solution:

1  2    2 1   2 1 
     
 2 1    2 1   1  2 
 2 1    1  2    2 1 


1    2 1    2 1    2  0 0 0 
 
 1    2 1    2 1    2   0 0 0 
  , which is a null matrix.
1    2 1    2 1    2  0 0 0 
 

MULTIPLICATION OF A MATRIX BY A SCALAR

If A = [aij]m × n and  is a scalar, then  A = [  aij]m × n

2 1 3   6 3 9 
e.g. A   2 5 1  – 3A =  6 15 3  .
   0 3 6 
 0 1 2   

MULTIPLICATION OF TWO MATRICES

For two matrices A and B, the product matrix AB can be obtained if the number of columns in A
= the number of rows in B.
If A is a 2 3 matrix and B is a 3 4 matrix then the product matrix AB can be obtained (number
of columns in A = number of rows in B =3). But the product matrix BA cannot be obtained (number
of columns in B  4  2  number of rows in A). Rule of multiplication.

a b
x y z
A   c d , B   .
Let
 l m n 
 e f 

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A is of the order 3 2 and B is of the order 2 3. So, AB as well as BA can be found. The rule for
finding the product is as shown below.

a b ax  bl ay  bm az  bn 
x y z  
AB   c 
d    cx  dl cy  dm cz  dn 
 l m n   .
 e f   ex  fl ey  fm ez  fn 

a b
x y z  xa  yc  ze xb  yd  zf 
BA    c d    .
 l m n  e la  mc  ne lb  md  nf 
 f 

Observe that AB is 3 3. matrix, while BA is 2 2. matrix. So, AB  BA. .

Properties of Matrix Multiplication

(i) Matrix multiplication is associative
i.e., (AB)C = A(BC), A, B and C are m × n, n ×p and p × q matrices respectively.
(ii) Multiplication of matrices is distributive over addition of matrices
i.e., A(B + C) = AB + AC
(iii) Existence of multiplicative identity of square matrices.
If A is a square m atrix of order n and I n is the identity mat rix of order n, t hen
A In = In A = A.
(iv) Whenever AB and BA both exist, it is not necessary that AB = BA.
(v) The product of two matrices can be a zero matrix while neither of them is a zero matrix.

0 1 1 0  0 0 
e.g., If A =   and B    then AB    , while neither A nor B is a null matrix.
0 0 0 0  0 0 
(vi) In the case of matrix multiplication of AB = 0, then it doesn’t necessarily imply that
A = 0 or B = 0 or BA = 0.
Illustration 2:

 2 0 1
A   2 1 3
Let and f  x   x 2  5 x  6 . Find f(A)
 1  1 0
Solution :

f  A  A2  5 A  6 I 3 .

2
 2 0 1 2 0 1  1 0 0 
 2 1 3   5  2 1 3   6 0 1 0 
=      
 1  1 0  1  1 0 0 0 1 

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2 0 1  2 0 1   10 0 5  6 0 0
  2 1 3    2 1 3    10 5 15    0 6 0 
  1  1 0    1 1 0    5  5 0   0 0 6 

 2  2  0  2  1 1 2  0  0  1  1 1 2  1  0  3  1 0 
  2  2  1  2  3 1 2  0  1  1  3 1 2  1  1  3  3  0 
  12   12  0  1  10   11  0  1  11   13  0  0 

 6  10 00 05   3 1 2    4 0  5 
 0  10 65 0  15  3  2 5     10 1  15
+  =    
0  (5) 0  (5) 6  0    4  1  4  5 5 6 

 3  4 1 0 2  5   1 1  3 
  3  10  2  1 5  15    7  1  10
  4  5  1  5  4  6  1 4 2 

TRACE OF A MATRIX
Let A be a square matrix of order n. The sum of the diagonal elements of A is called the trace of A.
n

 Trace (A) = a
i 1
ii  a11  a 22  ...  a nn .

TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX
The matrix obtained from any given matrix A, by interchanging rows and columns, is called the
transpose of A and is denoted by A  or AT .

1 2 
   1 4 7
e.g., If A   4 5  , then A  
7 8  32 2 5 823

Properties of Transpose of a matrix

(i) (A)  A (ii) (A  B)  A  B

(iii) ( A)   A,  being any scalar (iv) (AB)  BA 

Illustration 3:

 1 3
 1  2 3 B   1 0
If A    And Then prove that  AB T  B T AT .
  4 2 5  2 4

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Solution :

 1 3
 1  2 3   1 0
AB =    
  4 2 5  2 4

 11  2 1  32  13  20  34  

 
  41  2 1  52  43  20   54
9 15 T  9 4
    AB    
4 8  15 8
 1  4
1  1 2 
T
B A  T
   2 2 
3 0 4  3 5 


 11  1 2   23 1 4  12  25   9 4 T

      AB  .
31  0 2   43 3 4   02  45 15 8 

SPECIAL MATRICES
Symmetric Matrix
A matrix which is unchanged by transposition is called a symmetric matrix. Such a matrix is
necessarily square

 2 1 3
 1 4 1 
e.g.,  
 3 1 5

Thus if A = [aij]m × n is a symmetric matrix then m = n, aij = aji i.e., A  A .

Skew Symmetric Matrix
A square matrix A = [aij] is said to be skew symmetric, if aij = – aji for all i and j

 0 2 3 1
 2 0 4 3
e.g.  
 3 4 0 1 
 
1 3 1 0 

Thus if A = [aij ] m × n is a skew symmetric matrix, then m = n, a ij = – aji i.e., A   A .

Obviously diagonal elements of a square matrix are zero.

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Note: Every square matrix can be uniquely expressed as the sum of symmetric and skew

1 1 1 1
symmetric matrix. i.e., A = ( A  A)  ( A  A) , where ( A  A) and ( A  A) are
2 2 2 2
symmetric and skew symmetric parts of A.

Illustration 4 :

 4 2  3
 1 3  6
Express A as the sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric matrix, where A =  .
  5 0  7 

Solution:
We have

 4 2  3
 1 3  6
A=  
  5 0  7 

 4 1 5 
A   2 3 0 

 3 6 7 

 4 2  3  4 1  5
Then  1 3  6 +  2 3 0 
A  A    
  5 0  7    3  6  7

 8 3 8 
 6 6 
= 3 ................(i)

 8 6 14

 4 2  3  4 1  5
 1 3  6  2 3 0 
and A  A    – 
  5 0  7    3  6  7

0 1 2
 
=  1 0 6  ................(ii)
 2 6 0 

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Adding (1) and (ii) we get

 8 3 8   0 1 2 
 3 6 6    1 0 6 
2A =    
 8 6 14   2 6 0 

 4 3 / 2 4   0 1/ 2 1 
3 / 2 3 3    1/ 2 0 3
 
 A= 
 4 3 7   1 3 0 
Symmetric matrix Skew symmetric matrix
Orthogonal Matrix
A square matrix A is said to be orthogonal, if AA = AA  I , where I is a unit matrix.
Note:
(i) If A is orthogonal, then A  is also orthogonal.
(ii) If A and B are orthogonal matrices then AB and BA are also orthogonal matrices.

Illustration 5 :

 l1 m1 n1 

If A = l2 m2 n 2  , where < l1, m1, n1 > , < l2 , m2, n2 > and < l3, m3, n3 > are the direction

 l3 m3 n 3 

cosines of three mutually perpendicular straight lines, then prove that AA = I.

Solution:
Since < l1, m1, n1 > , < l2 , m2, n2 > and < l3, m3, n3 > are the direction cosines of three
mutually perpendicular straight lines

l12  m12  n12  1, l 2  m 2  n 2  1and l 2  n 2  m 2  1

2 2 2 3 3 3

and l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 = l2l3 + m2m3 + n2n3 = l3l1 + m3m1 + n3n1 = 0

 l1 m1 n1   l1 l2 l3 
 n 2   A   m1 m2 m3 
We have A = l2 m2 .
  n1
 l3 m3 n 3  n2 n 3 

 l1 l2 l3   l1 m1 n1   l12 l1m1 l1n1 

 
A ' A   m1 m2 m 3  l 2 m2 n 2   m1l1 m12 m1n1 
  
 n1 n2 n 3  l3 m3 n 3   n1l1 m1n1 n12 

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1 0 0
0 1 0  I
 0 0 1 
 
Hence proved.
Idempotent Matrix: A square matrix A is called idempotent provided if it satisfies the relation
A2 = A.

2 2 4 
e.g. The matrix A   1 3 4  is idempotent as
1 2 3


 2 2 4   2 2 4   2 2 4 
2
A   1 3 4   1 3 4    1 3 4 
 1 2 3  1 2 3   1 2 3
    
Involuntary Matrix
A square matrix A is called involuntary matrix if A2 = I

Illustration 6:

 0 1
Show that the matrix A =  satisfies A2 = – I. Hence or otherwise find the 16th power of the
1 0 

1 1
matrix  .
1 1 
Solution:

0 1  0 1  1 0 
A2     I
1 0   1 0   0 1

1 1  0 1 1 0 
Let B = 1 1   1 0    0 1  = A + I

B2 = (A + I) (A + I) = A2 + 2A + I
Since A2 = –I, B2 = 2A

 1 0   256 0 
B16 = (B2)8 = (2A)8 = 28 (A2)4 = 28 (–I)4 = 28  0 
 1   0 256  .
Periodic Matrix
A square matrix A is called periodic, if Ak + 1 = A, where k is a positive integer. If k is the least positive
integer for which Ak + 1 = A, then k is said to be period of A. For k = 1, we get A2 = A and we called it
to be idempotent matrix.

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Nilopotent Matrix
A square matrix A is called a nilpotent matrix, if there exists a positive integer m such that Am =O.
If m is the least positive integer such that Am = O, then m is called the index of the nilpotent
matrix A or nilpotency of matrix.
Illustration 7:

1 1 3
Show that the matrix  5 2 6  is a nilpotent matrix of index 3.

 2 1 3

Solution:

1 1 3 0 0 0
 2 6   A   3 3 9 
 2
Let A   5
 2 1 3  1 1 3

 0 0 0   1 1 3  0 0 0 
 A  A .A   3 3 9    5 2 6   0 0 0 
3 2

 1 1 3  2 1 3 0 0 0 

 A3 = 0 i.e., A is a nilopotent matrix of index 3.

DETERMINANT
Equations a1x + b1y = 0 and a2x + b2y = 0 in x and y have a unique solution if and only if

a1 b1
a1b2 –a2b1  0. We write a1b2 – a2b1 as and call it a determinant of order 2.
a2 b2

Similarly the equations a1x + b1y + c1z = 0, a2x + b2y + c2z = 0 and a3x + b3y + c3z = 0 have a unique
solution if a1(b2 c3 – b3c2) + b1 (a3c2 – a2c3) + c1 (a2 b3 – a3 b2)  0

a1 b1 c1
i.e.,   a2 b2 c2  0
a3 b3 c3
The number ai, bi, ci (i = 1, 2, 3) are called the elements of the determinant.
The determinant obtained by deleting the ith row and jth column is called the minor of the element
at the ith row and jth column. We shall denote it by Mij. The cofactor of this element is (–1)i+j Mij,
denoted by Cij.
Let A = [aij]3×3 be a matrix, then the corresponding determinant (denoted by det A or | A |) is

a11 a12 a13

a 21 a 22 a 23 .
a 31 a 32 a 33

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It is easy to see that | A | = a11C11+ a12 C12 + a13C13 (we say that we have expanded the determinant
| A | along first row). Infact value of | A | can be obtained by expanding it along any row or along any
column. Further note that if elements of a row (column) are multiplied to the cofactors of other row
(column) and then added, then the result is zero : a11C 21  a12 C 22  a13C 23  0 .

PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS
(i) The value of a determinant remains unaltered, if its rows are changed into columns and the
columns into rows.

a1 b1 c1 a1 a2 a3
e.g., a 2 b2 c2  b1 b2 b3 . Thus any property true for rows will also be true for
a3 b3 c3 c1 c2 c3
columns.
(ii) If all the elements of a row (or column) of a determinant are zero, then the value of the
determinant is zero.

0 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1
e.g., 0 b2 c2  0, 0 0 0 0
0 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3

(iii) If any two rows (columns) of a determinant are identical, then the value of the determinant
is zero.

a1 a1 c1
a2 a2 c2  0
e.g.,
a3 a3 c3

(iv) The interchange of any two rows (columns) of a determinant results in change of it’s sign

a1 b1 c1 b1 a1 c1
i.e, a2 b2 c2   b2 a2 c2
a3 b3 c3 b3 a3 c3

(v) If all the elements of a row (column) of a determinant are multiplied by a non-zero constant,
then the determinant gets multiplied by that constant.

a1 kb1 c1 a1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1 ka 1 kb1 kc1

e.g., a2 kb 2 c2  k a 2 b2 c2 and k a 2 b2 c2  a 2 b2 c2
a3 kb3 c3 a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 a 3 b3 c3

(vi) If each element of a row (column) of a determinant is a sum of two terms, then determinant
can be written as sum of two determinant in the following way:

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a1 b1 c1  d1 a1 b1 c1 a1 b1 d1
a2 b2 c2  d 2  a 2 b2 c2  a 2 b2 d2
a3 b3 c3  d 3 a 3 b3 c3 a 3 b3 d3

n n n

f (r) g(r) h(r)

 f (r)  g(r)  h(r)
r 1 r 1 r 1
n
In general 
r 1
a2 b2 c2  a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3

(vii) The value of a determinant remains unaltered under a column operation of the form

Ci  Ci  C j   C k ( j, k  i) or a row operation of the form

R i  R i   R j   R k ( j, k  i).

a1 b1 c1 a1 b1  2a1  3c1 c1
e.g., a2 b2 c2  a 2 b 2  2a 2  3c 2 c 2 obtained after C2  C2 + 2C1 + 3C3.
a3 b3 c3 a 3 b3  2a 3  3c3 c3

Product of two determinants

a1 b1 c1 l1 l2 l3
a2 b2 c 2  m1 m 2 m3
a3 b3 c3 n1 n 2 n3

a1l1  b1m1  c1n1 a1l2  b1m 2  c1n 2 a1l3  b1m 3  c1n 3

 a 2l1  b 2 m1  c 2 n1 a 2 l2  b 2 m 2  c 2 n 2 a 2l3  b 2 m3  c 2 n 3
a 3l1  b3 m1  c3 n1 a 3l2  b3m 2  c3n 2 a 3l3  b3m3  c3n 3

(row by column multiplication)

a1l1  b1l2  c1l3 a1m1  b1m 2  c1m3 a1n1  b1n 2  c1n 3

 a 2 l1  b 2l2  c 2l3 a 2 m1  b 2 m 2  c 2 m3 a 2 n1  b 2 n 2  c 2 n 3
a 3l1  b3l2  c3l3 a 3 m1  b3 m 2  c3m3 a 3 n1  b3 n 2  c3 n 3

(row by row multiplication)

We can also multiply determinants column by row or column by column.

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Limit of a determinant

f (x) g(x) h(x) lim f (x) lim g(x) lim h(x)

x a x a x a

 (x)  l (x) m(x) n(x) , then lim  (x)  lim l(x) lim m(x) lim n(x) ,
Let x a x a x a x a
u(x) v(x) w (x) lim u(x) lim v(x) lim w (x)
x a xa xa

provided each of nine limiting values exist finitely.

Differentiation of a determinant

f (x) g(x) h(x)

Let (x)  l(x) m(x) n(x) ,
u(x) v(x) w(x)

f (x) g(x) h(x)f (x) g(x) h(x) f (x) g(x) h(x)

then (x)  l (x) m(x) n(x)  l (x) m(x) n (x)  l (x) m(x) n(x)
u(x) v(x) w(x) u(x) v(x) w(x) u (x) v(x) w (x)

Integration of a Determinant

f (x) g(x) h(x)

Let (x)  a b c , where a, b, c, l, m and n are constants,
l m n

b b b

 f (x)dx
a
 g(x)dx
a
 h(x) dx
a
b

then  (x) dx 
a
a b c
l m n

Note that if more than one row (column) of (x) are variable, then in order to find  (x) dx first
a

we evaluate the determinant (x) by using the properties of determinants and then we integrate it.

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SPECIAL DETERMINANTS
Skew symmetric Determinant

0 b c
b 0 a 0
A determinant of a skew symmetric matrix of odd order is always zero. e.g.,
c a 0

Circulant Determinant
A determinant is called circulant if its rows (columns) are cyclic shifts of the first row (columns).

a b c
b c a
e.g., . It can be shown that its value is – (a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc) .
c a b

1 1 1
a b c  (a  b) (b  c) (c  a)
a2 b2 c2

1 1 1
a b c  (a  b) (b  c) (c  a) (a  b  c)
a3 b3 c3

1 1 1
2 2
a b c2
= (a – b) (b – c) (c – a) (ab + bc + ca)
a3 b3 c3

Illustration 8:

a 2  2a 2a  1 1
2a  1 a  2 1  or  or  0
Prove that accroding as a > 1 or a = 1 or a < 1.
3 3 1

a 2  2a  3 2a  2 0
R  R1  R3
  2a  2 a 1 0 , 1
Solution: R2  R2  R3
3 3 1

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a 2  2a  3 2  a  1  a  3 a  1 2  a  1
 
2  a  1 a 1 2  a  1 a 1

2 a 3 2
  a  1 2 3
2 1   a  1 .  a  3  4    a  1 .

3
   0 if  a  1  0, i.e., a  1

3
  0 if  a  1  0, i.e., a  1

3
  0 if  a  1  0, i.e., a  1

Illustration 9:

x m n 1
a x n 1
0
Show that the roots of the equation a b x 1 are independent of m and n.
a b c 1

Solution:

xa m x 0 0
R1  R1  R2
0 x b n  x 0
 , R2  R2  R3
0 0 xc 0
R3  R3  R4
a b c 1

x a m x 0
 0 x b n  x   x  a  x  b  x  c 
0 0 xc

   0   x  a  x  b  x  c   0
whose roots are x = a, b, c and they are independent of m and n
Illustration 10:

13  3 2 5 5
15  26 5 10
Evaluate .
3  65 15 5

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Solution:

13  3 2 1
  5. 5 15  26 5 2
3  65 3 5

13  3 2 1
R2  R2  2 R1
 5 15  6 5 2 2 0,
R3  R3  5 R1
3  15 32 5 0

15  6 5 2 2
5
3  15 32 5

5 2 5 2 2
5 3
3 5 32 5

5 3  5 2  32 5   3 5  5 2 2 
5 3  15  10  6  2 10  15  2 6  5  2 10 
5 3  6 5 
Illustration 11:

p b c
a q c 0 p q r
If a  p , b  q , c  r and then find the value of   .
a b r p  a q b r c

Solution:

p b c
R  R3  R2
  a  p q b 0 , 3
Here R2  R2  R1
0 bq r c

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p b c
pa qb r c
  p  a  q  b  r  c  1 1 0 C1  C1  C2  C3
0 1 1

p b c b c
 
p a qb r c qb r c
  p  a  q  b  r  c   0 1 0
0 1 1

 p b c 
    p  a  q  b  r  c      = 0, from the question
 pa qb r c

p b c
But a  p , b  q , c  r . So   0
p  a q b r  c

Illustration 12:
If A, B and C are the angles of a triangle and

1 1 1
1  sin A 1  sin B 1  sin C  0
, prove that the  ABC is isosceles.
sin A  sin 2 A sin B  sin 2 B sin C  sin 2 C

Solution :

1 1 1
Let   1  sin A 1  sin B 1  sin C
sin A  sin 2 A sin B  sin 2 B sin C  sin 2 C

Applying C 2  C 2  C1 and C3  C3  C1 , we get

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1 0 0
 1  sin A sin B  sin A sin C  sin A
2
sin A  sin A (sin B  sin A) (sin B  sin A  1) (sin C  sin A) (sin C  sin A  1)

Expanding along R1

sin B  sin A sin C  sin A


(sin B  sin A) (sin B  sin A  1) (sin C  sin A) (sin C  sin A  1)

1 1
= (sinB – sinA) (sinC – sinA)
sin B  sin A  1 sin C  sin A  1

Now   0  (sinB – sinA) (sinC – sinA) (sinC – sinB) = 0

 sinB = sinA or sinC = sinA or sinC = sinB
 B = A or C = A or C = B
In all the three cases, we will have an isosceles triangle.

ADJOINT OF A SQUARE MATRIX

Let A = [aij]n×n be an n × n matrix. The transpose B of the matrix B = [Aij]n ×n, where Aij denotes the
cofactor of the element aij in the determinant |A|, is called the adjoint of the matrix A and is denoted
by the symbol adj A.
Thus the adjoint of a matrix A is the transpose of the matrix formed by the cofactors of A.

Properties Of Adjoint Matrix

If A, B are square matrices of order n and I n is corresponding unit matrix,then

A(adj A) =|A| I n =(adj A) (Thus A(Adj A) is always a scalar matrix

|adj A|= | A |n 1

adj (adj A) = | A |n 2 A

2
|adj (adj A)|= | A | n 1

adj ( AT ) =(adj A) T

adj (AB) = (adj B) (adj A)

adj ( A m ) =(adj A ) m ,m  N

adj (kA) = k n 1 (adj A), k  R

adj ( I n)  I n
adj 0 = 0

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A is symmetric  adj A is also symmetric

A is diagonal  adj A is also diagonal
A is triangular  adj A is also triangular
A is singular  |adj A| = 0

INVERSE OF A SQUARE MATRIX

Let A be any n–rowed square matrix. Then a matrix B, if exists, such that AB = BA = In, is called
the inverse of A. Inverse of A is usually denoted by A–1 (if exists).
We have |A| In = A(adjA)
 |A| A–1 = (adjA). Thus the necessary and sufficient condition for a square matrix A to possess
Adj(A)
the inverse is that |A|  0 and then A–1 = . A square matrix A is called non-singular if
|A|
|A|  0. Hence a square matrix A is invertible if and only if A is non-singular..

Properties of Inverse of a Matrix

( A 1 ) 1  A

( AT ) 1  ( A 1 )T

( AB 1 ) 1  B 1 A 1

( A n ) 1  ( A 1 ) n n  N

adj ( A1 )  ( adj A) 1

A = diag ( a1 ,a 2 ,.......a n ) A is symmetric  A–1 is also symmetric (| A | 0)

A is diagonal | A |  0  A1 is also diagonal

A is scalar matrix  A1 is also a scalar matrix

A is triangular | A |  0  A1 is also triangular

Illustration 13

0 1 2 
A  1 2 3 
Find the inverse of the matrix
 3 1 1 

A  0  11  2   3  3  4 
 1  3  2  0

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Hence matrix A is non-singular.

Co-factors of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd rows of A are 1,8, 5; 1, 6,3;  1, 2  1

 1 8 5
C   1 6 3 
Therefore the matrix formed by co-factors of A is
 1 2 1

 Adj. A = Transpose of C

 1 1 1
A   8 6 2 
 Adj.
 5 3 1

 1 1 1
1 1
A  1
Adj. A    8 6 2 
 A 2
 5 3 1

1 1 1
 2 2 2
1  
Multiply each element of the matrix by -1/2 or A   4 3 1
5 3 1
  
2 2 2

Verification . AA1  A1 A  I

0 1 2  1 1 1  2 0 0   1 0 0 
 1 2 3    1  8 6 2    1  0 2 0   0 1 0   I
  2  2    3
 3 1 1   5 3 1  0 0 2  0 0 1 

Illustration 14
If A and B are two square matrices such that B   A1 BA then prove that

2
 A  B  A2  B 2
Solution:

B   A1 BA  AB   AA1 BA   BA
 AA1  I

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 AB  BA  0...........( I )
2
Now  A  B   A  B  A  B 

 AA   AB  BA  BB  A2  B 2 by (I)

Illustration 15:

a 
A  b   a b  a 1 x3
If then find whether A-1 exists or not
  a  31

 a2 ab a 2 
 
 A   ba b2 ba 
Solution: A will be 3 x 3 matrix
a 2  ab a 2 

Clearly |A| = 0 because R1 and R3 are identical. Therefore A is singular and hence its inverse does
not exist.

Illustration 16:

1 2 2
 
If A =  2 1 2  , then show that A2 – 4A – 5I = 0, where I and 0 are the unit matrix and the null
 2 2 1
 
matrix of order 3 respectively. Use this result to find A–1 .
Solution :

1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 9 8 8
   
Given A = 2 1 2  A2 =  2 1 2    2 1 2  =  8 9 8 
     
 2 2 1  2 2 1   2 2 1   8 8 9 
     

9 8 8 1 2 2 1 0 0
2      
A  4A  5I   8 9 842 1 2 5 0 1 0
 8
 8 9  2
 2 1  0
 0 1 

9 8 8 4 8 8 5 0 0  0 0 0
     
8 9 88 4 80 5 0  0 0 0
=  
8 8 9 8 8 4   0 0 5   0 0 0 
  

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 A2 – 4A – 5I = 0
or 5I = A2 – 4A
on multiplying by A–1 , we get

 3 2 2 
1 2 2  4 0 0  
  
5A–1 = A – 4I  2 1 2  0 4 0
   2 3 2 
     
 2 2 1   0 0 4   2 2 3 
   

 3 2 2   3/ 5 2 / 5 2 / 5 
1 
 A   2 3 2    2 / 5 3/ 5 2 / 5  .
1

5  
2 2 3   2 / 5 2 / 5 3/ 5 
   

Illustration 17:

 2 1   3 2  1 0 
If   A   , then find the matrix A
 3 2  5 3  0 1 
Solution:
If CAB=D,

 C 1CAB  C 1 D (premultiplying by C-1)

  C C   AB   C
1 1
D

 IAB  C 1 D
 ABB 1  C 1 DB 1 (Post-multiplying by B-1)

 AI  C 1 DB 1
 A  C 1 DB 1

1 1
Now using C  adj.  C 
C

1  2 1  2 1
C 1   3 2   1  3 2 
C    

1  3 2   1  3 2 
B 1    5 3    1  5 3 
B    

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2  1  1 0  3 2
 A
 3 2   0 1   5 3 

2  1  3 2  1 1 
 
 3 2   5 3  1 0 

SYSTEM OF LINEAR SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

Consider the system of linear non-homogeneous simultaneous equations in three unknowns x, y
and z, given by a1x + b1y + c1z = d1, a2x + b2y + c2z = d2 and a3x + b3y + c3z = d3 ,

 a1 b1 c1  x  d1 

Let A  a 2 b2 c 2  , X   y  , B   d 2  ,
  

 a 3 b3 c3   z   d 3 

a1 b1 c1 d1 b1 c1
Let | A | =   a 2 b2 c2 ,  x  d 2 b2 c 2 , obtained on replacing first column of  by B.
a3 b3 c3 d3 b3 c3

a1 d1 c1 a1 b1 d1
Similarly let  y  a 2 d2 c 2 and  z  a 2 b2 d2 .
a3 d3 c3 a3 b3 d3

It can be shown that AX = B, x    x , y.   y , z   z .

Determinant Method of Solution

We have the following two cases :
Case I

If   0, then the giv en system of equations has uni que solut ion, giv en by
x   x / , y   y /  and z   z / .

Case II
If   0, then two sub cases arise:

(a) at least one of  x ,  y and  z is non-zero, say  x  0. Now in x.    x , L.H.S. is

zero and R.H.S. is not equal to zero. Thus we have no value of x satisfying x.    x .
Hence given system of equations has no solution.

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(b)  x   y   z  0. In the case the given equations are dependent. Delete one or two
equation from the given system (as the case may be) to obtain independent equation(s).
The remaining equation(s) may have no solution or infinitely many solution(s).
For example in x + y + z = 3, 2x + 2y + 2z = 9, 3x + 3y + 3z = 12,    x   y   z  0

and hence equations are dependent (infact third equation is the sum of first two equations).
Now after deleting the third equation we obtain independent equations x + y + z = 3,
2x + 2y + 2z = 9, which obviously have no solution (infact these are parallel planes)

where as in x + y + z = 3, 2x – y + 3z = 4, 3x + 4z = 7,    x =  y   z  0 and hence

equations are dependent (infact third equation is the sum of first two equations). Now
after deleting any equation (say third) we obtain independent equations x + y + z = 3,
2x – y + 3z = 4, which have infinitely many solutions (infact these are non parallel
planes)

7  4  2
For let z =   R, then x  and y  . Hence we get infinitely many solutions.
3 3

• Matrix Method of Solution

(a)   0, then A–1 exists and hence AX = B  A–1 (AX) = A–1 B  x = A–1 B and therefore
unique values of x, y and z are obtained.
(b) We have AX = B  ((adj A)A)X = (adj A)B  X = (adj A)B.
If  = 0, then X = 03 × 1, zero matrix of order 3 × 1. Now if (adj A)B = 0, then the system
AX = B has infinitely many solution, else no solution.
Note : A system of equation is called consistent if it has atleast one solution. If the system has no
solution, then it is called inconsistent.
Illustration 18:
Solve the system of equations, x + 2y + 3z = 1 ; 2x + 3y + 2z = 2 ; 3x + 3y + 4z = 1
with the help of matrix inversion.
Solution : The given system of equations in the matrix form can be written as

1 2 3  x  1
 2 3 2   y    2
       AX = B
 3 3 4   z   1 

1 2 3  x  1
     
where A  2 3 2 , X  y and B  2 .
     
 3 3 4   z   1 

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Now |A| = 1(12 – 6) – 2 (8 – 6) + 3(6 – 9) = 6 – 4 – 9 = –7  0.

Hence the given system has unique solution.

 C11 C12 C13 

Let C be the matrix of cofactors of elements in |A|. Then C  C 21 C 22 C23 

C31 C32 C33 

3 2 1 2
Here C11  6 ; C23  3
3 4 3 3
2 2 2 3
C12   2 ; C31   5
3 4 3 2
2 3 1 3
C13   3 ; C32   4
3 3 2 2
2 3 1 2
C21   1 ; C33   1
3 4 2 3
1 3
C22   5
3 4

 6 2 3  6 1 5
 C   1 5 3    Adj A = C   2 5 4 
 
 5 4 1  3 3 1

 6 1 5   6 / 7 1/ 7 5 / 7 
AdjA 1
A  1
   2 5 4    2 / 7 5 / 7 4 / 7 
 |A| 7
 3 3 1  3/ 7 3/ 7 1/ 7 

 6 / 7 1/ 7 5 / 7  1
 A 1B   2 / 7 5 / 7 4 / 7  2 
 
 3/ 7 3 / 7 1/ 7   1 

 x   3 / 7 
 y   8 / 7 
     ( A–1 B = X )
 z   2 / 7 

 x = –3/7, y = 8/7, z = –2/7

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SYSTEM OF LINEAR HOMOGENEOUS SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

Consider the system of linear homogeneous simultaneous equations in three unknowns x, y and z,
given by a1x + b1y + c1z = 0, a2x + b2y + c2z = 0 and a3x + b3y + c3z = 0.
In this case, system of equations is always consistent as x = y = z = 0 is always a solution. If the
system has unique solution (the case when coefficient determinant  0), then x = y = z = 0 is the
only solution (called trivial solution). However if the system has coefficient determinant = 0, then
the system has infinitely many solutions. Hence in this case we get solutions other than trivial
solution also and we say that we have non-trivial solutions.
Illustration 19:
Solve : 2x + 3ky + (3k + 4) z = 0
x + (k + 4) y + (4k + 2) z = 0
x + 2(k + 1)y + (3k + 4) z = 0.
Solution :

2 3k 3k  4 x 
1 k  4 4k  2  
The given system of equations is AX = 0, where A =   and X =  y  .
1 2k  2 3k  4 z 
Now | A | = 0  k =  2
Hence if k   2, then | A |  0  the given system has only trivial
solution i.e., x = y = z = 0.
However if k = – 2 or 2, then | A | = 0 and we consider the cases separately
Case I k = 2,
the given equations become
2x + 6y + 10z = 0  x + 3y + 5z = 0 . . . (i)
x + 6y + 10z = 0 . . . (ii)
x + 6y + 10z = 0 . . . (iii)
Hence independent equation are (i) and (ii). Solving we get,

3
x = 0, 3y + 5z = 0  x = 0, y = , z =  5  , R .
Case II k = – 2
The given equations becomes
2x – 6y – 2z = 0  x – 3y – z = 0 . . . (iv)
x + 2y – 6z = 0 . . . (v)
x – 2y – 2z = 0 . . . (vi)

4 1
We observe that (iv) + (v) = (vi). Thus equations are dependent. Consider independent
5 5
equations x – 3y – z = 0 and x – 2y – 2z = 0. Let z =   R, then x – 3y =  and x – 2y = 2 

x  4, y  

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KEY POINTS
1. Trace of a Matrix

n
tr ( A)   aii  a11  a22  .....  ann
i 1

2. Properties of Transposes

3. ( A)  A
4. ( A  B )  A  B , A and B Being conformable matrices for addition
5. (A)  A,  being scalar
6. ( AB )  BA, A and B being conformable for Multiplication
7. Properties of Determinants

8. The determinant remains unaltered if its rows are changed into columns and the columns into rows.

9. If all the elements of a row(or column ) are zero, the the determinant is zero.

10. If the elements of a row (column) are proportional (or identical )to the elements of any other row
(column), then the determinant is zero.
11. the interchange of any two rows(columns) of the determinant changes its sign.

12. If all the elements of a row(column) of a determinant are multiplied by a non-zero constant then the
determinant gets multiplied by the same constant.

13. A determinant remains unaltered under a column (Ci ) operation of the form

Ci  C j   Ck ( j , k  i ) or a row ( Ri ) operation of the form. Ri  R j   Rk ( j , k  i ) .

14. If each element in any row (column) is the sum of r terms, then the determinant can be expressed
as the sum of r determinants.
15. If the determinant   f (x) and f(a)= 0, then (x-a)is a factor of the determinant In other words, if the
rows( or two columns) become proportional (identical) for x= a then(x-a) is a factor of determinant. In
general, if r rows become indentical for x = a then ( x  a) r 1 is a factor of the determinant.

16. If in a determint (of order three or more ) the elements in all the rows(columns) are in A.P. with same
or different common difference, the value of the determinant is zero.
17. The determinant value of an odd order skew symmetric determinant is always zero.

ALGEBRA OF MATRICES
1.Only Matrices of the same order can be added or subtracted.
2. Addition of matrices is commutative as well as associative.
3. Cancellation laws hold well in case of addition.

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4. The equation A+X = 0 has a unique solution in the set of all mxn matrices.
5. All the laws of ordinary algebra hold for the addition or subtraction of matrices and their multiplication
by scalars.
Orthogonal Matrix

any square matrix A of order n is said to be orthogonal if AA  AA  ln

Idempotent Matrix
A square matrix A is called idempotent povided if it satisfies the relation A 2  A
Involutary Matrix

A square Matrix such that A2  I is called involutary Matrix.

Nilpotent Matrix
A square Matrix A is called a nilpotent Matrix if there exists a positive interger m such that A m  0 .
If m is

the least positive integer such that A m  0 , then m is called the index of the nilpotent matrix A.
Inverse of a Matrix

1 1
The inverse of A is given by A  .adjA
A

I. if A is an invertible square matrix, then adjAT  adjAT

n 2
II. If A is a non-singular square matrix, then adj ( adjA)  A A
Matrix Method of solving non-homogeneous system of linear equations
i. If A is a non-singular matrix, then the system of equations given by AX= B has a unique solution
given by X = A1 B.
ii. If A is singular matrix, and (adjA)D = 0, then the system of equations given by AX =D is consistent
with many solutions.

iii. If A is singular matrix, and (adj A)D  0 , then the stystem of equation given by AX= D is
inconsistent .

Solution of Homogeneous system of Linear Equations

let AX = 0 be a homogeneous syustem of a n linear equation with n unknowns. Now if A is non-

singular then the system of equations will have a unique soluition i.e. trivial solution and if A is a
singular, then the system of equations it will have infinitely many solutions.

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