MECHANICAL ENGINEERING NOTES PREPARED BY

Er. RAjMANi SiNGH,

B.E. (Mech. Engg.)-2005-09,
(UNIVERSITY OF RAJASTHAN),
Email:- mailrajmanisingh@gmail.com

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING
Automobile is a self propelled vehicle. Steam engines are external
combustion engines.

IC Engines Steam Engines

Easy to start and Stop. Takes time, not so easy.

Lighter Heavier

A small tank is sufficient. A boiler is needed to store water and

produce steam.

In a IC engine, because of heat the gas expands but volume remains

constant and hence temperature raises.

Fuel feed system :

Petrol Engines:

There are two types of fuel pumps. They are mechanical and
electrical fuel pumps. It contains the following parts

• Fuel tank, Pump, filter

• Carburetor,
 • Intake manifold and
• Gauge to indicate the driver the fuel level in fuel tank.

Diesel Engines:

There are two methods of fuel injection. They are air blast injection
and Airless or solid injection. It contains the following parts.

• Fuel tank, Filter

• Injection pump,
• Injector and
• Fuel gauge.

Super Charging:

The process of supplying to the engine the A / F mixture above the

atmospheric pressure is called as super charging. The following are the
objectives of super charging.

• To reduce the weight / Horse power.

• To reduce the space occupied by engine.
• To maintain power at high altitudes where less oxygen is available as
in aircrafts.

Governors:

In SI engines carburetor are responsible for delivering the proper

mixture of air and petrol. But in CI engines it is achieved by Governors.

Exhaust silencers:

As the exhaust valve opens, high pressure exhaust gas is released

which causes pressure wave in the air producing noise. The noise
frequencies are 50 - 500 Hz and 3000 to 10000 Hz. To reduce noise engine
exhaust is connected to a silencer or a muffler. Various type of mufflers are
Baffle type, wave cancellation type, resonance type, absorber type and
combined resonance and absorber type.

Baffle types are less efficient. Length of gas paths are so adjusted such
that crest of one wave coincides with the trough of another wave canceling
each other. This type of muffler does not eliminate noise completely. Gas
flowing through Resonance muffler does not experience high resistance.
Series of resonators reduce the noise of the fundamental and higher
harmonics. Sound absorbing materials are kept surrounding the perorated
tube through which the exhaust gases pass. During high pressure
fluctuations the gases pass through the perforations to the sound absorbing
materials, when these fluctuations are reduced and thus the noise gets
reduced in intensity. The silencers may be straight flow type or reverse flow
type.

Air Cleaner:

The intake air should be cleaned if it contains dirt and dust, it will
damage the engine. It acts as inlet system silencer and arrests flame due to
back firing if any. It is mounted at the air entrance of carburetor. The
following are the different types

1. Oil bath type - The filter contains a filter element wetted with oil. At
the bottom there is a separate oil pan. Air from the atmosphere enters
through circumferential gap. Air hits oil in the oil pan. Large dust
particles are removed. then air passes through filler element. Further
cleaning takes place. Then the air enters the engine. Maximum
efficiency of oil bath type air cleaners is about 98%. Oil bath air
cleaners can be designed with centrifugal pre-cleaners.
2. Dry type - In this the filter element is paper or felt. Felt filters are not
efficient as paper filters. But are more efficient than oil bath air
filters. paper filters can be as efficient as 99.99%.
3. Oil wetted type.
4. Paper pleated type and
5. Centrifugal type.

Engine Cooling:

In IC engine the temperature of the gases inside the cylinder vary

from 35o C to 2750o C during the cycle. Obviously at such high
temperature the metals will loose their characteristic and piston will expand
the seize the liner. An efficient cooling system removes 30 - 35 % of heat
generated. Too much heat removal will reduce efficiency. There are 4
types of cooling. They are

1. Air cooling
2. Water cooling
3. Liquid cooling and
4. Stream cooling.

Lubrication:

It is applied between the moving parts. It is necessary to reduce wear

and tear, reduce friction and also acts as a cooling medium. A lubricant
should possess the following important properties.
Flash point : The lowest temperature at which the oil will flash when a
small flame is passed across the surface. It happens due to the volatilization
of liquid particles in the oil.

Fire point : When the oil is further heated after flash point, the oil will burn
continuously.

Cloud point : When the oil is cooled it becomes solidified and becomes
cloudy at this point.

Lubrication system:

Following are the different types of lubrication system.

1. Petrol system
2. Splash system.
3. Pressure system
4. Semi pressure system and
5. Dry sump system.

Following are the parts of lubricating system.

1. Oil tank
2. Pump ( Gear pump, Rotor pump, plunger pump and Vane pump )
3. Cooler
4. Oil pressure gauge and
5. Oil level indicator.

Battery:

It constitutes the electrical system. It needed to start the engines.

There are three types of batteries. They are lead alkaline batteries, Alkaline
batteries and Zinc air batteries.

Ignition System:

It supplies a high voltage of 30000 Volts across a small gap in spark

plug. The ignition system contains a battery, switch ignition distribution,
ignition coil, spark plug and necessary wings. There are two types. They
are battery and Magneto ignition system.

Battery Ignition Magneto Ignition

 Current is obtained from battery. Current from magneto.

Less costly. More costly.

Good sparking even at low Poor sparking at high speeds.

speeds.

Gear Boxes:

Functions of gear box:

It allows the engine to run at different speeds to maintain its power

and regulate its torque. Gear box is essential when the vehicle is to be
reversed.

Types of gear boxes:

• Sliding mesh gear box,

• Constant mesh gear box
• Synchro mesh gear box and
• Planetary gear box.

Epicyclic gear box:

It is a speed gearbox also known as sun and planet gearbox. In these

gear boxes on sliding dogs or gears are provided to engage the gears.
Tightening the brake bands on the gear drums performs changing the gear. It
consists of a ring gear and planer gears with a carrier. Any one of them can
be held from rotation by means of brake bands for obtaining different
speeds.

Live axle and dead axle:

Dead axles only support the wheels but do not transmit any power.
While a live axle apart from supporting the wheels also transmits torque to
the rear wheels.

Axle breather:
 In order to maintain the pressure of oil in the rear axle, so that the oil
is not forced past the oil seal, an axle breather is used. This increase in
pressure is caused by expansion of air due to heat from the gears. The axle
breather is placed in axle casing.

Reverse shaft in gear box:

This shaft is used to reverse the direction of drive by bringing into

the mesh the larger gear wheel on the main shaft with the lay shaft is known
as reverse shaft.

Functions of differential gear:

Is to keep both the rear wheels at the same speed in straight travel
and make the outer rear wheel to rotate faster than the inner one during turn.

Forces on rear axle:

The axle shaft transmits drive from the differential to the rear hub.
The various stresses to be resisted by these shafts are

• Bending stress due to the weight of the vehicle.

• Torsional stresses due to driving and bracing torque.
• Shear forces due to vehicle weight.
• Tensile and compressive stresses due to side thrusts or cornering
forces.

Brakes:

There are different types of brakes in automobiles. They are

Mechanical, Hydraulic, pneumatic, vacuum, electrical and combined
vacuum and hydraulic. Molded pulp, compressed fabric, woven and
impregnated asbestos sheet are used as brake liners.

Requirements of braking fluid: Following are the requirements of a braking

fluid.

• It must have a high boiling point and low freezing point.

• It must be chemically stable.
• It must remain fluid at low temperatures but must retain good film
strength at high temperature.
• It must have good lubricating properties.
• It must be non-corrosive and must not attack rubber or metallic parts.

Braking requirements of a vehicle:

 • Application of brakes should bring he vehicle to a relatively quick
stop on any type of road.
• The braking system components must require minimum maintenance.
• The pedal effort required to produce maximum deceleration should be
negligible and should not vary with condition of the road.
• The braking action should not involve and noise, or drift the vehicle
away from its desired path.
• Provisions for quick heat dissipation must be incorporated.

Leading and trailing shoe:

The leading shoe is the first shoe after the cam in the direction of
rotation. The friction between the shoe and the drum pushes the tip of the
leading shoe harder in contact with the drum and pushes it off at its toe,
where as the trailing shoe tip is throw away off the brake drum, as the drum
rotates against.

Fading of brakes: Higher vehicle speeds give rise to excessive temperatures

during braking.. Such a high temperature results in fast wear of the lining
and brake fade i.e. heat temporarily changes the friction properties of the
brake linings and brake pads.

Tyres:

They are mounted on wheel rims to carry load and provide a cushioning effect.
There are two types of Tyres. They are tubed tyres and tubeless tyres.
 ENGINEERING MECHANICS - STATICS
Engineering mechanics is the science that deals with the state of rest
or motion of bodies under the action of forces. It is further divided into
mechanics of rigid bodes, deformable bodes and fluids.

Rigid Bodies:

Such bodies don't deform under the action of applied forces.

However in many cases, it is negligible to affect the results. So it is
assumed that bodies does not deform or the distance between two points on
a body does not change because of external load. Mechanics of rigid bodies
is further subdivided into statics and dynamics.

Statics : Study which deals with bodes in rest.

Particle : Refers to a object, whose mass is concentrated at a point. This

assumption is made when the size of body is negligible. Many particles
together constitute the particle.

Mass and Weight:

Mass is defined as the measure of how much matter an object or

body contains -- the total number of subatomic particles (electrons, protons
and neutrons) in the object. So if your body weight is fluctuating, because
of eating or exercising, it is actually the number of atoms that is changing.

Mass Weight

It is quantity of matter It is the force with which

 contained in a body the body is attracted
towards the center of
earth.

It is different at different
It is constant at all places
places

It resists the motion in the It produces the motion in

body the body

It is a scalar quantity It is a vector quantity

Measured with ordinary Measured with spring

balance balance

It is zero at the center of

It is never zero
the earth.

The weight of a body of mass m should be measured in Newtons. W

= mg = m (9.8 m/s2) = 9.8 N.

Newton's Law:

First law: Every body continues in a state of rest or uniform motion in a

straight line, unless it is compelled by a external force to change the state.

Second Law: Change of momentum is proportional to impress force and

takes place in the direction of the straight lines, in which the force acts. It
states that

• acceleration is directly proportional to net force when mass is

constant, and
• acceleration is inversely proportional to mass when net force is
constant, and consequently
• net force is directly proportional to mass when acceleration is
constant.

This law enables to measure a force and establishes the fundamental

equation of dynamics. Consider, a body moving along a straight line.
Where 'm' is the mass of the body, 'u' is the initial velocity of body, 'v' the
final velocity of body and 'a' acceleration of the body.

Initial momentum = m.u and final momentum = m.v. Thus the rate
of change in momentum is m(v-u) / t = m.a Newton's second law of
motion is more compactly written as the equation ∑F = ma

The concept implied in Newton's Second Law of Motion are found in many
 places, as shown below
Cause Resistance Rate of
= x
of change to change change of...
Newton's second law force mass velocity
moment angular
rotational dynamics torque
of inertia velocity
shearing
Newtonian fluids viscosity shear
stress
thermal temperature
r-factor heat
conduction gradient
potential electrical
ohm's law charge
difference resistance
potential
faraday's law inductance current
difference

Third Law: to every action, there is a equal and opposite reaction. This goes
to say, that the force of action and reaction are equal in magnitude by
opposite in direction.

Law of Gravitation:

Two particles are attracted towards each other along the lines joining
them, with a force whose magnitude is directly proportional to the product
of masses and inversely proportional to the square of distance between
them.

F = G m1m2 / r2

Where G is universal gravitation constant.

Scalar quantity: Some quantities like time, mass volume can be expressed
in terms of magnitude alone and don't have any direction. They obey the
law of algebra.

Vector quantity: Quantities like distance, velocity, acceleration and all are
expressed in terms of both magnitude and direction. They obey the law of
vectors. To define such a quantity Magnitude, Direction and Point of
application has to be specified.

FORCE:

It is a derived unit. It is a force that imparts a acceleration of 1

m/s on a body of mass one Kg. 1N = 1 Kg m/s2 = It is a agency which
2
changes or tends to change the state of rest or motion of a body. Force has
the capacity to impart motion to a particle. Force can produce pull, push or
twist. It is a vector quantity, hence to define force its point of application,
its magnitude and its direction has to be specified. For simplicity sake, all
forces (interactions) between objects can be placed into two broad
categories.

• Contact forces: Are types of forces in which the two interacting

objects are physically contacting each other. Examples of contact
forces include frictional forces, tensional forces, normal forces, air
resistance forces, and applied forces.
• Action-at-a-distance forces: are types of forces in which the two
interacting objects are not in physical contact with each other, yet are
able to exert a push or pull despite a physical separation. Examples

1. Gravitational forces ( E.g., the sun and planets exert a gravitational

pull on each other despite their large spatial separation, even when
our feet leave the earth and we are no longer in contact with the earth,
there is a gravitational pull between us and the Earth ),
2. Electric forces ( E.g., the protons in the nucleus of an atom and the
electrons outside the nucleus experience an electrical pull towards
each other despite their small spatial separation ), and
3. Magnetic forces ( E.g., two magnets can exert a magnetic pull on
each other even when separated by a distance of a few centimeters ).

Apart from this force is also classified as internal and external force.
Internal force are those that hold together the particles forming the rigid
body. If the rigid body has several parts, the forces holding the component
parts together are also called as internal force. External forces represent the
action of other bodies on he rigid body under consideration. They will
either cause it to move or assure that it remains at rest.

Types of forces:

Equal and Equivalent force:

Two forces of the same magnitude and direction but having a

different point of application is called as equal force.

Two forces are said to be equivalent if they produce the same effect
on a rigid body. Equivalent forces is based on some specific effect.

Coplanar forces:
 When a number of forces lies in the same plane, then it is called as
coplanar force. Other wise it is called as non coplanar forces.

Concurrent forces:

These forces are those in which the forces have the lines of action
passing through common point. However, all of the individual vectors
might not acutally be in contact with the common point.

Parallel force:

These are a set of forces, whose line of action is parallel to each

other. Following are the types of parallel forces.

• Like parallel force : When two parallel forces have the same direction
but may or may not have the same magnitude.
• Unlike unequal parallel force : when both the forces are unequal in
magnitude and act in opposite directions.
• Unlike equal parallel force : When two forces are opposite
indirection and equal in magnitude.

Parallelogram Law for addition of forces:

If two forces acting on a point are represented in magnitude and

direction, by two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then the diagonal of
parallelogram passing through the points of intersection, represents the
resultant force in both magnitude and direction.

Triangle law of forces:

 If two forces acting at a point are represented by two sides of a
triangle taken in order, then their sum of resultant is the third side of triangle
taken in opposite order.

Polygon law :

When a number of coplanar forces are acting at a point, such that

they can be represented in magnitude and direction by the side of polygon
taken in order, then the resultant can be represented both in magnitude and
direction, by the closing side of polygon taken in opposite order.

Lami's Theorem:

When three forces acting at a point are in equilibrium, then each

force will be proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two
forces.

Principle of Transmissibility:

It states that condition of state of rest or motion of body does not

change if the point of application of a force is transmitted to any other point,
along its line of action. This principle is used to determine the external
forces acting on the rigid body. But should not be used to determine the
internal forces and deformation of the body.

Resultant of several force:

When a number of forces acting on a rigid body is replaced by a

single force which has the same effect as all the forces on the rigid body,
then that forces is called as resultant of several force.

Any concurrent set of forces, not in equilibrium, can be put into a

state of equilibrium by a single force. This force is called the Equilibrant. It
is equal in magnitude, opposite in sense and co-linear with the resultant.
When this force is added to the force system, the sum of all of the forces is
equal to zero.
Condition for equilibrium:

When the resultant of all the forces acting on a particle is zero, then
the particle is said to be in a state of equilibrium.

Constraint, Action and Reaction:

A body is not always free to move in all directions. This restriction

to the free motion of a body is called as constraint. A action of a
constrained body on any support induces a equal and opposite reaction from
the support.

Free body diagram:

To draw the free body diagram the supports are removed and
replaced by the reactions the support exerts on the body.

Moment of force:

A force can produce a rotary motion. This measure of this turning

effect produced by a force is called as moment of a force. The moment of a
force about a point is equal to the product of the force and the perpendicular
distance between the line of action of force and the point ( also called as
Moment centre )

Varignon's Theorem:

The moment of a force about a axis is equal to the sum of the

moments of components about the same axis.

Couple:

A system of two equal parallel forces acting in opposite directions

can be replaced by a single force. In such a case a couple is produced,
which has a tendency to rotate the body. The perpendicular distance
between the line of action of two forces is called as arm of couple.
Moment of a couple:

The rotational tendency of a couple is measured by its moment. The

moment of a couple is the product of magnitude of one of the forces and arm
of the couple.

Central values:

Centre of mass: is the point through which the entire mass of the body is
assumed to be concentrated. Both are different only when the gravitational
field is not uniform and parallel, other wise it is the same.

Centroid: is the point where the entire area of the lamina is assumed to
concentrated.

Center of gravity of a Two-dimensional body:

Centre of gravity is defined as the point through which the resultant

of the distributed gravitational forces, act irrespective of the orientation of
the body.

For illustration, let us consider a flat horizontal plate is considered.

We divide the plate into a small elements. The co-ordinates of the first
element is denoted by (x1, y1) for the second element it is (x2, y2).
Similarly the forces exerted by the earth on the elements on the plate will be
denoted respectively by∆W1, ∆W2 .... ∆Wn. These forces or weights are
directed towards the center of the earth, however for all practical purposes
they are assumed to be parallel. The resultant W is a single force in the
same direction. The magnitude W of this force is obtained by adding the
magnitudes of the elementary weights.

W = ∆W1 + ∆W2 + ...... + ∆Wn.

To obtain the co-ordinates of centroid (x, y) where the resultant W is

applied, we write the moments of W about the x and y axes to be equal to
the sum of the corresponding moments of the elementary weights.

xW = x1.∆W1 + x2.∆W2 + ......... + xn.∆Wn.

yW = y1.∆W1 + y2.∆W2 + ......... + yn.∆Wn.

Now the size of each element is decreased the number of elements is

increased. We then obtain the limit of the following expressions.

W = ∫ dW xW = ∫ xdW yW = ∫ ydW
 The magnitude of weight W is denoted
by ρgt ∆Α. Substituting this value of W and W in the above equations and
dividing it by ρgt, we get

xA = x1.∆Α1 + x2.∆Α2 + ....... + xn.∆Αn

yA = y1.∆Α1 + y2.∆Α2 + ....... + yn.∆Αn, Similarly the values of integral
also changes as shown.

xA = ∫ xdA yA = ∫ ydA

First moments of Areas and Lines:

The integral ∫ xdA in previous Para is known as the first moment of

Area with respect to y axis and is denoted by Qy. Similarly the
integral ∫ ydA defines the first moment of Area with respect to the x axis
and is denoted by Qx. Mathematically we can also derive

Qx = yA Qy = xA

Beams:

It is a structural member designed to withstand loads at various

points along the members. Usually the loads are applied perpendicular to
the axis of the beam thus causing shear and bending in the beam. If the
loads are not at right angles of the beam, then they will also produce axial
forces in the beam. Beams are long, straight prismatic members designed to
support loads applied at various points along the member.

In the design of a beam we have to consider the most effective cross

section that will provide the most effective resistance the shear and bending
moment produced by the applied loads. Hence the design of beam consists
of two distinct parts. In the first part the shearing force and the bending
moment produced by the loads are determined. In the second part there is a
selection of cross section that best with stands the shear and bending
moment determined in the first part.

Cables:

These are flexible members capable of withstanding only tension,

designed to support either concentrated or distributed load.

Friction:

The friction is a force distribution at the surface of contact and acts

tangential to the surface of contact. This force always develop when one
surface attempts to move over the other. There are two types of friction.
They are dry ( also called as coulomb friction ) and fluid friction.

Dry friction:

Is the one which exists between two dry surfaces. Such a friction is
caused mainly because of minute projections present on the surface of body
hindering relative motion. The friction between liquid surfaces is called as
fluid friction.

Limiting friction:

When a body of mass m is there with a weight W a continuously

increasing force P is applied on the body to move it. This force P is opposed
and resisted by frictional force F. As P increases F also increases. The body
also remains at rest. At a point F cannot increase, hence P > F and the body
begins to move. The friction force at this instant is called as limiting
friction.

Limiting friction is the maximum frictional force exerted at the time

the body begins to move. The friction that exists between two moving
bodies is called as kinetic or dynamic friction.

Laws of dry friction :

1. The total frictional force developed is independent of the magnitude

of area of contact.
2. The total frictional force is directly proportional to the normal force
acting at the surface of contact.

F = µN

Where F - Frictional force

µ - Coefficient of static friction and

N - Normal reaction.

Angle of Friction:

The normal reaction N and the frictional force F can be combined

into a single resultant force R called resultant reaction. The angle which the
resultant reaction R makes with the normal reaction N is called as angle of
friction

Tan Ø = F / N = µN / N = µ
 µ is called as coefficient of friction.

Angle of repose:

It is defined as the maximum angle of inclination at which the body

remains in equilibrium at a inclined surface at the influence of friction alone,
beyond which the body slides.

Rolling resistance:

A ball is present on the ground. They are in touch only at the point
of contact. That a large amount of friction is eliminated. But then the when
or ball starts rolling, the resistance increases. This is mainly due to
deformation over which the ball creates on the surface. Thus there is no
longer a point contact but a area contact. This area a is called as the forward
length of deformation also called as coefficient of rolling resistance.

Engineering structures:

Any system of interconnected members builds to support or transfer

force acting on them and to safely withstand these forces are called as
engineering structure. Following are the types.

Truss : It is a system of members which are joined together at the ends, by

riveting or welding at the ends. All members are two force members. Load
is applied only at joints.

Frame : Here one or more members are subject to more than two forces.

Assumptions Made:

1. The joints are frictionless.

2. Loads are applied only in the joints.
3. The members are two force members with forces acting collinear to
centre line of members.
4. The weight of members is negligible and
5. The truss is statically determinate.

To determine the axial forces on the members, there are three

methods. They are

1. Method of joints,
2. Method of sections and
3. Graphical method.

Moment of Inertia:
 By analogy the role played by the moment of inertial in the rotary
motion is similar the role played by mass in translatory motion. The
moment of Inertia of area is called as the area moment of inertia. The
moment of Inertia of mass is called as the mass moment of inertia.

dA is a element at a distance ( x, y ) from the axes.

The moment of area with respect to X axis is = Ix = ∫ y2dA

The moment of area with respect to Y axis is = Iy = ∫ x2dA

Polar moment of Inertia :

The moment of inertia of a area of plane figure with respect to the

axis that is perpendicular to x-y plane and passing through O is called polar
moment of Inertia it is denoted by

jo = ∫ r2dA

jo = ∫ ( x2 + y2 ) dA = Ix + Iy

Theory of Papus-Guidinus:

It states that the surface of revolution is a surface which may be

generated by rotating a plane curve about a fixed axis. The surface of
sphere may be obtained by rotating a semicircular arc about its diameter, the
surface of a cone by rotating a straight line inclined about its axis.

A body of revolution is a body which may be generated by rotating

a plane area about a fixed axis. A solid sphere may be generated by rotating
a semi circular area, a cone by rotating a triangular area and a torus by
rotating a full circular area.

Parallel axis theorem:

The moment of Inertia of a lamina about any axis in the plane is

equal to the sum of the moment of inertia abut a parallel centroidal axis in
the plane of the lamina and the product of the area and square of distance
between two axes.

Perpendicular Axis theorem:

If Ix and Iy are the moment of inertia about two mutually

perpendicular axis OX and OY. Iz be the moment of inertia of lamina about
a axis normal to the lamina and passing through the point of intersection of
Ox and OY axes then
 Iz = Ix + Iy

Quantity Unit Symbol

Acceleration meter / sec2 m/s2

Angle Radian Rad

Angular
Radian/second Rad/s
velocity

Angular
Radian/second2 Rad/s2
acceleration

Area metre2 m2

Kilogram /
Density Kg/m3
meter3

Energy Joule J = Nm

N = Kg
Force Newton
m/s2

Frequency Hertz Hz

Length meter m

Mass Kilogram Kg

Moment of
Newton-metre Nm
force

Power Watts W = J/s

Pa =
Pressure Pascal
N/m2

Pa =
Stress Pascal
N/m2

Torque Newton-metre Nm

Velocty metre/second m/s

Volume metre3 m3

Work Joule J = Nm
 NUMERICAL PROBLEMS

Problem 1: For the system of forces shown, calculate the resultant force and
its angle of inclination.

Solution: Each force shown is resolved into the x and y components. To

get the x components, the magnitude is multiplied with the Cosine of the
angle of inclination ( F Cos α ). For y components the magnitude of force
is multiplied with Sine of the angle of inclination ( F Sin α).

x y
Force Magnitude
component component
F1 150 129.9 75

F2 80 -27.4 75.2

F3 110 0 -110
F4 100 96.6 -25.9

Sum of x component of force = 199.1 N

Sum of y component of force = 14.3 N

Resultant = √ (199.1)2+ (14.3) 2= 199.6 Ν

Angle of inclination = Tan -1 ( 14.3 / 199.1 ) = 4.1o

Problem 2: For the plane shown determine (a) the first moments and the
location of centroid.

Solution: To proceed further the plane is considered to be a combination of

Rectangle + Triangle + Semi circle - Circle.

Area Centroid Centroid

Component X.a Y.a
(a) X Y
Rectangle 9600 60 40 576000 384000
Triangle 3600 40 -20 144000 -72000
Semi-circle 5655 60 105.5 339300 596602.5
-
Circle -5026 60 80 -402080
301560
 Total 13829 757740 506522.5

First moment of area Qx = 506522.5

First moment of area Qy = 757740.0

Centroid = ( 757740 / 13829, 506522.5 / 13829 ) = ( 54.8 mm, 36.62 mm )

REFERENCES:

1. Vector Mechanics for Engineers, Ferdinand P. Beer and E. Russel

Johnston Jr.

2. Engineering Mechanics, A. K. Tayal

HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

Internal Energy:

Molecules in a system are in constant motion by mutual forces of

attraction. The molecular motion has Kinetic energy. The energy of mutual
forces of attraction is Potential energy. The sum total of the energy is the
internal energy. This internal energy is dependent upon temperature level of
the system. Higher the temperature, higher the internal energy. U is the
most common symbol used for internal energy.

E.g.. A room temperature glass of water sitting on a table has no

apparent energy, either potential or kinetic . But on the microscopic scale it
is a seething mass of high speed molecules traveling at hundreds of meters
per second.

Heat:

Energy transfer due to temperature difference is called as heat. This

subject studies the rate at which this energy is transferred. A system might
have accepted or rejected heat. This is reflected by the changes in
temperature. A increase in temperature indicates that the system has
accepted heat and a decrease in temperature indicates that the system has
rejected heat. The quantity of heat transferred is given by the product of
mass (m), Specific heat ( Cp or Cv ) and the temperature difference ( ∆T ).

Difference Between Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer:

 Consider a heated steel bar cooled in water. Thermodynamics helps
to predict the final equilibrium temperature of the composite system. But
heat transfer predicts the time taken to reach the equilibrium temperature or
to find what would the temperature be after a certain length of time. Thus
heat transfer helps to predict the temperature of both bar and water as a
function of temperature.

Modes of Heat Transfer:

Conduction:

The thermal energy transfer takes place from a region of high

temperature to the low temperature region, between two bodies which are in
contact. The energy transfer takes place by means of electrons, which are
free to move. The observable effect is equalization of temperature. The
flow of heat by conduction as given by Fourier law is given by the following
formula. Here K is called the thermal conductivity. It has the units W/m.K

Q = - KA ( dT / dX)

Convection:

It is possible because of mixing of fluid medium. This type of heat

transfer is possible only in a fluid medium and is directly linked with the
transportation of fluid itself. The amount of heat transferred by convection
depends largely upon the extent to which the fluids mix with each other.
Thus there exists a mass moment. There are two types of convection, they
are

• Natural Convection:- This results because of the temperature different

leading to the differences in density.
• Forced Convection:- This take place when the flow is caused by
external means such as a fan or pump.

Radiation:

Thermal radiation is the form of transmission of heat from one body

to another body without a intervening space. It does not require a material
medium, for the transfer of heat. The heat is transferred in the form of
radiant energy or wave energy. The mechanism of heat transfer consists of
three distinct phases.

• Conversion of thermal energy to photons.

• Passage of photons in air space.
 • Transformation of photons back to heat.

Stefan Boltzman Law:

The emissive power of a black body is directly proportional to the

fourth power of absolute temperature. T is the absolute temperature, and the
value of the Stefan-Boltzmann constant σ is 5.67 x 10 -8

E α T4
E = σAT4
Planks Law:

All bodies emit radiation, the quantity and quality of which depends
upon the temperature and property of the material.

Absorbivity, Reflectivity and Transmissibility:

First consider a distinction between heat and infrared radiation.

Infrared radiation refers to a particular range of wavelengths, while heat
refers to the whole range of radiant energy flowing from one body to
another. Consider a radiant heat flux, q falls upon a translucent plate that is
not black as shown in the figure

Then let

α =Absorbivity or fraction of total energy absorbed by the body.

ρ = Fraction of total energy reflected.
τ = Fraction of total energy transmitted.

Qo = Qa + Qr + Qt
 Qa / Qo + Qr / Qo + Qt / Qo = 1

α + ρ+ τ = 1

The following are the important conclusions drawn.

• When α = 1 and ρ = τ = 0

Then it is a Non-reflecting and Non Transmitting surface.

Such a surface is called as black body.

• When ρ = 1 and α = τ = 0

Then it reflects all radiation and is called a specular of a

absolutely white body.

• When τ = 1 and α = ρ = 0

Then it allow all radiations to pass throughout it and is called

a transparent or diathermanous body.

Black body:

Black bodies are perfect thermal radiators. It is necessary to have a

experimental method for making a perfectly black body. The conventional
device for this approach is the hohlraum, which means literally hollow
space. It is a simple device that traps all the energy that reaches the
aperture. The cross section of a hohlraum is shown below. The hole has
the attributes of a nearly perfect thermal black body.
Condensation:

Fluid in gaseous or vapor phase changes to liquid state, with the

liberation of heat from the vapor. There are two types of condensation.
They are film condensation and Drop wise condensation.
In film condensation, liquid drop lets cover the surface and further
condensation is not possible. But in drop wise condensation, there is not
wetting of cooling surface. Apart of the condensation film is always
exposed to vapor without the formation of liquid film.

Heat Exchangers:

It is a equipment designed for the effective heat transfer between two

fluids, where one of them is hot and other is cold. The purpose may be to
remove heat or add heat. Examples of such heat exchangers are Automobile
radiators, Air and water coolers & Air and Water Heaters.

Based on the nature of heat exchange process, the following are the
classifications.

Direct contact - Both heat and mass transfer takes place.

Regenerators - The hot fluid flows in a matrix or tube followed by the cold
fluid or vice versa.
Recuperators - Fluid flows simultaneously on either side of a separating
unit. No physical contact of the fluids. The heat is transferred as follows.

Convection - Hot fluid & Wall.

Conduction - Across the wall.
Convection - Wall & Cold fluid.

Parallel Flow Arrangement - The hot and cold fluids enter and leave the
unit in the same direction ( Unidirectional )
Counter Flow Arrangement - The two fluids enter the units from opposite
ends, and travel in opposite directions. Maximum heat transfer rate.
Cross Flow Arrangement - The fluids travel at right angles to each other.

The figure of parallel, counter flow and cross flow arrangement is shown
below.

Parallel and cross flow arrangement

 Cross flow arrangement

Fins:

The conductive removal of heat from a surface can be substantially

improved if we put extensions on that surface to increase its area. These
extensions can take a variety of forms. The surface of a commercial heat
exchanger tubing can be extended with protrusions called as fins.

Mass Transfer:

The transfer of one constituent from a region of higher concentration

to a region of lower concentrations called mass transfer. There are two
types of mass transfer. They are diffusive and convective mass transfer.
Examples of mass transfer are

Evaporation of petrol in the carburetor of engine.

Evaporation of liquid ammonia in the atmosphere of hydrogen in a electro
flux refrigerator.

Compressors:

A simple definition of a compressor is a device used to pressurize a

fluid, including liquids and gases. There are many different kinds of
compressors, but typically the main purpose of using a compressor is to
raise the pressure of a liquid or gas. Compressors are found in both gas
power cycles and vapor compression refrigeration cycles.

A compressor converts shaft power to a rise in enthalpy of a fluid.

The fluid, often a gas, enters the compressor at a low pressure (low
enthalpy) and exits at a high pressure (high enthalpy). The rotating shaft is
attached to a blade assembly. The rotating blades push on the gas and
increase the pressure, thereby increasing the enthalpy. Compressors are
continuous flow processes, and can be either axial or radial.

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS

Problem 1: The front of a slab of lead ( k = 35 W/m.K ) is kept at 110o C

and the back is kept at 50o C. If the are of the slab is 0.4m2 and it is 0.03m
thick, compute the heat flux, q, and the heat transfer rate, Q.

Heat flux q = - K (dT / dX) = -35 x ( 50 - 110 ) / 0.03 = 70,000 W/m2

Heat transfer rate = qA = 70,000 x 0.4 = 28 Kw.

Problem 2: The heat flux q is 6000 W/m2 at the surface of an electrical

heater. The heater temperature is 120o C, when it is cooled by air at 70o C.
What is the average convective heat transfer coefficient, h?

Convective heat transfer coefficient h = q / dT = 6000 / (120 - 70) = 120

W/m2K

HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER BOOKS

1. Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 5th Edition by Frank

P. Incropera, David P. Dewitt
2. The Heat Transfer Problem Solver: A Complete Solution Guide
to Any Textbook (Rea's Problem Solvers) by Staff of Research and
Education Association, James Ogden
3. Schaum's Outline of Heat Transfer by Donald R. Pitts, Leighton E.
Sissom (Contributor)
4. Heat Transfer by J. P. Holman
5. Handbook of Heat Transfer by Warren M. Rohsenow, James P.
Hartnett,Young I. Cho. (Editors)
6. Compact Heat Exchangers by W. M. Kays, A. L. London
7. Heat Exchangers: Selection, Rating and Thermal Design, Second
Edition by Hongtan Liu, Sadik Kakac
8. Principles of Heat Transfer by Massoud Kaviany
9. Convective Heat Transfer, 2nd Edition by Louis C. Burmeister
 10. Convective Heat Transfer by Tuncer Cebeci
11. A Heat Transfer text book by John H. Lienhard IV and John H.
Lienhard V

Instrumentation and Metrology

Whatever exists, exist in some amount. finding this amount is what is called as measurement.

Measurement is the act or process that consist of obtaining a

quantitative comparison between a standard entity and measure entity. This
measured entity is called as measurand. This act produces a result.

General method of measurement:

Direct method and indirect method are the two methods of

measurement. In many cases direct method is not possible, then we use
indirect method.

Measuring system has three stages. Indirect method makes use of a

transducing device coupled to a chain connecting apparatus. All these are
called measuring system. This chain of devices converts the basic form of
input into a analogous form which then processes and presents at the output
as a known function of input. Hence the generalized measuring system can
be divided into three stages.

1. A detector - transducing sensor stage.

2. An intermediate stage - signal conditioning stage and
3. A terminating stage / Read out stage.

Stages in Measurement:

First Stage:

First stage is to detect and sense the measurand and ideally it should
be insensitive to every other input for example. If it is a pressure pickup
device then it should be insensitive to acceleration, a strain gauge should be
insensitive to temperature and frequently one finds there are more than one
transduction in the first stage.
Classification of first stage devices:

First stage may involve number of operation and fences these

devices are classified as

1. Those which are used for detection only,

2. Those which are used as detector and single transducer and
3. Those which are used as detector and two stage transducer.

The first stage instrumentation may be simple consisting of no more

than a mechanical spindle or a contacting member to convey the quantity to
secondary transducer. It may also consist of complex assembly of
elements. The sole function of this stag is to selectively sense the quantity
of interest and to process the sensed information into a form acceptable to
stage two operations. It does not give any output in an useful form.
Example

• Contracting spindle
• Simple pendulum
• Thermocouple used to convert temperature into voltage
• Variable resistivity
• Photo voltaic cell which converts light to potential and
• Photo emission cell that converts light to current.

Many of the sensors mentioned above transduces the input

displacement into an electrical output. This is a fortunate situation for
realizing practical combination of mechanical sensors acting as a primary
transducer and the electrical sensory as secondary transducer.

Second Stage:

This stage on the system modifies the transduced information so that

it is acceptable to the third or termination stage. It may also include such
operations like selective filtering, integration, differentiation or
telemetering. Most common function of the second stage is to increase the
power or amplitude of signal or both to the level required to drive the final
terminating device.

Third Stage:

This stage proves the information sort in a form understandable /

intelligible to the human beings to a controller either as a relative
displacement or in a digital form.

Tyre Gauge (Pressure measurement):

 This is used for measuring the tyre pressure. It consists of a cylinder
and piston. A spring resisting the piston movements. As the air pressure
pushes the piston the resulting force compresses the spring until the spring
force and air force balance. The calibrated stem shows air pressure. Piston-
cylinder acts as a transducer that produces force and spring converts force to
displacement. Finally the transduced input is transferred without signal
conditioning the scale and inducts the read out. The pressure is measured in
Pascal or atmospheres.

1 Pa = 1 Nm2

1 Torr = 1 mm of mercury = 1.33 x 102 Pascals

1 Atmosphere = 14.696 psi = 101.3 x 103 Pascal

DISPLACEMENT MEASUREMENT

Sliding contact resistive transducer:

This converts a mechanical displacement into a electrical output

which is either voltage or current.

R = ρL / A

Where R is in Ohms, L in mm, A is area in mm2 and ρ is in Ωm.

The effective length between one end of wire and slider contact is a
measure of mechanical displacement. Devices of this type have been sued
for large displacements. Potentiometer are called pots.

Electrical Strain gauges - Resistance Strain gauge:

 Lord Kelvin with his experiments demonstrated t hat the resistance
of copper or Iron wire change when subjected to strain. He made use of
wheat stones bridge with a galvanometer as indicator. Unbonded resistance
elements are sometimes used as secondary transduces in accelerometer and
other component.

Theory:

Generally four such separate filaments are connected electrically to

wheat stone's bridge. The general relation between electrical and
mechanical properties are derived as follows.

Initial length of conductor = L

Cross sectional area = CD2, where C = constant and D = sectional
dimension.

If the section is square then C = 1 and for circle C = π/ 4. Let us

consider the conductor be axially kept under tension there by causing any
increase in length and as a consequence the lateral dimension decreases as a
function of Poisson's ratio. Therefore

R = ρL / A = ρL / CD2

When strained each quantity in he above equation except C may

change.

dR = [ CD2 ( -ρdL + Ldρ) − ρL ( 2 CD/dD) ] / C2D4

dR / R = dL / L - 2 dD / D + dρ / ρ

dR / R 2 dD / d dρ / ρ
−−−−− = 1 − −−−−−− + −−−−
dL / L dL / L dL / L

Where dL / L = Axial strain and dD / d = Lateral strain. The ratio of which

is the Poisson ratio. Substituding in the above equation.

dR / R dρ / ρ
−−−−− ( Α lso called as gauge factor,
F) = 1 − 2γ+ −−−−−
dL / L dL / L

Ignoring the third term we have F = 1 + 2γ

 The resistivity does not change with strain. This basic knowledge
and the value of γ lies between 0.25 and 0.3. F = 1+2(0.3) = 1.6. This
gauge factor is a function of Poisson ration in the elastic range and should
not vary from 1.6. The gauge factor for metallic gauge is essentially a
constant and is in the range of elastic strain

εa = ∆R / RF. Where ∆R is the incremental value. The manufacturers

supply the value of F and R. Hence the ∆R = F.R.εa

In practical applications the value of F and R are supplied by

manufacturers and the user determines the value of ∆R.

Types of strain gauge:

As the circuit that are used to measure the resistance changes they
require a minimum resistance to be measured. This value depends on the
current in the gauge and its length. Higher the resistance, larger will be the
change in ∆R for a given gauge factor. It draws lesser current The smaller
the current the dissipation is less. Normally the resistance chosen is at the
order of 60 - 1000 ohms. Strain gauges are classified as bonded or
unbonded strain gauges, according to the method of manufacture.

Bonded strain gauge is directly bonded on the surface of the

specimen to be measured. A layer of adhesive cement is used for this
purpose. It serves to transmit the strain from specimen to gauge wires and at
the same time serves as an electrical insulator.

In unbonded strain gauge is one in which there is a free filament

sensing element where strain is transferred to the resistance wire directly
without any backing.

Semi-conductor gauges:

They employ piezo resistive property of doped silicon and

germanium. The strain sensitivity is mainly due to resistivity changes in the
semi-conductor materials and the change in resistance due to stain is 40 -
100 times more than that of the conventional metal alloys. The gauge factor
F = ( ∆R/R ) / ε= 1 + 2γ+m. Where m = πE, here E is the young's
modulus and π is the coefficient of piezo resistance along the axis of the
gauge.

Thin film gauges:

Of late thin film gauges are receiving attention because of certain

advantages. Thin film of metals such as aluminum, gold, nickel, platinum
or palladium are formed in desired patterns directly on a substrate by
thermal evaporation in vacuum and this substrate is attached to the specimen
in the same manner as that used for other gauges. The thin film gauge
resistance is given by

Rf = ( w / l ) x Rg

Where W is the width of the film, l the length of film Rf the specific
sheet resistance. But Rg = ρf l/A. Here ρf is the film resistiviy in Ohm-metre
and A is the area of cross section.

ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT

Errors may arise from different sources and are usually classified as
follows.

Gross Errors:

This class of errors mainly covers human mistakes in reading

instruments and recording and calculating the results. The responsibility of
the mistake normally lies with the experimenter. Gross errors can be
minimized or avoided. Care should be taken while recording or reading the
data. Number of readings should be taken and a close agreement between
readings assures that no errors has been committed.

Systematic errors:

These types of errors are classified into three categories.

1. Instrumental errors
2. Environmental errors and
3. Observational errors.

Instrumental errors:

There are many factors in the design and construction of instruments

that limit the accuracy attainable. Assembly errors (Because of bend or
distorted pointers, non uniform division of the scale, or displaced scale that
does not coincide with the actual zero position) come under this category of
errors. These types of errors does not alter with time, but it can be easily
discovered and corrected. Examples and causes of this types of errors are as
follows.

• Improper selecting and poor maintenance of the instrument.

• Faults of construction resulting from finite width of knife edges.
 • Mechanical friction and wear, backlash, yielding of supports, pen or
pointer drag and hystersis of elastic members due to aging.
• Unavoidable physical phenomenon due to friction, capillary attraction
and imperfect rarefaction.

Environmental errors:

These types of errors are more dangerous as they change with time
in an unpredictable manner. The instrument would have been assembled
and calibrated in one environment. For measurement it would been carried
to a different place and because of this change, error occurs. The change
may be due to different temperatures, pressures, humidity and altitude etc.
These errors can be eliminated or reduced by the following precautions
mentioned.

• Using the instrument in controlled condition of pressure, temperature,

in which it was assembled and calibrated.
• If this is not possible, then the deviations in local conditions from the
calibrated value is measured and suitable correction to the instrument
readings are applied.
• Automatic compensation using sophisticated devices is possible and
is usually applied.
• Make a new calibrations based on the local conditions.

Observational errors:

Even when the instruments are properly selected, carefully installed

and calibrated, short coming in the measurement occur due to certain
mistakes on the part of the observer. These types of errors may be due to

• Parallax apparent displacement when the line of vision is not normal

to the scale.
• Inaccurate estimates of average reading, lack of ability to interpolate
properly between graduations.
• Non simultaneous observation of independent quantities.
• Personal bias - a tendency to read high or low, or anticipate a signal
and read too soon.
• Wrong scale reading, and wrong recording of data.

Modern instruments use digital systems that eliminate the

possibilities of errors due to human observations. These errors an be
eliminated by careful training and by taking independent readings of each
item by two or more observers.

Random errors:
 These vary in an unpredictable manners and it is very difficult to list
out all the sources of errors since these errors remain even after the
consideration of systematic errors these are also called as residual errors.
Following are the most common.

• Friction in the instruments movement.

• Mechanical vibration,
• Finite dimensions between scale and pointer
• Hysterysis in the elastic members
• Backslash in the movement

The importance of these errors is that they cancel each others effect
and ultimately may lead to correct values. for example vibrations can be
avoided by placing on shock absorbing mountings. Apart from there errors,
there are other types and forms of errors. A brief outlook of the other types
of errors is as follows. Translation and signal transmission errors caused
due to the non capability of the instrument to follow rapid changes in the
measured quantity due to inertial and hystersis effect. The error may also
result from unwanted disturbances such as noise, line pick up, hum ripple
etc. These errors are remedied by calibration and by monitoring the signal
at one or more points along its transmission path.

Operational errors are caused due to poor operation techniques. A

few examples are given below.

• A thermometer will not read accurately if the sensitive portion is

insufficiently immersed or is radiating heat to colder portion of the
installation.
• A pressure gauge will correctly indicate pressure only when it is
exposed only to the pressure which is to be measured.
• A steam calorimeter will not give true indication of the dryness
fraction of steam unless the sample drawn correctly represents the
condition of the steam.

Systematic errors are caused to the act of measurement. As it affects

the condition of the measurand and thus leading to uncertainties in the
measurements, he examples of which are given below.

• Introduction of a thermometer alters the thermal capacity of the

system and provides an extra path for heat leakage.
• A ruler pressed against a body results in a differential deformation of
the body relative to the ruler.
• A obstruction type flow meter may partially block or disturb the flow
condition. Consequently the flow rate shown by the meter may not
be same as before the meter installation.
 • Reading shown by a hand tachometer would vary with the pressure
with which it is pressed against a shaft.
• A milli-ammeter would introduce additional resistance in the circuit
and thereby alter the flow current by a significant amount.

Systematic errors cannot be determined by direct and repetitive

observations of the measurand made each time with the same technique.
The only way to locate there errors is to have repeated measurements under
different conditions or with different equipment and if possible by an
entirely different method.

PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY
Angular Velocity:

The angular velocity of a rotating body is the distance covered per

second by a point lying at a distance of one meter from the axis of rotation,
along the periphery of circle of 1 meter radius and having its centre along
the axis of rotation.

ω = 2πN / 60 rad / sec

V = rω

Work holding devices:

Magnetic chuck:

There are two types. They are electromagnetic chuck and permanent
magnetic chuck. The magnetic power of the electromagnetic chuck can be
carried according to the size of the work. But not so in the case of a
permanent magnet chuck. Thus type of work holding device is suited for
ferrous work pieces.

De-magnetizer:

It is a special device used to remove the magnetic power from an

object. In grinding whenever a job is ground by holding in a magnetic
chuck, the job will also get some magnetic power. A demagnetizer is
therefore required to remove this.

Vice:

Vices are used to hold jobs with narrow surface or non-ferrous work
pieces ( which cannot be conveniently held in magnetic chucks ). A vice
may be placed directly on the grinder table or on a magnetic chuck. There
are three types. They are

• Plain vice,
• Tilting type vice and
• Universal vice.

Angle plate:

Are used to hold the work piece while grinding one surface
perpendicular to another surface or while grinding one surface at an angle to
another surface.

'V' block:

Are used to hold the round work piece while grinding a flat on the
work piece. These are used for holding tube or bar work pieces for grinding
flat surfaces on the exterior. Magnetic vee blocks may be used in
combination with other mounting devices, such as angle plates which
themselves can be clamped to the work table or held in position on a
magnetic chuck.

Clamps:

are used to hold any work piece or a work holding device.

Alternatively they may be held on a magnetic chuck.

Basics of Machine tools:

Machine tools produce the required shape by performing some metal

removing operation on the raw material. For this the machine tools

• Hold / support / guide the work piece/ tools.

• Regulate the cutting speed and feed between tool and work piece.

Parts of a Machine Tool:

1. Machine Bed frame and Structure : This houses and supports other
parts. Some are in motion and others are fixed. this provides
stability.
2. Slide ways and Slide : They are attached to the top of bed and guide
the slides. The movement of slides should be accurate. The different
types are flat, vee, dovetail, cylindrical and combined.
3. Spindles and Bearings : Spindles are provided to ensure that the
position of axis or rotation is within line. Members that rotate the
work piece and cutters are called spindles. These spindles are shaft
 mounted on bearings. The spindles must be rigid and must have
rotational accuracy.
4. Machine tool drives : electric motor is the power unit and the power
from motor reaches the work piece or cutter through belts, gears,
chains and pulley.

In machine tools there are two types of motion. They are

• Primary Motion : This is higher that other speeds.

• Feed motion : This is less than primary motion.

Metal Sawing: This machine is used to produce work piece of desired

length. Following are the different sawing machines.

1. Reciprocating Saw ( manual and power operated )

2. Band saw ( Band filing, Vertical, Horizontal and friction )
3. Circular saw ( Cold saw, Steel friction disk and Abrasive disk )

Lathe: Following are the important parts in a lathe.

1. Head stock,
2. Tail stock,
3. live centre,
4. dead centre,
5. apron,
6. cross slide
7. top slide and
8. Tool post.

A lathe is specified by

• Length of bed,
• width of bed,
• No of spindle speeds and
• Maximum distance between centers.

Following are the different types of lathes.

• Speed lathe,
• Engine lathe,
• Special lathe
• Automatic lathe,
• Bench lathe,
• Tool room lathe and
• Turret lathe.
Machining time:

• L - Length of cut.
• f - feed in mm / rev
• S - cutting speed in m / min
• N - Spindle speed and
• D - Diameter of work piece.

Machining time = L / f x N Where N = 1000 S / πD.

Shaping operations:

There are three shaper diving mechanisms. They are

1. slotted link quick return mechanism,

2. Whitworth quick return mechanism and
3. Hydraulic mechanism.

Shaping operations can be used to cut splines and gears.

Cutting speed : On a shaper may be defined as the average speed of tool

during the cutting stroke and primarily depends on number of strokes / min
and length of stroke.

L - length of stroke
N - Number of strokes / min.
Distance moved per minute = LN.
Machining is done during cutting stroke and return stroke is a idle
stroke.
Cutting stroke / Return stroke = 3 / 2
Cutting time / Total time = 3 / 5.

Thus actual time to cut LN metres is 3 / 5 min and not 1 minute.

Hence in one minute the tool cuts 5 / 3 LN metres.

Slotting Machines:

These can be considered as a vertical shaper. The difference

between a shaper and slotter is the direction of cutting action. They are used
to create splines, key ways, Internal and External gears.

Planners:

These are similar to shaping machines, but the tool is stationary and
the work piece slides back and forth. The following are the different types
of planers.
 • Double housing planner.
• Open side planer,
• Pit type planner and
• Divided table planner.

Following are the differences between shaper and planner.

SHAPER PLANNER

Suitable for small jobs. Suitable for large jobs.

Light duty machine Heavy duty machine

Only one cutting tool is

Multiple cutting tools.
used
More accuracy because
Less accuracy
of high rigidity

Drilling Machines:

Following are the different types of drilling machines.

1. Portable Drilling Machine.

2. Bench type Drilling Machine
3. Sensitive Drilling Machine
4. Multiple Drilling Machine
5. Deep hole Drilling Machine and
6. Automatic Drilling Machine.

Different types of drilling operations:

Drilling:

Is used to make circular holes. Drilling involves the creation of

holes that are right circular cylinders. This is accomplished most typically
by using a twist drill, something most readers will have seen before. The
figure below illustrates a cross section of a hole being cut by a common
twist drill. The chips must exit through the flutes to the outside of the tool.
As can be seen in the figure, the cutting front is embedded within the work
piece, making cooling difficult. The cutting area can be flooded, coolant
spray mist can be applied, or coolant can be delivered through the drill bit
shaft.
The characteristics of drilling that set it apart from other powered metal
cutting operations are:

• The chips must exit out of the hole created by the cutting.
• Chip exit can cause problems when chips are large and/or continuous.
• The drill can wander upon entrance and for deep holes.
• For deep holes in large work pieces, coolant may need to be delivered
through the drill shaft to the cutting front.
• Of the powered metal cutting processes, drilling on a drill press is the
most likely to be performed by someone who is not a machinist.

Reaming :

This uses a multipoint cutting tool. Cannot produce holes but

produces accurate size and good finish. Reaming is a process which slightly
enlarges a pre-existing hole to a tightly toleranced diameter. A reamer is
similar to a mill bit in that it has several cutting edges arranged around a
central shaft, as shown below. Because of the delicate nature of the
operation and since little material is removed, reaming can be done by hand.
Reaming is most accurate for axially symmetric parts produced and reamed
on a lathe.
Reamed holes should not intersect with drilled holes, so the configuration
below should NOT be implemented

Boring : This operation, enlarges a existing hole and finishes it. Used when
a drill of a particular size is not available. Adjustable boring head eliminate
the need for a complete inventory of expensive large size drills.

Counter boring : Where as boring enlarges for a entire length of hole,

counter boring does not.
Counter sinking : Bevels the mouth of hole with a tool called counter sink.

Tapping : Used to cut threads in drilled holes.

Trepanning : is used when a large hole has to be created on a thin metal

sheet.

Types of Work holding devices:

• Machine vice,
• V- Block,
• T bolts,
• Strap clamps,
• Step blocks and
• Angle plate.

Broaching:

• This operation uses a tool called as broach.

• A tapered tool, where there is a teeth of desired contour. It passes
through the work piece and produces the contour in a single pass.
• Used for mass production.
• Can machine both internal and external surfaces
• A broach has 3 types of teeth. They are Roughing teeth, finishing
teeth and semi-finishing teeth.
 It is very similar to shaper but uses a multipoint cutting tool, as it has
many teeth. Each successive tooth has a greater cutting edge. Each tooth
removes a predetermined quantity of material.

Surface Finish Process:

• Honing : It is well cutting process which removes metal by means of

a revolving honing tool. This tool moves up and down inside the
work piece.
• Lapping and
• Super finishing.

Welding:

It is the process of joining different metals. Various welding and

allied process are classified below.

1. Gas Welding

• Air acetylene
• Oxy acetylene
• Oxy hydrogen
• Pressure gas welding.

2. Arc welding

• Carbon arc welding and

• Shielded metal arc welding.

Oxy-Acetylene Welding:

In this acetylene is mixed with oxygen in proper proportions.

Produces a temperature of 3200 C. There are three types of flames
produced. They are

1. Neutral flame : Produces no chemical change on molten metal.

Hence no cambering or oxidizing.
2. Oxidizing flame : Produces a loud roar. High temperature is
reached. The ratio of oxygen to acetylene is 1.5 : 1.
3. Carburizing flame.

Metal Arc welding:

It is a arc welding process done by heating the work piece by striking

a arc between the electrode and work piece. The arc melts the electrode and
job and molten metal is transferred from electrode to work piece. The flux
coating melts and forms a gaseous shield and slag to prevent atmospheric
contamination of molten metal.

Submerged Arc Welding:

In this instead of a flux coated electrode, granular flux and base

electrode is used. The job remain submerged under the flux. The flux
serves a shield and protects the molten metals from contamination.

Tungsten Inert Gas Welding:

It is a arc welding process done by heating the job within a electric

arc struck between tungsten electrode and job. A gas shield namely helium
or Argon is used to avoid atmospheric contamination of welding pool.

Metal Arc Welding:

It is done by striking a arc between a continuously fed metal

electrode and the job. No flux is used by t he act and molten metal is
protected by helium or Argon.

Plasma Arc Welding:

In this arc is circulated between tungsten electrode and water cooled

nozzle. Two inert gases are used. One of them produces the plasma arc and
the second acts as a shield. In this there are two types.

1. Non-transfer arc process: In this arc is produced between nozzle and

tungsten electrode. Work piece does not form part of electrical
circuit.
2. Transfer arc process : This is a arc between tungsten electrode and
work piece.

Resistance Welding:

In this the joint is produced by using the resistance of the work piece
for the flow of current and by application of pressure. No filler metal is
required.

Spot welding:

It is a type of resistance welding process, in which two overlapping

sheets of metal are joined by local fusion at one or more spots by the heat
produced by resistance to the flow of current, that are held together by the
forces or electrodes.
Cold Welding:

It is a solid state welding carried out at room temperature and no heat

is produced. The condition is that one of the material must be ductile. Only
mechanical pressure is applied.

Ultrasonic Welding:

In this a high frequency vibratory energy is applied on work piece.

The work piece is held in a interface. The combine effect of pressure and
vibration causes movement of metal molecules and this creates a sound
bonding. This completed in 0.5 - 1.5 seconds.

Friction and Inertial Welding:

The work piece are rotated and suddenly pressure is applied and both
pieces get welded, Because of the high heat generated.

Atomic-Hydrogen Welding:

In this the joint is produced by an arc between 2 electrodes in a

atmosphere of hydrogen, which acts as shielding gas. Job does not become
a part of electrical circuit.

Electron Beam welding:

In this joint is produced by heat obtained by concentrated electron

beam which contains high speed electrons.

Difficulties in Welding Aluminum:

There are five things that greatly effect aluminum’s ability to be welded

1) Surface Oxidation: Aluminum has an oxidation coating, which is beneficial

in terms of corrosion resistance. However, this coating can be trapped
inside the molten weld material eventually causing the weld to be porous.
The surface oxidation should therefore be removed before welding.

2) High Thermal Conductivity: The thermal conductivity of aluminum is about

four times that of steel. Therefore, welds may need higher heat inputs,
preheating, and/or a shorter weld time. This could increase the heat affected
zone (HAZ).

3) High Thermal Expansion: Due to the high coefficient of thermal expansion,

a weld can decrease by 6% in volume during solidification. This may lead
to cracking or distortion.
4) Low Melting Point: The parent material could melt through during the
welding process.

5) No Color Change Near Melting Point: Unlike steel, aluminum does not turn a
reddish color when approaching the melting point. This makes it difficult to
tell when the welding temperature has been reached.

Brazing:

In this joint is produced by heating to a suitable temperature and by

using a filler material having liquidus below the solidus of base metal. Used
for non ferrous metals.

Soldering:

The melting point of the filler material is below 427o C. The melting
point of filler material used in brazing is above 427o C.

THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics is the science that deals with the relationship
between heat and work. Thermodynamics is the study of 3 E's Energy,
Equilibrium and Entropy.

Basic Definitions :

System:

It is a definite quantity of matter of fixed mass and identity bounded

by a closed surface. All things other than the system is surroundings ( Both
space and matter ). There are three types of systems.

1. Closed system - There is no mass transfer between the system and

surroundings. But their is energy transfer. E.g.. compression of a gas
in a piston cylinder.
2. Open system - Both mass and energy transfer takes place. It is
classified into steady and unsteady flows. Eg. Turbine
 3. Isolated system - No mass and no energy transfer takes place. E.g.
All subsystem of a power producing system

Sorroundings:

All things other than the system that are outside the wall that interact
with the system in question is called as surroundings. There are different
types of walls that are used to separate the system from the surroundings.
They are rigid wall, diathermal wall and adiabatic walls. A rigid wall does
not permit the volume of the system to change. A diathermal wall is one
that will make it possible for the system to communicate thermally with its
surroundings. Two systems separated with a diathermal wall is said to be in
thermal contact. An adiabatic wall is the one that is impermeable to thermal
energy. Such a wall cuts of the thermal interaction between between a
system and surroundings.

Properties:

Properties are used to identify the state of the system and solely
dependent upon the state of system and not upon how the state was reached.
A quantity is a property if it has a exact differential. A quantity can be
called a property of the system if the changes in the value between two
equilibrium states of system is same. Properties may be
directly observable or indirectly observable characteristic of a
system. Two properties, namely the temperature and entropy
are unique to thermodynamics. There are two types of
properties. They are

• Extensive state properties: Here the value of entire

system is equal to sum of the values of the parts of the
system. They are dependent upon the mass. E.g.. Total
Volume, total energy
• Intensive state properties: The value of the entire
system is not equal to the sum of the parts of the system. These
properties are not dependent upon the mass. E.g.. Temperature,
pressure, Density etc.

Path and point functions :

This is with reference to a system being taken from state 1 to 2.

There may be any three quasi static process A, B, and C. Area below the
curve gives the amount of work involved in each case.

Thus the value of work depends upon the path and not on the end
state of the process. Hence work ( and also heat ) are path functions. On the
contrary thermodynamic property are point functions. These are definite
values for a given state. The change in property is independent of the path
and depends on only the initial and final states ( Exact differential )

Process:

Whenever a system undergoes a change, process is said to have

taken place. There are different types of process. They are

1. Reversible process: Is the one in which both the system and

surroundings return to their original state. All real time process are
irreversible. Process are irreversible due to turbulence, temperature
gradient and Friction. In a reversible process there should be no
viscous force or coulomb friction in the system
2. Cyclic Process: The end states are identical. The system undergoes a
series of change and returns to original condition.
3. Quasi-static Process: The system departs from the equilibrium
condition only infinitesimally.
4. Adiabatic Process : There is no heat flow between the system and
surroundings. ( ∆ = 0 )

Work and Heat:

Work is the energy in transition in which the energy

flows from the system to the surroundings.

Heat is the energy in transition which flows from one

body to another body on account of the temperature
difference between the two bodies. Unit of heat is Joule

Both the Heat and work are Transient Phenomena, Boundary

Phenomena and Path functions.

Derivation for displacement work:

This derivation is valid only for quasi static process. Consider a

cylinder of area 'a' and length of the piston is 'l'. The piston moves due to
gas pressure. Between section 1 and 2, the value of pressure and volume is
P and V. When the piston moves the force acting on the piston is

F = pressure x area = P.a

Work done = Force x distance moved = F.dl = P.a.dl

 We know that area x length = volume. Hence a.dl = v. Thus the
above equation for work done becomes P.v. Thus when a piston moves
from 1 to 2 the amount of work done is given by dw = ∫ Pdv

Internal energy:

A system undergoes a change of state in which both heat transfer and

work transfer are involve. The net energy accumulated is stored in the
system. It is denoted by the symbol U, it includes all form of energy other
than kinetic and potential energy.

Q - Heat to the system.

W - Work from the system.
( Q - W ) is the net energy stored in the system.

This ( Q - W ) is neither heat or work and is given the name, internal

energy of system. The internal energy is just a form of energy like the
potential energy of an object at some height above the earth, or the kinetic
energy of an object in motion. In the same way that potential energy can be
converted to kinetic energy while conserving the total energy of the system,
the internal energy of a thermodynamic system can be converted to either
kinetic or potential energy. Like potential energy, the internal energy can be
stored in the system.

Entropy:

Entropy means transformation. It increases with the addition of heat

and vice versa. Change in entropy can be defined. Over a small range the
increase or decrease in entropy when multiplied with absolute temperature,
gives the heat absorbed or heat rejected. For any reversible process, the
change in Entropy of system and surroundings is Zero.

Entropy is the index of unavailability of energy. Energy that goes

down the sink is less available for any useful work. Entropy changes are
accompanied by heat transfers. But may also take place with out the
transfer of heat. In a reversible process, if the entropy of the system
increases, then the entropy of surroundings decreases by a equal amount.
Entropy is a property like T and V.

Change in entropy of a system along two equilibrium states can be

obtained by taking the system along any reversible path connecting the
states, dividing the heat added at each point with the temperature and
summing the quotients.
Energy:

It is the capacity to produce effect. There are two types of energy.

They are stored energy ( E.g.. Potential energy, Kinetic energy and Internal
energy ) and Transient energy ( Heat, work and electric energy ).

Power:

The rate of energy transfer is called as power. The unit is watts. 1

W = 1 J/s = 1 Nm/s

Throttling :

The fluid expands from high pressure to low pressure without doing
any work. There is no change in KE and PE. Hence there is no heat
transfer.

Nozzles and Diffusers:

Nozzles increases the kinetic energy of flowing fluid by creating a

pressure drop. But in diffusers, the pressure is increased and Kinetic energy
is decreased.

Carnot's Cycle:

It is a reversible cycle in which the ideal gas receives heat at one

temperature and rejects heat at another temperature. There are 2 isothermal
and 2 reversible adiabatic process. Efficiency of carnots cycle is given by

η = W / Qa = ( Qa - Qr ) / Qa

Enthalpy:

Of a substance is defined as the sum of internal energy and flow

work. h = u + pv.

Graham's Law of Diffusion of Gas:

It states that the rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to

square root of density.

Laws In Thermodynamics:

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics:

 If two bodies are in equilibrium with a third body, then the two
bodies are in equilibrium with each other. Through this concept, the
temperature of the system may be measured by bringing it into thermal
equilibrium with a thermometer. Following the conversion factors between
various temperatures.

R = F + 459.67
K = C + 273.15
K = 1.8 R

First Law of Thermodynamics:

This law deals with conservation of energy, which states that energy
can neither be created not destroyed, but can be changed from one form to
another.

Whenever a system under goes a cyclic change the algebraic sum of

work transfer is proportional to the algebraic sum of heat transfer. Work
and heat are inter convertible.

First law could be said as law of internal energy. However the

drawback in this law is that it does not tell anything about direction of heat
flow.

Second Law of Thermodynamics:

For an isolated system, only those processes can take place for which
the entropy of the system increases or remains constant. Second law could
be called as law of entropy. In this there are two statements.

Lord Kelvin and Max Planck's statement of the Second Law: It

is impossible to construct a device operating in a cycle for the sole purpose
of extracting heat from a reservoir and changing it into an equal amount of
work without rejecting a part of the heat. i.e. it is impossible to devise a
machine that converts 100% of heat into work. i.e. The universe is cooling
down.

Clausius' statement of the Second Law: It is impossible to

construct a device that operating in a cycle will produce no effect other than
the transfer of heat from a cooler to a hotter body. The spontaneous flow of
heat from a colder body to a hotter body is impossible.

Third Law of Thermodynamics:

It introduces the concept of absolute entropy. It states that the total

entropy of pure substances approaches 0o as the absolute temperature
approaches 0o. ( It is impossible to reach the absolute zero of temperature in
any physical process. )

Thermodynamic Equilibrium:

When a collection of matter experiences no more changes in all its

properties, then it is in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium. But a real
system is never in equilibrium. To attain thermodynamic equilibrium,
Mechanical, Chemical and Thermal equilibrium should first be
obtained. When a system has no unbalanced force within it and when the
force its exerts on its boundary is balanced by external force, the system is
said to be in Mechanical equilibrium. When the temperature of the system
is uniform throughout and is equal to the temperature of the surroundings,
the system is said to be in thermal equilibrium. When the chemical
composition of a system will remain unchanged, the system is said to be in
chemical equilibrium.

Thermodynamic reservoirs:

There are three different types of thermodynamic reservoirs. They

are work reservoir, heat reservoir and Matter reservoir.

Work reservoir:

It is a device that we may employ to keep track of the amount of

work done by or done to a given thermodynamic system. It is a body in
which every unit of energy crossing the boundary is work energy. A work
reservoir might be visualized as a perfectly elastic spring that is compressed
by the work done on it by a system, or as a weight that is raised as the
system does work upon the reservoir and lowered as the reservoir does not
work on the system.

Heat reservoir:

It serves as a heat source or heat sink, in the analysis of

thermodynamic problems. It can be considered as a body with large energy
capacity so that its temperature remains constant when heat flows into or out
of it. The atmosphere around the earth and the ocean may be considered as
heat reservoirs.

Matter reservoir:

Matter, as well as heat and work can cross the boundary of an open
system, the surroundings of an open system may be imagined to contain
 only heat and work reservoirs but also one or more matter reservoirs to
supply and receive matter. A matter reservoir is considered to be
sufficiently larger than the system so that the reservoir itself remains in a
given equilibrium state. The atmosphere around the earth may be
considered as a matter reservoir supplying air to the engines of our
automobiles and to air separation plants.

Important Thermodynamic Process:

The below mentioned process uses the concept of ∆U = Q - W

Significance / Pictorial
Process Implications
Example Representation
Isobaric Pressure is Constant ∆U is zero in a constant
Process (∆P = 0) pressure process. For an
ideal gas, constant pressure
Gas heated in a work is W = ∨ PdV =
cylinder fitted with a P∆∆V
movable frictionless
piston. The pressure Heat that flows into the
the atmosphere and system causes the
the pressure due to the temperature to rise. Q = m
weight of the piston Cp ∆T = mR( T2 - T1 )
remains constant as
the gas heats up and
expands.
Isothermal Temperature is For an Ideal gas U is a
Process constant (∆T = 0) function of the
temperature, Hence ∆U is
The gas in a cylinder zero since ∆T = 0.
is compressed slowly Since ∆U = 0 then W = Q.
enough that heat
flows out of the gas at P1V1 = P2V2 = nRT, for an
the same rate at which isothermal process.
is being done on the
gas. Work done W = PV ln(
V2/V1 ) which is also the
equation for Q.
Isochoric Volume is constant No work is done on the gas
process (∆V = 0) because W = ∨ PdV = ∨ P
( 0 ) = 0. This implies
Heating of a gas in a that ∆U= Q = m Cv ∆T.
rigid, closed
container. V1 = V2 = nRT1/P1 =
nRT2/P2, the ideal gas law
for constant volume
 process.

Adiabatic No heat flows into or ∆U = W ( Since Q = 0 ).

process out of the system ( Q Hence any temperature rise
=0) or fall is due to the work
done or by the gas alone.
Compression of a Gas
in an Insulated W = (P1V1 - P2V2) / (γγ - 1)
Cylinder.
Isentropic Entropy is constant Any isentropic process is
process ( Rev. ( ∆S = 0) also adiabatic since ∆U
Adiabatic = ∨ dQ/Tand Q =
process ) A heat engine in 0. However, not all
which the working adiabatic process are
fluid undergoes an isentropic.
adiabatic reversible
cyclic process. For a reversible heat
engine, not only the change
in entropy of the working
fluid must be zero but
also ∆U of the
environment (heat
reservoirs) must also be
zero.
Polytropic PVn is constant n = 0 for Isobaric process
process since PV0= P = constant.
Compression or n = 1 for Isothermal
Expansion of a gas in process since PV1 = PV =
a real system such as NKT = constant.
a Turbine. n = 0 for Isovolumetric
process and
n = γ for Adiabatic
process.

Specific Heat:

It is the heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of

substance by one degree. There are two types, they are specific heat at
constant volume ( Cv )and Specific heat at constant pressure ( Cp ). Its unit
is J/Kg/K

For air Cp = 0.24 J/Kg/K and Cv = 0.171 J/Kg/K

The ratio of Cp / Cv = Gamma. and Cp - Cv = R / j

Gas Laws:
 There are 5 gas laws. All perfect gases obey all gas laws under all
conditions of pressure and temperature.

1. Boyle's law : At constant temperature PV = C. The magnitude of C

depends upon the volume of the gas.
2. Charles lay : At constant pressure V α T.
3. Gay - Lussac law : At constant volume P α T.
4. Joules law : Change of internal energy is directly proportional to the
change in temperature.
5. Avagadro law : Equal volumes of all gases under the same pressure
and temperature contain equal number of molecules.

Ideal Gas Real Gas

Obeys the equation of state at all conditions of Obeys the equation of state at all conditions of
pressure and temperature. Pressure and temperature, except at the point
where Pressure approaches absolute Zero.

The gases cannot be liquefied or solidified Can be solidified and liquefied.

Specific heat values are constant Not so, Varies with temperature and pressure.

Ideal gas equation : PV = mRT where

P is in N / m2 V is in m3 T is in K R is gas
constant in Nm / Kg oK

Following are the assumptions for a ideal gas

• Molecules occupy a negligible volume fraction.

• Long range forces of attraction between the particles are negligible.

Assumptions of Kinetic Theory

• Large number of molecules ~ their motion can be treated

statistically.
• Molecules are in continuous and rapid motion which is random,
colliding with each other and the walls of the vessel very frequently,
the collision beingelastic.
 • Pressure originates from the summation of large number of reacting
forces as the molecules bounce off the walls.

Combustion chamber:

Combustion Chambers convert the chemical energy stored in a liquid

or gaseous fuel to an enthalpy increase in the gas passing through them.
Usually, the gas is air, but it could be any gas with the proper components to
react with the fuel. A combustion chamber requires one initial spark to begin
the combustion of the fuel in the chamber. After that, the chamber will
function as long as it has fresh fuel and gas. The fuel combusts, or burns, in
the chamber. This combustion releases large amounts of energy to be
absorbed by the gas. This increases the temperature and enthalpy of the gas.

REFERENCES:

1. Engineering Thermodynamics, Francis F. Huang.

2. Engineering Thermodynamics, P. K. Nag.

HEAT TREATMENT PROCESS

Heat treatment may be defined as operation or combination of operations involving
heating and cooling of metal / alloy in solid steels to obtain desired conditions (
Relieve stress ) and properties ( like Machinability, ductility etc. ).

Purpose of Heat Treatment:

1. To relieve stress created during cold working, welding, casting etc.

2. Improve Machinability.
3. Change grain size.
4. Improve ductility and
5. Homogenous structure.
 Cooling rates also plays a important role. Slow cooling produces pearlitic
structure and rapid cooling produces a Martensitic ( hard ) structure.

Different heat treatment process:

Annealing:

It is the process of heating the metal which is in a metal stable of distorted

structural state to a temperature which will remove the distortion and then cooling it,
so that room temperature is stable.

Normalizing:

It is also called as air quenching, where the steel is heated to about 40o -
o
50 above the upper critical temperature and if necessary, hold at that temperature for
a certain length of time, after which it is cooled in air at room temperature.

Hardening:

This process increases the hardness and it requires the formation of martensite.
For hardening, the steel should contain at least 0.3 % of carbon. Following is the
procedure.

1. Steel will contain sufficient carbon ( 0.35 % - 0.70 % )

2. Heated to 30o to 50o above the A3 line.
3. Held at that temperature for 15 - 20 Mins / 25 mm of Cross section.
4. Cooled rapidly and quenched in a suitable medium.

Tempering:

Hardening process produces martensite and retained austentite. It is extremely

brittle and hence should not be used as such. Further the austentite may be in a
unstable state. Hence to return to equilibrium, tempering is done after quench
hardening by heating to a temperature below the lower critical temperature.
Tempering has the following process

1. Heating hardened steel below the lower critical temperature.

2. Holding at that temperature for 3 - 5 Mins / 1 mm Thickness.
3. Cooling the steel slowly.

There are three types of tempering. They are

•Low temperature tempering ( 150o C - 250o C )

o o
• Medium temperature tempering ( 350 C - 450 C )
o o
• High temperature tempering ( 500 C - 600 C)

Martempering, Austempering and Maraging are the other types of heat treatment
process.

Case Hardening:
 For many applications, there is a need for a hard case and a soft tough core,
which is shock resistant. No carbon can possess both these properties at the same
time. Hence low carbon steel with desired core properties are chosen and Carbon /
Nitrogen is added to the surface to provide a hardened case to a specified depth by
using the following process

• Carburising.
• Nitriding,
• Cyaniding and
• Carbon Nitriding.

Also medium Carbon steel could be taken in normalized condition and case
hardened by Induction and Flame Hardening.

Carburizing:

This process is also called as cementation. Low carbon steel ( 0.2 % C ) is

heated to 870 - 925 C in contact with gases or carbon for several hours. There are
three types. They are Pack Carburizing, Gas Carburizing and Liquid Carburizing.
This method is used for case hardening Gears, Camshafts and Bearing.

Nitriding:

It involves the addition of Nitrogen on certain types of steels and heating them
and holding at a suitable temperature, in contact with ammonia or any other suitable
medium. The steel should contain Aluminum or chromium to form hard nitrides.

In this the component to be case hardened is heat resistant container along with
ammonia. It is then heated to a temperature of about 500o C.

Cyaniding:

Both Carbon and nitrogen are introduced on the surface of steel by heating to a
suitable temperature and holding the component in molten cyanide. Sodium cyanide
is mostly used. This results in the formation of hardened Carbide - Nitride case. In
this process Nitrogen provides hardening, but carbon responds to quenching process.

Carbo - Nitriding:

Both Carbon and Nitrogen are added to the surface of steel by using Gas
atmosphere and not Molten Cyanide . The gaseous atmosphere contains the
following

1. Carrier gas ( H2, N2 or CO )

2. Enriching gas ( Natural Gas )
3. Ammonia.

Flame Hardening:
 The material is heated on the surface with flame. This is followed by
quenching. Thus creating a hardened case and a soft core. Oxy acetylene flame is
used and the steel should contain 0.3 % to 0.6 % of carbon.

Induction Hardening:

The material is heated in a alternative magnetic field followed by quenching.

Effect of Alloying elements in Steel:

Aluminum :

1. Its content varies from 1 to 5 %.

2. It is the alloying element of nitriding steels.
3. It deoxidizes efficiently, restricts grain growth.

Boron :

1. Its content does not exceed 0.003 %

2. It is the alloying element of low and medium carbon steel.
3. It effectively increases hardenability.

Chromium :

1. The amount of chromium may be from a fraction to 30%.

2. It resists abrasion, wear, corrosion and oxidation.
3. The addition of chromium results in the formation of various carbides of
chromium which are hard, yet ductile.
4. Chromium changes the grain structure, thus increasing the toughness and
hardness.

Cobalt :

1. Its content varies from 5 - 12 %

2. It is used to increase the hot hardness of cutting tools so that it retains its
hardness and cutting edge even at high temperature.

Copper :

1. Its content varies from 0.15 - 0.30 %

2. It lowers the critical temperature and improves resistance to atmospheric
corrosion.

Manganese :

1. It content varies from 0.4 - 2 % and 11 - 14 %

2. It lowers the critical range of temperature.
3. It acts as a deoxidizing and desulphurising agent.
4. It increase the time required for transformation, so that oil quenching becomes
practicable.
Molybdenum :

1. It content varies from 0.2 - 0.7 %.

2. It acts very much like chromium but is more powerful in action.
3. It increase the critical range of temperature.

Nickel :

1. It content ranges upto 50 %

2. It also creases the critical range of temperature.
3. It is soluble in ferrite and doe snot form carbides or oxides, and thus increase
the strength without decreasing the ductility.

Sulphur :

1. The content varies from 0.06 - 0.30 %

2. Its presence is undesirable because it forms iron sulphides and leads to
cracking.
3. In the presence of manganese from manganese sulphide and thus improves the
machinability of steels.

Silicon :

1. Its content is upto 0.8 %

2. Silicon is added with other alloying element like manganese, chromium and
vanadium to stabilize the carbides.

Tungsten :

1. The amount of tungsten varies from 0.4 - 22 %

2. Its function is similar to molybdenum, except for the fact that large quantities
must be added.
3. It is widely used in tools to maintain the hardness in red heat.
4. It produces a fine dense structure and adds both toughness and hardness.

Vanadium :

1. Vanadium has a very strong tendency to form carbides, hence it is used in

small amounts in the order of 0.2 - 0.5 %
2. It acts as a cleaner and degasifier.
3. It reduces the grain size and toughness and strengthen the steel.
4. It has a desirable property of increasing the life of tools, springs and other
members subjected to high temperatures.
 IRON - CARBON Diagram:

MATERIAL SCIENCE AND PROCESS

This is a branch of science that investigates the relationship between
structure of materials and their properties. Engineering material are
classified into the following three types.
 1. Metals and alloys
2. Ceramics and
3. Organic Polymers.

Classification of Materials:

Metals: are nothing but elemental substance. Valence electrons are

detached from atoms, and spread in an 'electron sea' that "glues" the ions
together. Metals are usually strong, conduct electricity and heat well and are
opaque to light (shiny if polished). Examples: aluminum, steel, brass, gold.

Alloys: are obtained by melting two or more relatively pure metals to form a
new metal. They alloys have quite different properties in comparison to the
other two materials used for its manufacture.

Semiconductors: The bonding is covalent (electrons are shared between

atoms). Their electrical properties depend extremely strongly on minute
proportions of contaminants. They are opaque to visible light but transparent
to the infrared. Examples: Si, Ge, GaAs.

Ceramics: contains two phases. A phase is a physically separable and is a

homogenous constituent. The phases may be metallic or non metallic.
Atoms behave mostly like either positive or negative ions, and are bound by
Coulomb forces between them. They are usually combinations of metals or
semiconductors with oxygen, nitrogen or carbon (oxides, nitrides, and
carbides). Examples: glass, porcelain, many minerals.

Organic Materials: are derived from carbon combined with oxygen,

Hydrogen etc. Their structure is fairly complex. Plastics and rubber are the
organic engineering materials. Also called as polymers because of the
polymerization process. Polymerization is the process in which two or more
simple molecules are chemically combined to form a massive long chain
molecules.

Other categories are not based on bonding. A particular

microstructure identifies composites, made of different materials in intimate
contact (example: fiberglass, concrete, wood) to achieve specific
properties. Biomaterials can be any type of material that is biocompatible
and used, for instance, to replace human body parts.

Modern Material's Needs:

• Engine efficiency increases at high temperatures: requires high

temperature structural materials
 • Use of nuclear energy requires solving problem with residues, or
advances in nuclear waste processing.
• Hypersonic flight requires materials that are light, strong and resist
high temperatures.
• Optical communications require optical fibers that absorb light
negligibly.
• Civil construction – materials for unbreakable windows.
• Structures: materials that are strong like metals and resist corrosion
like plastics.

Properties of Materials:

Mechanical Properties : Strength, Stiffness, Elasticity, plasticity, ductility,

malleability, hardness and brittleness.
Electrical Properties : Conductivity and Resistivity.
Magnetic Properties : Coercive forces and Hysterisys.
Thermal Properties : Conductivity, specific heat, thermal expansion.
Chemical Properties : Corrosion resistance, acidity and alkalinity.
Physical Properties : Dimension and density.
Acoustic Properties : Sound transmission and Reflection.
Optical Properties : Light transmission and light reflection.

Material Structure:

Depending on the level of magnification the structure of material is

classified as follows.

Macrostructure: It is the structure of the material, as seen by the naked eye.

It deals with shape and size. ( Like fracture, flaws on surface etc. )

Microstructure: It is observed with a magnification of X 75 - X 1500.

Optical microscope is used for this purpose.

Substructure: In this the structure is observed with a magnification of X

100000 using a electron microscope. It provides information on crystal
imperfections.

Crystal Structure: This structure tell about the atomic arrangement within
the crystal. X-Ray and electron diffraction techniques are used for this
study.

Electronic Structure: This deals with the study of electrons in the outermost
shells of individual atoms. Spectroscopic techniques are used.

Nuclear Structure: It is studied using Nuclear spectroscopic techniques.

Criteria For Selection of Materials:

The choice is made based upon taking the following factors.

1. Service : There are of paramount importance and should have

properties like adequate strength, corrosion resistance, hardness and
toughness.
2. Fabrication : This is also gaining importance. This includes the
possibility to shape a material and join with other materials. These
include ductility, Machinability, hardenability, weldability,
castability.
3. Economy.

Atomic Structure:

Atom:

It is a electrical structure having a diameter of 1 x 10-10 metres or 1

Angstrom. It has two main parts. A heavier nucleus and electrons
surrounding it. This nucleus is made of protons and neutrons.

Protons:

It is positively charged and 1836 times heavier as electron. It exists

with the neutrons in the nucleus of atom.

Neutron:

It is 1.008 times heavier than proton. It has no electric charge. For

large atoms, the ratio of Mass to Neutron to Mass of Proton is greater than
1.008.

Electron:

Surrounds the nucleus and at a greater distant from the nucleus. Its
mass is 1/1836 of proton. It is negatively charged. with a magnitude equal
to the charge of protons. Electrons in the outermost orbit are called as
valence electrons which determine many of the properties of materials.
Electron and protons are negative and positive charges of the same
magnitude, 1.6 × 10-19 Coulombs.

Atomic Number:

Number of protons or number of electrons.

Mass Number:

Sum of protons and Neutrons.

Atomic Weight:

Weight of a atom of element in comparison with weight of a atom of

oxygen taken as 16.

Isotopes:

Same elements having different number of neutrons.

Bonding of solids:

The arrangement of atoms in a solid element is determined by the

character, strength of chemical bonds or cohesive forces. The bonds may be
attractive or repulsive, which hold the atoms at a particular spacing and
which just balances the opposite forces. There are two types of Chemical
bonds. They are primary bonds and secondary bonds.

Primary Interatomic Bonds:

1. Ionic Bonding:

This is the bond when one of the atoms is negative (has an extra
electron) and another is positive (has lost an electron). Then there is a
strong, direct Coulomb attraction. An example is NaCl. In the molecule,
there are more electrons around Cl, forming Cl- and less around Na, forming
Na+. Ionic bonds are the strongest bonds. In real solids, ionic bonding is
usually combined with covalent bonding. In this case, the fractional ionic
bonding is defined as % ionic = 100 × [1 – exp(-0.25 (XA – XB)2], where
XA and XB are the electronegativities of the two atoms, A and B, forming the
molecule.

2. Covalent Bonding:

In covalent bonding, electrons are shared between the molecules, to

saturate the valency. The simplest example is the H2 molecule, where the
electrons spend more time in between the nuclei than outside, thus
producing bonding.

3. Metallic Bonding:
 In metals, the atoms are ionized, loosing some electrons from the
valence band. Those electrons form a electron sea, which binds the charged
nuclei in place, in a similar way that the electrons in between the H atoms in
the H2 molecule bind the protons.

Secondary Bonding (Van der Waals):

1. Fluctuating Induced Dipole Bonds:

Since the electrons may be on one side of the atom or the other, a
dipole is formed: the + nucleus at the center, and the electron outside. Since
the electron moves, the dipole fluctuates. This fluctuation in atom A
produces a fluctuating electric field that is felt by the electrons of an
adjacent atom, B. Atom B then polarizes so that its outer electrons are on the
side of the atom closest to the + side (or opposite to the – side) of the dipole
in A. This bond is called van der Waals bonding.

2. Polar Molecule-Induced Dipole Bonds:

A polar molecule like H2O (Hs are partially +, O is partially – ), will

induce a dipole in a nearby atom, leading to bonding.

3. Permanent Dipole Bonds:

This is the case of the hydrogen bond in ice. The H end of the
molecule is positively charged and can bond to the negative side of another
dipolar molecule, like the O side of the H2O dipole.

Crystals:

These are solids in which the atoms are arranged in some regular
repetitive pattern in three dimension. This arrangement is called as crystal
structure.

Crystal Imperfections:

No crystal structure is perfect. It is associated with imperfections,

which is often helpful for understanding the properties of crystals. The
following are the crystal defects.

1. Thermal Vibration.
2. Point defects ( Vacancies, Interstitial cies and electron defects )
3. Line defects ( Edge and screw dislocations )
4. Surface defects and
5. Volume defects.
Solid Study:

There are two approaches. They are structural approach ( electrons,

valence bonds ) and Compositional approach ( Deals with the phase of
materials ). This compositional approach is used to know the state and
condition of solid and to change the condition from thermodynamic point of
view.

System:

it is a substance or group of substance unaffected by the

surroundings. It is subjected to change in composition, temperature,
pressure or total volume only to the extend allowed by the person
investigating it. The system may be composed of solid, liquid or gas or a
composition of all three.

State:

Of a system is a physical condition defined by quantities. E.g.

Length and angles define the state of triangles.

Phase:

It is physically and chemically homogenous. Homogenous in the

sense that the smallest adjacent part is indistinguishable form the other.
Each phase has its own physical and chemical properties.

Gibbs Rule:

F=C-P+2

F - Degrees of freedom.
C - Number of components at equilibrium.
P - Number of phases that can co exist at equilibrium.

Mechanical Properties and testing:

Since a number of properties are best evaluated by testing under

various conditions, mechanical testing are carried out to provide useful data
to a designer. However certain assumptions are made about the materials.
The materials are continuous, homogenous and isotropic.

• Continuous - No voids or space.

• Homogenous - Identical properties at all points.
 • Isotropic - With respect to some property. That property does not
vary with direction.
• Anisotropy - A body where the property varies in different directions.

Stress:

When a material is subjected to a load, it does not deform

instantaneously, but increases steadily till it stops. During the process of
deformation, the material exerts continuously increases it resistance to the
load. The moment the deformation stops, the body is in state of equilibrium.

Applied load = Internal resistance of the body.

Both are equal and opposite indirection. The sum total of interatomic
forces that prevails in the body to counteract the externally applied load is
called stress and the resultant deformation is expressed a fraction change in
dimension called as strain.

True Stress:

In this instead of taking the original area into account for the
calculation of stress, that area at any instant on applying the load it taken
into account.

Different Mechanical properties of materials:

Strength:

It is the capacity of the materials to withstand load without

destruction, under the action of external load. It is the ability of the material
to with stand stress without failure. This strength varies according to the
type of loading ( Whether, tensile load or compressive load or shear load ).
Materials with covalent bond are the strongest. Then comes Ionic bond,
Metallic and Molecular bond.

Stiffness:

It is the resistance of the material to elastic deformation. A material

having only slight deformation has a high amount of stiffness.

Flexibility:

This is opposite to stiffness. It is related to bending.

Resilience:
 It is the capacity of body to absorb energy elastically, and return it
when unloaded. The maximum energy that can be stored upto elastic limits
is called as proof resilience. This property is associated with high elastic
limits. Materials with high resilience is used tin springs.

Modulus or resilience = Proof resilience / Volume.

Plasticity:

It is the property of the material to undergo permanent deformation

without rupture. Plastic deformation occurs beyond the elastic limits.
Plasticity increases with increase in temperature.

Ductility:

It is a measure of tensile property. It enables a material to be easily

drawn to wires. Percentage increase in elongation and percentage reduction
in are the two measures used. Rivets are made of ductile material.

Machinability:

It is the ease with which the metals could be removed from operation
like turning, drilling etc.

Malleability:

It is a measure of compressive property. It is the ability of material to

be flattened into sheets without cracking by rolling and hammering.

Toughness:

It is the ability of material to withstand both elastic and plastic

deformation ( is the ability to withstand high deformations and high stress
without fracture. ) It is the amount of energy that it could absorb before
rupture. It is not possible to measure toughness but it is the area under the
Stress-Strain curve. There is a difference between ductility and toughness.
Ductility deals with only deformation.

Hardenability:

Indicates the degree of hardness that could be imparted to particular

steel, by the process of hardening is connected with the transformation of
characteristic of steel.
Brittleness:

It is the property of breaking of a material without much permanent

deformation ( Glass ), Tensile stress of a brittle material is only a fraction of
their compressive stress.

Fatigue:

80% - 90% of total machine failure is because of fatigue. The term

fatigue is used to describe the failure of the material under repeated stress.
The stress necessary to cause failure when it is applied a large number of
times is much below the actual breaking strength. Thus fatigue deals with
cyclic loading in which the maximum stress applied / cycle is within the
elastic limits. If failure occurs, the material has poor fatigue strength.

Mechanism : This fatigue begins at irregularities at the surface or at points

of high stress or stress concentration. Fracture so formed is brittle even in a
ductile material.

Fatigue stress:

The stress at which the material fails because of fatigue is called as

fatigue stress. For most materials, there is a limiting stress within which it
can be applied for a indefinitely large number of times without causing
failure. This is called as endurance limit or fatigue limit. The presence of
stress concentrators reduce the endurance limit.

• As tensile strength increase, the endurance limit increases.

• As temperature decreases below the ambient temperature, the
endurance limit increases.

To resist fatigue failure there should be good surface finish, No stress

raisers and control of corrosion and erosion.

Creep:

A material is subject to constant tensile load at an elevated

temperature will creep and undergo a time dependent deformation. This
slow and progressive deformation of the material under constant stress is
called as creep. This creep continues until sufficient strain has occurred in
necking down and reducing the cross sectional area, and finally the material
ruptures. Creep occurs at stress below the elastic limits.

• At low temperatures, the creep rate usually decreases with time and
logarithmic creep curve is obtained.
 • At high temperatures, ( T = 0.5 - 0.7 Tm ) the creep rate does not
decrease gradually. This is due to mechanical recovery.
• At very high temperatures ( T > 0 .7 Tm ) the creep is primarily due
to diffusion and stress applied has little effect.

Yield Point:

This is the horizontal portion of stress-strain curve. It is the point,

where the material yields without any increase in load. Yield strength is
defined as that stress at which there is a great increase in strain, without the
corresponding increase in stress. For materials which does not have a clear
cut yield point, it is determined by offset test.

Tensile strength:

Beyond the yield point the load can again be increased to a minimum
value, when a necking down occurs and there is a reduction in cross
sectional area. This load is called as tensile load.

Anelastic:

Refers to stress and time dependent of elastic strain. Fully

recoverable by time dependent deformation is called anelatic deformation.
Upon removal of load, the material does not regain it shape instantaneously.
This asymptotic approach to reach the equilibrium value is called as elastic
after effect. This can be understood, by understanding the concept of
relaxation time.

Elastic after effect:

At t=0 a stress is applied which is followed by a instantaneous strain,

which again is followed by delayed strain in time 't' which asymptotically
attains a final value. When loading is removed the strain decreases by the
same amount by which it increase while loading. The mechanism which
produces elastic after effect is internal fricition

Plastic Deformation:

It is a function of stress, temperature and rate of straining.

Fracture:

It is the failure caused by stress, separating the material into two or

more pieces. Following are the different modes of failure
 1. Yielding
2. Fracture
3. Deflection
4. Wear
5. Corrosion and
6. Caustic embrittlement

Types of fracture:

There are two types of fracture. They are ductile and brittle
fracture. Following are the differences between brittle and ductile fracture

Ductile Brittle

deformation extensive little

track propagation slow, needs stress fast

type of materials most metals (not too cold) ceramics, ice, cold metals

warning permanent elongation none

strain energy higher lower

fractured surface rough smoother

necking yes no

1. Ductile Fracture

Stages of ductile fracture

• Initial necking
• small cavity formation (microvoids)
• void growth (elipsoid) by coalescence into a crack
• fast crack propagation around neck. Shear strain at 45o
• final shear fracture (cup and cone)

The interior surface is fibrous, irregular, which signify plastic deformation.

2. Brittle Fracture

There is no appreciable deformation, and crack propagation is very

fast. In most brittle materials, crack propagation (by bond breaking) is along
specific crystallographic planes (cleavage planes). This type of fracture is
transgranular (through grains) producing grainy texture (or faceted texture)
when cleavage direction changes from grain to grain. In some materials,
fracture is intergranular.
3. Brittle Fracture of Ceramics

The brittle fracture of ceramics limits applications. It occurs due to

the unavoidable presence of microscopic flaws (micro-cracks, internal
pores, and atmospheric contaminants) that result during cooling from the
melt. The flaws need to crack formation, and crack propagation
(perpendicular to the applied stress) is usually transgranular, along cleavage
planes. The flaws cannot be closely controlled in manufacturing; this leads
to a large variability (scatter) in the fracture strength of ceramic materials.

The compressive strength is typically ten times the tensile strength.

This makes ceramics good structural materials under compression (e.g.,
bricks in houses, stone blocks in the pyramids), but not in conditions of
tensile stress, such as under flexure.

Plastic deformation in crystalline ceramics is by slip, which is

difficult due to the structure and the strong local (electrostatic) potentials.
There is very little plastic deformation before fracture. Non-crystalline
ceramics, like common glass deform by viscous flow (like very high-density
liquids). Viscosity decreases strongly with increases temperature.

Following are the different theories of failure.

1. Maximum principle stress theory - Rankine theory

2. Maximum shear shtress theory - Coloums theory
3. Maximum strain energy theory - venants theory
4. Maximum strain theory - Haigh theory
5. Distortion energy theory - von misses theory.

DIFFERENT HARDENING MECHANISMS

Solid solution hardening:

This is the common way to increase the hardness and yield strength
and particularly its straining rate.

• Every element has got a distinct atomic diameter that is different from
other elements. When a solid solution is formed the solute atoms will
be either largest or small in diameter when compared to the solvent
atoms.
• Since solvent and solute atoms have different sizes when solute is
added to solvent, distortion of lattices takes place. Based on size of
solute there are two types of solid solutions. They are interstitial
solid solutions and substitutional solid solutions.
 • In interstitial solid solutions the solute is smaller in size when
compared to solvent atoms and this solute occupies a space in
between the solvent atoms. In this case tensile fields areas set up.
E.g.. Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen and Iron.
• In solid solutions of substitutional type the solute atoms is
approximately the same size as that of the solvent atoms and this
solute occupies a space in between the solvent atoms and in this case
compressive fields are set up.
• The more the different between atomic size of solute and solvent the
higher is the stress field around solute atoms thereby providing more
resistance to the motion of dislocation and thereby increasing the
tensile strength.
• If the number of solute atoms is more greater will be the local
distortion in the lattice and hence more will the resistance to moving
dislocation and there by increasing the hardness and strength of the
material.

Dispersion Hardening:

This means a strengthening a metal by creating a fine dispersion of

insoluble particles o a second phase within the metal. The insoluble
particles may be slag inclusions, inter metallic compound formed between
the alloying elements and any other impurity atoms. The presence of finely
distributed hard particles obstruct the flow pattern of the stress deformation
and causes rapid hardening. The effect depends upon the size, shape,
concentration and physical characteristics.

Age hardening:

This is the phenomenon observed in many non-ferrous alloys like Al,

Si, Mg alloys whereby the hardness of the material increase with time. The
essential requirement for precipitation to occur in solution is the decreasing
solubility of a solute with decreasing temperatures. This results in super
saturated solid solution that being unstable tends to decompose according to
the relation.

Super saturated α solid solution = saturated solution α + β precipitation.

Age hardening involves the following mentioned stages

Heating: The alloy is first solutionized by heating into a single phase

reaction, held there long enough to dissolve all existing soluble precipitate
particles.
Quenching: After solutionizing, the alloy is rapidly quenched into the two
phase reaction region. The rapidity of the quench prevents the formation of
equilibrium precipitates and thus produces the supersaturated solid solution.
The quenching medium is usually water.

Aging: On aging at or above room temperature, fine scale transition

structures as small as 100 Angstrom is formed.

Strain hardening:

In most of the metals and alloys it is observed that the yield strength
of the material increases after the material undergoes plastic deformation
from the stress-strain curve shown. Strain hardening or work hardening is
the phenomenon which results in an increase in hardness and strength of a
metal subjected to plastic deformation at temperatures lower than the re-
crystallisation range. Strain hardening however reduces ductility and
plasticity.

An important characteristic of plastic deformation of metals is that

the shear stress required to produce slip continuously increases with shear
strain. When the metal is loaded, the strain increases with stress and the
curve reaches a point A in the plastic region. If at this stage, the specimen is
unloaded, the strain does not recover along the original part AO, but moves
along AB. If the specimen is reloaded immediately the curve again rises
from B to A, and reaches the point C, after which it still follows the
curvature, if loading is continued. IF the specimen would not have been
unloaded, after point A, the stress-strain curve would have followed the
dotted path AD'.

The figure shows the stress strain curve of FCC crystal. There are
three regions of hardening and are experimentally distinguishable. The
forest dislocation theory stages that when a material is stressed the
dislocation starts moving which results in plastic deformation. Even as the
stress increase the number of dislocations present in the body increase
exponentially by frank reed source mechanism. The movement of a large
number of dislocation along different slip lanes creates a traffic jam like
situation and there by making it difficult for any movement of dislocation.
Therefore further plastic deformation requires more stress or more load.

Stage I or the easy glide region, immediately follows the yield point
and is characterized by little strain hardening undergone by the crystal.
During easy glide the dislocation are able to move over relatively large
distances without encountering barriers.
 Stage II region marks a rapid increase in work hardening, the slope
of which is approximately independent of applied stress, temperature,
orientation alloy content. In this region slip occurs on both primary and
secondary slip systems. As a result, several new lattice irregularities may be
formed which will include.

• Forest dislocations
• Lomer-cottrell barriers,
• Jogs produced either by moving dislocations cutting through forest
dislocations or by forest locations cutting through source dislocations

There are three theories that explain the hardening mechanism at this
stage. They are pile-up theory, forest theory and jog theory. The pile up
theory states that some of the dislocations give out by the frank reed sources
are eventually stopped at barriers, according to this theory, the hardening is
principally due to long range internal stresses from piled up groups
interacting with guide dislocations.

Stage III is the region of decreasing rate of strain hardening. At the

sufficiently high stress value or temperature in region 3, the dislocations
help up in stage 2 are able to move by a process that had been suppressed at
lower stresses and temperatures. In this mechanism, dislocations can by-
pass the obstacles in their guide plane and do not have to interact strongly
with them. For this reason, this stage exhibits a lower rate of work
hardening.

Grain boundary hardening:

It is a relevant fact that the dislocations are obstructed by the grain

boundaries during plastic deformation of the material. This is basically due
to the disordered at grain boundaries, that is in the grain boundary the atoms
are not arranged in any particular fashion by arranged randomly. It requires
large amount of force for the dislocations to travel through the disordered
structure, than along the slip planes. Transmission electron microscope
picture have revealed that dislocations get piled up like grain boundary as
the deformation process at this stage the stress concentration near the grain
boundary must be sufficient to nucleate slip in the next grain. In a material
with fine grains the area of grain boundary within gives a volume that is
going to be very high compared to materials with large grains. So the
materials with fine grain will have higher strain. This effect is called grain
boundary strengthening or hardening.

REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

 Refrigeration system is a mechanical system which circulates the
coolant or refrigerant to absorb the surrounding heat. Refrigeration is the
withdrawal of heat from a substance or space so that temperature lower than
that of the natural surroundings is achieved. Refrigeration may be produced
by

• Thermoelectric means
• Vapor compression systems
• Expansion of compressed gases
• Throttling or unrestrained expansion of gases.

Vapour compression systems are employed in most refrigeration

systems. Here, cooling is accomplished by evaporation of a liquid
refrigerant under reduced pressure and temperature. The fluid enters the
compressors at state 1 where the temperature is elevated by mechanical
compression (state 2). The vapor condenses at this pressure, and the
resultant heat is dissipated to the surrounding. The high pressure liquid
(state 3) then passes through an expansion valve through which the fluid
pressure is lowered. The low-pressure fluid enters the evaporator at state 4
where it evaporates by absorbing heat from the refrigerated space, and
reenters the compressor. The whole cycle is repeated.
Refrigerant:

It has its boiling point below the atmospheric temperature, hence

when subjected to atmospheric temperature it absorbs heat and becomes
vaporized. Some of the most commonly used refrigerants are Ammonia,
Carbon dioxide, Sulphur di oxide, F - 12 and F - 22. The atmosphere also
gets coooled. There are two types of refrigerants. They are

1. Primary refrigerants : Cools the substance by absorbing latent heat.

2. Secondary refrigerants : Cools the substance by absorbing their
sensible heat ( E.g. Air, water )

COP:

It is nothing but, Coefficient of Performance. It is the ratio of actual

refrigeration obtained to the Work done in the system. But Relative COP is
the ratio of actual to Theoretical COP.

Capacity of Refrigeration:

It is expressed in Tons, the rate at which refrigeration is produced.

One ton of refrigeration is the heat rate for melting one ton of ice in 24
hours.

Air Conditioning:

Absolute Humidity:

Ratio of weight of water vapor per unit volume.

Relative Humidity:

The actual amount of moisture in air at any temperature divided by

the greatest amount of moisture the air could hold without condensation.

Psychrometry:

It is the branch of science, which deals with the study of mixture of

dry air and water vapor. Dry air contains Nitrogen, Oxygen, Carbon
dioxide, Water vapor and traces of other gases.

Moist Air:

Mixture of dry air and water vapor. The quantity of water vapor
present in air depends upon the temperature.

Moisture:

The water vapor present in air is called as moisture.

Saturated Air:

When moist air contains the maximum amount of water vapor, that it
can hold, then the air is said to be saturated. If any more water is added to
the saturated air, it remains in suspension and makes the air foggy. Moist
air that is not saturated is called as unsaturated air.

Humidity Ratio:

It is the weight of water vapor per unit weight of dry air in vapor air
mixture.

Degree of Saturation:

Ratio of Humidity ratio of moist air to the Humidity ratio of saturated

air at the same conditions of Temperature and Pressure.

Dew Point Temperature:

It is the temperature at which moist air just becomes condensed when

cooled at constant pressure.

Sensible Heat Factor = Sensible heat / ( Sensible heat + Latent Heat )

Cooling Loads:

The total quantity of heat that has to be pumped out of a space to

maintain a level of temperature using a refrigeration equipment is called as
cooling load.
 THEORY OF METAL CUTTING
The metal cutting is done by a relative motion between the work
piece and the hard edge of a cutting tool. Metal cutting could be done either
by a single point cutting tool or a multi point cutting tool. There are two
basic types of metal cutting by a single point cutting tool. They are
orthogonal and oblique metal cutting. If the cutting face of the tool is at
90o to the direction of the tool travel the cutting action is called as
orthogonal cutting. If the cutting face of the tool is inclined at less than
90o to the path of the tool then the cutting action is called as oblique cutting.
The differences between orthogonal and oblique cutting is given below

Orthogonal metal cutting Oblique metal cutting

Cutting edge of the tool is The cutting edge is

perpendicular to the
direction of tool travel.
The direction of chip flow
is perpendicular to the
cutting edge.
The chip coils in a tight
flat spiral
inclined at an angle less
than 90o to the direction of
tool travel.
The chip flows on the tool
face making an angle.
The chip flows side ways
in a long curl.

For same feed and depth The cutting force acts on

of cut the force which
shears the metal acts on a
smaller areas. So the life
of the tool is less.
Produces sharp corners.
larger area and so tool life
is more.
Produces a chamfer at the
end of the cut

Smaller length of cutting For the same depth of cut

edge is in contact with the
work.
Generally parting off in
lathe, broaching and
slotting operations are
done in this method.
greater length of cutting
edge is in contact with the
work.
This method of cutting is
used in almost all
machining operations.

Elements of Metal Cutting :

Cutting speed : It is the distance traveled by work surface related to the
cutting edge of Tool

v = πdN / 1000 m / min

Feed (s) : The motion of cutting edge of tool with reference to one
revolution of work piece.

Depth of cut (t) : It is measured perpendicular to axis of work piece and in

straight turning in one pass. This can be estimated from the relation

t = ( D - d ) / 2 mm

Undeformed chip (Fc) : The cross sectional area of chip before it is removed
from work piece. it is equal to the product of feed and depth of cut.

Fc = s x t mm2

All tools have a major and minor cutting edge. The major cutting
edge removes bulk of material. Where as the minor cutting edge gives good
surface finish.

Different types of chips produced during machining process :

When the tool advances into the work piece, the metal in front of the
tool is severely stressed. The cutting tool produces internal shearing action
in the metal. The metal below the cutting edge yields and flows plastically
in the form of chip. Compression of the metal under the tool takes place.
When the ultimate stress of the metal is exceeded, separation of metal takes
place. The plastic flow takes place in a localized area called as shear plane.
The chip moves upward on the face of the tool. There are three different
types of chips. They are

1. Continuous chips,
2. Discontinuous chips and
3. Chips with built up edge.

Continuous chips :

• The conditions that favor the production of continuous chips is small

chip thickness, high cutting speed, sharp cutting edge, large rake
angle in cutting tool and fine feed, smooth tool face and efficient
lubricating system.
• Such chips are produced while machining ductile materials like mild
steel, copper and aluminum. Because of plastic deformation of
ductile material long and continuous chips are produced.
 • This is desirable because it produces good surface finish, low power
consumption and longer tool life.
• These chips are difficult to handle and dispose off. Further the chips
coil in a helix and curl around work and tool and may injure the
operator when it is breaking. The tool face is in contact for a longer
period resulting in more frictional heat. However this problem could
be rectified by the use of chip breakers.

Chip breakers:

During machining, long and continuous chip will affect machining.

It will spoil tool, work and machine. It will also be difficult to remove metal
and also dangerous. The chip should be broken into small pieces for easy
removal, safety and to prevent damage to machine and work. The function
of chip breakers is to reduce the radius of curvature of chips and thus break
it. The upper side of continuous chips notches while the lower side which
slides over the face tool is smooth and shiny. The chips have the same
thickness through.

Discontinuous chips :

• These chips are produced when cutting more brittle materials like
bronze, hard brass and gray cast iron.
• Since there chips break up into small segments the friction between
chip and tool reduces resulting in better surface finish.
• These are convenient to handle and dispose off.
• Discontinuous chips are produced in ductile materials under the
conditions such as large chip thickness, low cutting speed, small rake
angle of tool etc.
• Brittle materials lack the ductility necessary for appreciable plastic
chip deformation. The amount of deformation which the chip
undergoes by deformation is limited by repeated fracturing.
• If these chips are produced from brittle materials, then the surface
finish is fair, power consumption is low and tool life is reasonable
however with ductile materials the surface finish is poor and tool
wear is excessive.

Chips with built up edge :

• This is nothing but a small built up edge sticking to the nose of the
cutting tool. These built up edge occurs with continuous chips.
• When machining ductile materials due to conditions of high local
temperature and extreme pressure the cutting zone and also high
friction in the tool chip interface, there are possibilities of work
 material to weld to the cutting edge of tool and thus forming built up
edges.
• This weld metal is extremely hard and brittle. This welding may
affect the cutting action of tool.
• Successive layers are added to the build up edge. When this edge
becomes large and unstable it is broken and part of it is carried up the
face of the tool along with chip while remaining is left in the surface
being machined. Thus contributing to the roughness of surface.
• Thus the size of the built up edge, varies during the machining
operation. It first increases, then decrease and again increases.
• this built up edge protects the cutting edge of tool, thus changing the
geometry of the cutting tool.
• Low cutting speeds lead to the formation of built up edge, however
with high cutting speeds associated with sintered carbide tools, the
build up edge is negligible or does not exist.
• Conditions favoring the formation of build up edge are low cutting
speed, low rake angle, high feed and large depth of cut. This
formation can be avoided by the use of coolants and taking light cuts
at high speeds. This leads to the formation of crater on the surface of
the tool.

Single point cutting tool:

Parts of a single point cutting tool:

Part Description

Shank It is the body of the tool which is

ungrounded.
Face It is the surface over which the chip slides.

Base It is the bottom surface of the shank.

Flank It is the surface of the tool facing the work

piece. There are two flanks namely end
flank and side flank.
Cutting It is the junction of the face end the flanks.
edge There are two cutting edges namely side
cutting edge and end cutting edge.
Nose It is the junction of side and end cutting
edges.
Important angles of a single point cutting tool:

Angle Details

Top rake It is also called as back rake angle. It is the

angle slope given to the face or the surface of the
tool. This slope is given from the nose
along the length of the tool.
Side rake It is the slope given to the face or top of the
angle tool. This slope is given from the nose
along the width of the tool. The rake angles
help easy flow of chips
Relief These are the slopes ground downwards
angle from the cutting edges. These are two
clearance angles namely, side clearance
angle and end clearance angle. This is
given in a tool to avoid rubbing of the job
on the tool.
Cutting There are two cutting edge angles namely
edge side cutting edge angle and end cutting
angle edge angle. Side cutting edge angle is the
angle, the side cutting edge makes with the
axis of the tool. End cutting edge angle is
the angle, the end cutting edge makes with
the width of the tool.
Lip angle It is also called cutting angle. It is the angle
between the face and end surface of the
tool.
Nose It is the angle between the side cutting edge
angle and end cutting edge.

Required properties of cutting tool material:

Hot hardness:

This is the ability of the material to with stand very high temperature
without loosing its cutting edge. The hardness of the tool material can be
improved by adding molybdenum, tungsten, vanadium, chromium etc which
form hard carbides. High hardness gives good wear resistance but poor
mechanical shock resistance.

Wear resistance:
 The ability of the tool to withstand wear is called as wear resistance.
During the process of machining, the tool is affected because of the abrasive
action of the work piece. If the tool does not have sufficient wear resistance
then there are possibilities of failure of cutting edge. Lack of chemical
affinity between the tool and work piece also improve wear resistance.

Toughness:

This property posses limitation on the hardness of the tool because of

very high hardness the material becomes brittle and weak.

Low friction:

In order to have a low tool wear and better surface finish the co-
efficient of friction between the tool and chip must be low. The thermal
conductivity must be high for quick removal of heat from chip tool
interface.

In addition to the above, it must posses the following mentioned

properties.

1. Mechanical and thermal shock resistance,

2. Ability to maintain the above properties at the high operating
temperatures.
3. Should be easy to regrind and easy to weld the tool.

In addition to the above, high thermal shock resistance is also

desirable. But no single material fulfills all the above requirements.

Tool life:

It is an important factor in cutting tool performance. The tool can

not cut effectively for an unlimited period of time. It has a definite life.
Tool life is the time for which the tool will operate satisfactorily until it
becomes blunt. It is the time between two successive grinds. Following are
the factors influencing tool life.

Cutting speed:

It has the greatest influence. When the cutting speed increases, the
cutting temperature increases. Due to this, hardness of the tool decreases.
Hence the tool flank wear and crater wear also occurs easily. The relation
ship between tool life and cutting speed is given by the Taylor's formula
which states

VTn = C
V is the cutting speed in meters / minute
T is the tool life in minutes.
n depends on the tool and work.
C a constant.

Feed and depth of cut:

The tool life depends upon the amount of material removed by the
tool per minute. For a given cutting speed if the feed or depth of cut is
increased, tool life will be reduced.

Tool geometry:

Large rake angle reduces the tool cross section. Area of the tool
which will absorb heat is reduced. So the tool will become weak. Hence
correct rake angle must be used for longer tool life. If the cutting angle
increases, more power will be required for cutting. Clearance angle of
10o to 15o is optimal.

Other factors include the material of tool (Carbon steel, medium

alloy steel, high speed steel, molybdenum high speed steel, cobalt high
speed steel, stellites, carbides, ceramics and diamond are the commonly
used tool materials.), use of cutting fluids and work material.

Functions of cutting fluids:

1. To cool the tool and work piece and carry away the heat generated
from cutting zone. It is essential to maintain a temperature of 200o C
for carbon tools and 600o C for HSS.
2. At low speeds the surface finish obtained by using cutting fluids is
better than what is obtained without using cutting fluids.
3. To wash away the chips and keep the cutting region free.
4. It helps to keep the freshly machined surface bright by giving a
protective coating against atmospheric oxygen and thus protect the
finished surface from corrosion.
5. Cutting fluids improves machinability and reduces machining forces.
6. To prevent the expansion of work piece and
7. To cause the chips to break into small parts rather than remain as long
ribbons which are hot and sharp and difficult to remove from work
piece.

Requirements of cutting fluid:

A cutting fluid should posses the following properties.

 1. High heat absorption to remove the heat developed immediately,
2. Good lubricating properties to have a low coefficient of friction,
3. High flash point to avoid fire hazard,
4. Stability must be high to that it does not oxidize with air,
5. It must not react with chemical and must be neutral,
6. Odorless, so that at high temperatures, it does not give a bad smell,
7. Harmless to the skin of operators,
8. Harmless to the bearings,
9. Should not have a corrosive action on the machine or work piece,
10. Cutting tool must be transparent so that the cutting action could be
observed,
11. Low viscosity to permit the free flow of the cutting tool and
12. It must be economic.

Choice of a cutting fluid depends upon type of operation, material of

tool and work piece, rate of metal removal and cost of cutting fluid.

Types of cutting fluids:

Water based cutting fluids:

In this water is mixed with soluble oil and soaps. Following are the
important characteristic features.

• It is a excellent cooling medium having maximum amount of specific

heat,
• The disadvantage in using this is that it causes rust and corrosion,
• But a mixture of water and oil provides the best lubricating properties
• The ratio of oil to water is different for different machining process.
The usual ratio are

Operation Ratio
Turning 1:25
Milling 1:10
Drilling 1:25
Grinding 1:50

Oil based cutting fluids:

These are fixed oil and mineral oil. Fixed oil has greater oiliness to
become gummy and decompose when heated.
 • To combine stability of mineral oil with lubricating properties of
fixed oils they are often mixed.
• There are different types of oil based cutting fluids. They are soluble
oils, straight fatty cutting oils, sulphurised and aqueous solution.
• Following are the different types of cutting fluids based on different
operating conditions.

Straight mineral oils for light duty and high speed work.
Mineral oil for light and medium duty.
Mineral oil with extreme pressure additives, such that they are
suitable for heavy duty and
Mineral oil and extreme pressure additives for the heaviest
duty.

Effect of cutting fluid on cutting speed, tool life and chip concentration:

Cutting speed:

These are not only used to carry away the heat generated by also
because of the lubricating effect of the fluid on the working surface of the
tool. When a cutting fluid is sued for machining touch material the
productivity may be increased from 15% to 30% more when compared with
dry operation. But using cutting fluids, high speeds may be used.

Tool life:

By using cutting fluids effectively during machining operations the

tool life increases. Carbon steel rods have less heat resistant have maximum
increase in tool life for HSS it is around 25%.

Chip concentration:

Without the use of cutting fluid chips are accumulated near the work
tool interface and are difficult to remove because of its high temperature.
By the use of cutting fluid the temperature of the chip is reduced and also
the chips are washed away from the work tool interface.

Application of cutting fluids:

The cutting fluids may be applied to the cutting tool in the following
ways.

1. By hand, using brush,

2. By means of drip tank and
3. By means of a pump.
 For effective use of cutting fluid and for heavy and continuous
cutting the fluid should penetrate into the cutting zone. The following are
the famous methods of cutting fluid application.

1. Flood application (Hi-jet application):

Here there is a continuous stream of cutting fluid is directed to the

cutting zone with the help of nozzle. The used cutting fluid drops into a
tank at the bottom. Before it is re-circulated by the pump, it passes through
many filters to remove chips and dirt. In some applications the cutting fluid
is supplied through the tool itself and directed along the flank face of the
tool. Though economic it is not adopted universally because the high
pressure jet may be dangerous to the operation.

2. Mist method of application:

In this the cutting fluid is atomized the order of 10 - 25 µm. The

mist is sprayed on cutting zone at high velocities of about 300 mpm and
more under high pressure. This method is used in all cutting operation, but
is generally more useful with high hardness work materials. The benefits of
this process are listed below.
 • Due to high velocity the heat is dispersed immediately and maintains
desired temperature gradient near tool surface.
• The surface area of coolant is greater when compared to flood
application and hence increases the cooling capacity.
• Due to expansion of the mist in the issuing nozzle, it temperature falls
down considerably.

The basic components of the system are

1. Air pump with air storage,

2. Cutting fluid container
3. Piping and
4. Spray nozzle.

Benefits of cutting fluids:

Cooling:

By flowing over a tool, chip and job a cutting fluid can remove heat
and reduce temperature at he cutting zone. This reduction in temperature
leads in increase in tool life and decrease in tool wear. The cooling effect is
also important in reducing thermal expansion and distortion of work piece.
The cooling action also bring about good surface finish, increase chip curl
and reduces BUE formation.

Friction reduction:

A fluid passing through the cutting zone may be subjected to any

one of the following conditions.

• High temperature approaching melting point,

• Clean freshly produced surface and
• High local pressure approaching the hardness of the metal cut.

Under these conditions the chip may be made to react wit the fluid
fro form a low shear strength solid lubricant. This thin layer prevents the
formation of the weld between the chip and the tool and hence reduces the
co-efficient of friction between chip and tool.

Reduce shear strength:

When the co-efficient of friction is reduced there is also a decrease

in shear work, sue to the resulting increase in shear angle. An increase in
shear angle results in a decrease in shear strain giving rise to smaller shear
stress and hence the net result is a decrease of shear energy per unit volume
when cutting with an increased shear angle.
Tool geometries:

There are two distinct tool geometries. The are positive and negative
rake angles. Positive is suitable for machining soft, ductile materials (like
aluminum) and negative is for cutting hard materials, where the cutting
forces are high (Hard material, high speed and feed).

Forces on a single point cutting tool :

Following are the three forces acting on a tool

1. Axial force
2. Tangential force and
3. Radial force.
 In the above figure (a) is for orthogonal cutting and figure (b) is for
oblique cutting. Wattmeter is a indirect method for measuring cutting
force. More exact method is the use of dynamometer. Of the total heat
generated during machining process, given below is the rough heat
distribution.

Chip carries 70 % of heat.

Work piece carries 15 % of heat and
Tool carries the remaining 15 % of heat generated.

Tool life :

It could be defined from any of the below mentioned criteria.

• Volume of material removed between two successive tool grind.

• Number of work piece machined between two successive tool grinds.
• time of actual cutting between 2 successive tool grinds.

Tool failure occurs by chipping or breakage or wear ( Takes place

by crater formation or by flank wear ) or deformation.

Machinability : It could be evaluated by using

• Tool life
• mm3 of stock removed
 • Cutting force required.
• Temperature of tool and chip.

Machinability Index ( % ) = ( Cutting speed of work piece for 20 mm Tool

life ) / ( Cutting speed of SAE 1112 steel for 20 mm min tool life ) X 100.

TOOL FAILURE:

A tool is said to fail when it losses its usefulness though wear,

breakage, chipping and deformation. During the machining operation high
temperatures are reached and leads to the softening of tool point. At a high
temperature localized phase transformation occurs. This gives rise in
residual stress due to which cracks appear on tool point and it is more prone
to failure. In some cases tool point may even melt and is frequently
accompanied by sparking and hence can be easily recognized.

Thermal cracking occurs when there is a steep temperature gradient

due to intermittent cutting. Failure can be reduced by the proper selection of
cutting parameters.

Wear of cutting tools:

Flank wear ( or edge wear ):

• This type of wear takes place when machining materials like cast iron
or when the feed is less than 0.15 mm / rev. The worn region at the
flank is called as wear land. This wear land is measured with the help
of brinell microscope.
• The work and the tool are in contact at the cutting edge only. Usually
wear appears on the clearance face of the tool and is mainly the result
of friction and abrasion.
• Flank wear is a flat portion worn behind the cutting edge, which
eliminates some clearance on relief.
• Flank wear is a progressive form of detoriotion and will result in
failure in spite of best precautions.
• There are three stages in flank wear. They are primary, secondary
and tertiary stage. In the primary stage wear is rapid due to high
stress at tool point. In secondary stage, wear is less and linear. In the
third and final stage called as the tertiary stage the wear increases
leading to catastrophic failure.

Abrasion by hard particles and inclusions in the work piece, shearing

of micro welds between tool and work material and abrasion by fragments
of build up edge plowing against the clearance face of the tool are some of
the causes of this wear.

Crater wear ( or face wear ):

• This is caused by the pressure of the chip as it slides up the face of

the cutting tool. Due to the pressure of the sliding chips the cool face
wears out gradually.
• On the faces of the tool there is a direct contact of tool with the chip.
Wear takes place in the form of cavity or crater, which as its origin
above the cutting edge.
• The crater occurs on the rake face and does not actually reach the
cutting edge by ends near the nose.
• This type of wear takes place when cutting ductile material. This
wear weakens the tool. Cutting temperature is increased. Friction
and cutting force will also increase. When the crater becomes large
the tool will totally fail.

Severe abrasion between chip and tool interface and high

temperature in the tool-chip interface reaching the softening (or melting
temperature) of tool resulting in increased rate of wear. These are the two
causes of crater wear.

To combat crater wear, tool manufacturers can increase the chemical

stability of the tool material, as when they added titanium carbide (TiC) to
tungsten carbide (WC) in the first successful steel-cutting carbide tool.
Applying a hard coating to put a hard, inert barrier between tool and work
piece at high cutting speeds will also minimize crater wear. Tool geometry
can also make a difference. A positive-rake tool will reduce tool pressure
and decrease contact between the chip and the insert, and the reduction in
pressure and contact can reduce crater wear.

Nose wear:

This is similar to flank wear in certain operations like finish turning.

It takes place at the nose of the tool. When the nose of the tool is rough,
abrasion and friction between the tool and work piece will be high. Due to
this, too much heat is generated. Also more cutting force is required. As a
result the nose of the tool wears quickly. This is more pre-dominant than
flank wear.

Breakage:
 Because of high pressure acting on cutting edge of a tool there ay be
immediate failure. Breakage is usually attributed to mechanical shock,
thermal shock, thermal cracks and fatigue.

Chipping:

The cutting edge may crumble due to improper relief angle, excess
clearance and insufficient support of the tool. This could also happen if the
work piece is very hard. It is a microscopic form of breakage due to loss of
many small particles caused due to unhoned carbide edges, excessive
vibration and chatter.

Deformation:

When a heavy load is applied close to the cutting edge of tool the
surface becomes indented while the adjacent face shows a bulge. Because
of which crack occurs on periphery of indentation and finally leads to
failure.

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS

1. The useful tool life of a HSS tool at 18 m/min is 3 hours. Calculate the
tool life when the tool operates at 24 m/min.

Solution:

VTn = C

V = 18 m/min
T = 3 x 60 = 180 min

Constant C = 18 x ( 180 ) 0.125 = 34.45 ( Here n = 0.125 )

Now V = 24 m/min.

T = ( 34.45 / 24 ) 1/0.125

= 18 minutes.
 UNITS AND CONSTANT
Definitions:

Nominal size:

The size designation used for general identification. The nominal

size of a shaft and a hole are the same. This value is often expressed as a
fraction.

Basic size:

The exact theoretical size of a part. This is the value from which
limit dimensions are computed. Basic size is a four decimal place
equivalent to the nominal size. The number of significant digits imply the
accuracy of the dimension.

example: nominal size = 1 1/4

basic size = 1.2500

Design size:

The ideal size for each component (shaft and hole) based upon a
selected fit. The difference between the design size of the shaft and the
design size of the hole is equal to the allowance of the fit. The design size of
a part corresponds to the Maximum Material Condition (MMC). That is, the
largest shaft permitted by the limits and the smallest hole. Emphasis is
placed upon the design size in the writing of the actual limit dimension, so
the design size is placed in the top position of the pair.

Tolerance:

The total amount by which a dimension is allowed to vary. For

fractional linear dimensions we have assumed a bilateral tolerance of 1/64
inch. For the fit of a shaft/hole combination, the tolerance is considered to
be unilateral, that is, it is only applied in one direction from design size of
the part. Standards for limits and fits state that tolerances are applied such
that the hole size can only vary larger from design size and the shaft size
smaller.

Basic hole system:

Most common system for limit dimensions. In this system the

design size of the hole is taken to be equivalent to the basic size for the pair
 (see above). This means that the lower (in size) limit of the hole dimension
is equal to design size. The basic hole system is more frequently used
since most hole generating devices are of fixed size (for example, drills,
reams, etc.) When designing using purchased components with fixed outer
diameters (bearings, bushings, etc.) a basic shaft system may be used.

Allowance:

The allowance is the intended difference in the sizes of mating parts.

This allowance may be: positive (indicated with a "+" symbol), which
means there is intended clearance between parts; negative("-"), for
intentional interference: or "zero allowance" if the two parts are intended to
be the "same size".

Base and Supplementary Units

Quantity Unit Symbol

Length meter m

Mass kilogram kg

Time second s

Electric current ampere A

Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin K

Luminous intensity candela cd

Molecular substance mole mol

Plane angle radian rad

Solid angle steradian sr

Derived Units

Quantity Unit Symbol

Space and Time
Area square meter m²
Volume cubic meter m³
Velocity meter per second m/s
Acceleration meter per second per second m/s²
Angular velocity radian per second rad/s
Angular acceleration radian per second per rad/s²
second
Frequency hertz Hz (cycle/s)
Rotational speed revolution per second r/s
revolution per minute r/m
Mechanics
Density kilogram per cubic meter kg/m³
Momentum kilogram meter per second kg·m/s
Moment of inertia kilogram meter squared kg·m³
Force newton N (kg·m/s²)
Torque, moment of force newton meter N·m
Energy, work, heat quantity joule J (N·m)
Power watt W (J/s)
Pressure, stress pascal Pa (N/m²)
Heat
Customary temperature degree Celsius °C
Thermal conductivity watt per meter Kelvin W/(m·K)
Entropy joule per Kelvin J/K
Specific heat joule per kilogram Kelvin J/(kg·K)
Light
Luminous flux lumen lm (cd·sr)
Illumination lux lx (lm/m²)
Luminance candela per square meter cd/m²
Viscosity
Kinematic viscosity square meter per second m²/s
Dynamic (absolute) viscosity pascal second Pa·s

S.I.
Quantity Equivalent Dimensions
units
Kilogram
Mass M
(kg)
Length L Metre (m)

Time T Second (s)

Frequency cycles/unit time T-1 Hertz (Hz)

Area length x width L2 m2

Volume length x height x width L3 m3

Density Mass/unit volume ML-3 kg/m3

Velocity Distance/unit time LT-1 m/s

Acceleration Velocity/unit time LT-2 m/s2

Force mass x acceleration MLT-2 Newton

Weight mass x gravitational acceleration MLT-2 Kilogram

Pressure or
force/unit area ML-1T-2 Pascal (Pa)
Stress

Moment of
mass x length2 ML2 kg m2
Inertia

Work force x distance ML2T-2 Joule (J)

Energy Work capacity ML2T-2 Joule (J)

Potential mass x gravitational acceleration

ML2T-2 Joule (J)
Energy x height raised

Kinetic Energy 1/2 mass x velocity2 ML2T-2 Joule (J)

Power Work/unit time ML2T-3 Watt (W)

Momentum Mass x velocity MLT-1

CONVERSIONS
Millibar (mb): 1 mb = 100 Pa; 1 Pa = 0.01 mb

Celsius: oC = K – 273.15; K = oC + 273.15

Fahrenheit: oF = 9/5(oC) + 32; oC = 5/9(oF-32)

USEFUL NUMERICAL CONSTANTS

Universal Gas Constant (R) 8.3143 J K-1 mol-1

Stefan-Boltzmann constant (σ) 56.696 x 10-9 W m-2 K-4

Planck constant (h) 0.66262 x 10-33 J s

Velocity of light (c) 299.8 x 106 m s-1

Wien’s constant 2897 µm

Acceleration due to gravity 9.80665 m s-2

Molecular weight of dry air 28.97 g mol-1

Density of dry air 1.209 kg m-3

Specific heat of air at constant pressure (Cp) 1004 J K-1 kg-1

Gas constant for dry air (Rd) 287 J kg-1 K-1

Standard atmospheric pressure 101.3 kPa

Gas constant for water vapor (Rv) 461 J kg-1 K-1

Specific heat of water vapor at constant pressure 1952 J K-1 kg-1

 ENGINEERING MECHANICS - DYNAMICS
Engineering mechanics is the science that deals with the state of rest
or motion of bodies under the action of forces. It is further divided into
mechanics of rigid bodes, deformable bodes and fluids.

Dynamics: deals with bodies in motion. This is further divided to kinetics

and kinematics. Kinetics, deals with the bodies in motion due to the
application of force, by considering the force that causes the
motion. Kinematics, is the study of displacement, velocity and acceleration
without considering the force causing the motion. Following are the
definition of important terms in dynamics

Speed:

The speed of a body, may be defined as its rate of change of

displacement with respect to its surroundings. The speed of a body is
irrespective of its direction and hence is a scalar quantity.

Velocity:

The velocity of a body may be defined as its rate of change of

displacement, with respect to its surroundings, in a particular direction. As
the velocity is always expressed in a particular direction, it is a vector
quantity.

Acceleration:

The acceleration of a body may be defined as the rate of change of

its velocity. It is said to be positive, when the velocity of a body increase
with time, and negative when the velocity decreases with time. The
negative acceleration is also called as retardation. In general acceleration
denotes the rate at which the velocity is changing. It may be uniform or
variable.

Uniform acceleration:

If a body moves in such a way that its velocity changes equal in

magnitude in equal intervals of time, it is said to be moving with a uniform
acceleration.

Variable acceleration:
 If a body moves in such a way that its velocity changes unequal in
magnitude in equal intervals of time, it is said to be moving with a variable
acceleration.

Types of motion:

Rectilinear motion: When a particle moves in a straight line then it is called

as rectilinear motion.

Curvilinear motion: If the particle traces a curve, then curvilinear motion. If

the curve lies in a plane, then it is called as plane curvilinear motion.

Uniform motion: A particle in this case should move with a constant

velocity and zero acceleration

Uniformly accelerated motion: A particle moving with a constant

acceleration is called as uniformly accelerated motion.

Motion with uniform acceleration:

Here 'a' is constant. Hence a = dv / dt

dv = a.dt

( Integrating on both sides, within their limits

)

∫ dv = ∫ a dt

( v - u ) = at

v = u + at

v = dx / dt

dx = v dt

Substituting the value of v

dx = ( u + at ) dt
 ( Integrating on both sides, within their
limits )

∫ dx = ∫ ( u + at ) dt = ut + ½ at2

x = ut + ½ at2

a = v dv / dx

a dx = v dv

( Integrating on both sides, within their limits

)

a ∫ dx = ∫ v dv

ax = ½ V2 - ½ U2

V2 = u2 + 2ax

Derivation:

Acceleration (a) = Rate of change of velocity with respect to time = dv / dt

Velocity (v) = Rate of change of distance with respect to time = dx / dt

a = dv / dt = d2x / dt2

a = dv / dt = ( dv / dx ) x (dx / dt ) = v dv / dx

Equation of motion:

∑ Fx = max

∑ Fy = may

Fx is the resultant of all forces acting along the x axis.

Fy is the resultant of all forces acting along the y axis.

Equations of dynamic equilibrium:

∑ Fx + ( - max ) = 0
∑ Fy + ( - may ) = 0

The value ( - max ) and ( - may ) is called as inertia force or D'

Alembert force.

Curvilinear motion:

The direction of acceleration and velocity may not be the same in

curvilinear motion. There are two components of acceleration. They are
tangential component ( at ) and normal component ( an )

Tangential component:

at = dv / dt

It is equal to the rate of change of speed of the particle. It is positive

and is along the direction of tangent of the motion.

Normal component:

an = v2 / ρ

It is the ratio of square of velocity and radius of curvature of the part

at that point. The directions is towards the center of curvature of the path.
This is also called as the centripetal ( centre seeking ) acceleration.

a = √ ( at2 + an2 )

Direction θ = Tan-1 ( an / at )

Momentum:

consider the motion of particle of mass 'm' acted by a force F. Then

the equation of motion in a generalized from is given as

F = ma = m ( dv / dt ) = d ( mv ) / dt

Thus the force acting on a particle is equal to the rate of change of

momentum of the particle. The quantity mv is called as momentum. It unit
is Ns.

Impulse:

When a large force acts on a body for a small interval of time then
that force is called as impulse force. It can be visualized as the area under
the force Vs time diagram. Impulse is nothing but, change in momentum.
Conservation of Momentum:

When the sum of impulses due to external forces is equal to zero, the
momentum of the system remains conserved.

Elastic bodies:

The property of a body by virtue of which they rebound after impact

is called elasticity. A body which rebounds to a greater height is said to be
more elastic and the body that bounces less is called lesser elastic. If a body
does not rebound, then it is inelastic. When two bodies collide with each
other, the phenomenon of collision takes place as given below.

1. The body, immediately after collision, come momentarily to rest.

2. The two bodies tend to compressed each other, so long as they are
compressed to the maximum value.
3. The two bodies attempt to regain its original shape due to their
elasticity. This process of regaining the original shape is called as
restitution.

The time taken by the two bodies in compression, after the instant of
collision, is called as the time of compression and time for which restitution
takes place is called the time of restitution. The sum of the two times is
called the period of impact or the period of collision.

Impact : The phenomenon of collision of 2 bodies which occurs for a short

period of time, during which the two bodies exert a very large force on each
other.

Line of Impact: The common normal to the surface of two colliding bodies
is called line of impact.

Central / Non-central impact: The centers of body m1 and m2 coincide with

Line of impact, hence called as central impact.

Direct / Indirect ( Oblique ) impact: There are the types of collision. If the
velocities of two bodies are collinear with line of impact before collision,
then is called as direct impact. Else it is indirect impact.

Coefficient of restitution: It is the ratio of the velocity of separation (v2 - v1)

and velocity of approach (u1 - u2). Its value lies between 0 to 1. If e = 0
then the two bodies are inelastic. If e = 1, then the two bodies are perfectly
elastic.

Projectile:
 Any motion which is given just a initial velocity and after which its
motion is influenced by acceleration due to gravity is called as projectile.
Thus a projectile is moving under the combined effect of vertical and
horizontal forces. The vertical component of the motion is always subjected
to gravitational acceleration and the horizontal component remains
constant. The combined effect of both the forces causes the body to move
along a parabolic path. Following are the important terms used in
projectiles.

• Trajectory is the path traced by a projectile in space.

• Velocity of projection is the velocity, with which a projectile is
projected.
• Angle of projection is the angle with the horizontal, at which a
projectile is projected.
• Time of flight is the total time taken by the projectile t reach
maximum height and to return back to the ground.
• Range is the distance, between the point of projection and the point
where the projectile strikes the ground.

Equation for the path of projectile is y = x.tanα - ( gx2 / 2.u2.coss2α )

Time of flight of projectile t = 2.u.sin α/ g

Horizontal range of projectile R = u2.sin 2α/ g

Maximum height of projectile H = u2. sin2 α/ 2 g

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS

Problem 1: On turning a corner, a motorist rushing at 20 m/s, finds a child

on the road 50 m ahead. He instantly stops the engine and applies brake, so
as to stop the car within 10 m from the child. Calculate retardation and
time required to stop the car.

Solution: Let 'a' be the acceleration. v2 = u2 + 2as, Here u = 20 m/s and v

=0

0 = (20)2 + 2.a.(50 - 10)

a = - 5 m/s2 ( Retardation of the car )

We also know that v = u + at. Hence the time required to stop the car is

0 = 20 + (-5) t,
 t = 4 seconds.

Problem 2: A stone is dropped from the top of a tower, 50 m high. At the

same time another stone is thrown upwards from the foot of the tower with a
velocity of 25 m/s. When and where the two stones cross each other?

Solution: Height of the tower is 50 m. First the stone that was dropped
from the top is considered. For this u = 0 and a = g. Hence the distance
traversed by the stone in time 't' is

s = ut + ½ at2 = 0 + 0.5gt2

Now consider the stone that was thrown from the bottom. u = 25 m/s and a
= -g. Distance traversed by the stone in time 't' is

50 - s = 25t - 0.5gt2

Adding both the equations we get the value of t = 2 seconds.

The distance at which both stones cross each other is s = 0.5gt2 = 0.5 x 9.8 x
(2)2 = 19.6 m.

Problem 3: A fly wheel runs at a constant 100 rad/s. When the drive motor
is switched off the wheel takes 5 minutes to come to rest. What is the
angular deceleration?

Solution: Time t = 300 seconds. Initial angular velocity ωο= 1 00 rad / sec
and ω= 0.

ω= ω ο+ α t,

Hence retardation α = ( 0 - 100 ) / 300 = -0.33 rad / sec2

Problem 4: A racing car takes a bend. Given that vA = 40 m/s , vB = 48

m/s Constant tangential acceleration and R = 300m. What is the total
acceleration at B?
Tangential angular acceleration at = rα, and angle θΑ − Β = π / 2

ωa = 40 / 300 = 0.133 rad / sec, ωb = 48 / 300 = 0.16 rad / sec

Angular acceleration α=(ω b

2
- ωa2 ) / 2θΑ − Β = 0.00252 rad / sec2

Hence Tangential acceleration = rα = 300 x 0.00252 = 0.76 m / s2

Normal acceleration an = vb2 / R = 7.68 m / s2

Total acceleration = √ 0.762 + 7.682 = 7.72 m / s2

DYNAMICS BOOKS

1. Engineering Mechanics by A. K. Tayal

2. Engineering Mechanics by R. S. Khurmi
 FLUID MECHANICS
It is the branch of science that deals with the behavior of the fluids at
rest as well as motion. Fluid mechanics study is classified into the
following types.

• Fluid statics - Study of Static Fluid

• Fluid Kinematics - Study of Moving fluid with no pressure acting on
it
• Fluid Kinetics - Study of moving fluid with pressure acting on it

Fluid Properties:

Viscosity :

It is the property of a fluid with offers resistance to the movement of

one layer of fluid over another adjacent layer of the fluid. Let there be two
layers of fluid with a distance dy and velocities u and u+du
respectively. The viscosity along with relative velocity causes a shear stress
between the fluid layers.

τ α du / dy

τ = µ du / dy

Where µ = Coefficient of dynamic viscosity. Mathematically

viscosity is the shear stress required to produce unit rate of shear strain.

For liquids µ decreases with increase in temperature due to cohesive

forces predominates than molecular momentum transfer. However for gases
µ increase with increases with increasing temperature, because molecular
momentum predominates cohesive forces.

Specific weight (or) weight density:

It is the ratio of weight to volume. Its unit is N/m3.

Specific volume:
 It is the ratio of volume to weight. Its unit is m3/kg.

Density:

It is the ratio of mass to volume. It signifies what amount of mass is

contained in a given amount of space. It is unit is Kg/m3. Thus specific
volume is inverse of density.

Pressure:

It is the force exerted normally on a unit area of a body (Thus the

force applied over a surface is pressure). Pressure increases with depth
because of the additional weight of the fluid above. Pressure = Weight
density x height. Its unit is N/m2

1 Atm = 101.325 Kpa = 101.325 KN/m2 = 760 mm of Hg =

14.7 psi = 2117 lb/ft2
1 bar = 105 N/m2.
1 Atm = 101.3 x 103 Pa = 1.01 bar.
1 Pascal = 1 N/m2

Differences between solids and fluids:

The differences between the behaviors of solids and fluids under an applied
force are as follows:

i. For a solid, the strain is a function of the applied stress, providing that
the elastic limit is not exceeded. For a fluid, the rate of strain is
proportional to the applied stress.
ii. The strain in a solid is independent of the time over which the force is
applied and, if the elastic limit is not exceeded, the deformation
disappears when the force is removed. A fluid continues to flow as
long as the force is applied and will not recover its original form
when the force is removed.

Differences between liquids and gases:

Although liquids and gases both share the common characteristics of

fluids, they have many distinctive characteristics of their own. A liquid is
difficult to compress and, for many purposes, may be regarded as
incompressible. A given mass of liquid occupies a fixed volume,
irrespective of the size or shape of its container, and a free surface is formed
if the volume of the container is greater than that of the liquid.

A gas is comparatively easy to compress. Changes of volume with

pressure are large, cannot normally be neglected and are related to changes
of temperature. A given mass of gas has no fixed volume and will expand
continuously unless restrained by a containing vessel. It will completely fill
any vessel in which it is placed and, therefore, does not form a free surface.

Fluid Classifications:

All fluids can be classified as either Newtonian or non-Newtonian.

The difference lies in the relationship between the fluid's tangential stress
(friction force between the layers per unit surface) and the shear rate or
gradient (difference in speed between the layers divided by the distance
between them). If the relationship is linear and the fluid has zero stress at
zero velocity gradient then it is Newtonian. If not, it is non-Newtonian, and
is further classified into one of various subdivisions based on the curve of
their stress vs. their velocity gradient.

For non-Newtonian fluids, the velocity gradient is dependent on the

viscosity; that is, the fluid has a higher or lower stress depending on its
velocity. Based on these qualities, the fluid can be given its sub
classification

NEWTONIAN
Water
Most salt solutions in water
Light suspensions of dye
High-viscosity fuels
Gasoline
Kerosene
Most motor oils and mineral oils
 NON-NEWTONIAN
YIELD PSEUDOPLASTIC, BINGHAM PLASTIC, YIELD DILATANT

Clay
Mud
Tar
Sewage sludge
Digested sewage
Thermoplastic polymer solutions

PSEUDOPLASTIC
Sewage sludge
Paper pulp
Grease
Soap
Paint
Printer's ink
Starch
Latex solutions
Most emulsions

DILATANT
Feldspar
Mica
Clay
Beach sand
Starch in water

THIXOTROPIC - RHEOPECTIC
 Inks
Most paints
Silica gel

Thixotropic - decreases viscosity over time

Rheopectic - increases viscosity over time

Behaviour of Non-Newtonian fluid:

Time-Independent behaviors:

Properties are independent of time under shear.

Bingham-plastic: Resist a small shear stress but flow easily under larger
shear stresses. e.g. tooth-paste, jellies, and some slurries.

Pseudo-plastic: Most non-Newtonian fluids fall into this group. Viscosity

decreases with increasing velocity gradient. e.g. polymer solutions, blood.
Pseudoplastic fluids are also called as Shear thinning fluids. At low shear
rates(du/dy) the shear thinning fluid is more viscous than the Newtonian
fluid, and at high shear rates it is less viscous.
Dilatant fluids: Viscosity increases with increasing velocity gradient. They
are uncommon, but suspensions of starch and sand behave in this way.
Dilatant fluids are also called as shear thickening fluids.

Time dependent behaviors:

Those which are dependent upon duration of shear.

Thixotropic fluids: for which the dynamic viscosity decreases with the time
for which shearing forces are applied. e.g. thixotropic jelly paints.

Rheopectic fluids: Dynamic viscosity increases with the time for which
shearing forces are applied. e.g. gypsum suspension in water.

Visco-elastic fluids: Some fluids have elastic properties, which allow them
to spring back when a shear force is released. e.g. egg white.

Types of Fluid:

Ideal fluid : Incompressible and where µ = 0.

Real fluid : If µ > 0 then it is called as real fluid.

Ideal plastic fluid : Shear stress is more than yield value and proportional to
velocity gradient.

Isothermal Process:

Changes in density takes place at constant temperature. P / ρ =

constant.

Adiabatic process:

Changes in density occurs without any heat transfer to and from the
gas in the absence of friction.

Surface Tension:

It is the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in contact with

a gas or on the surface between two immiscible liquids, such that the contact
surface behaves like a membrane under tension. It is denoted by σ. It is the
magnitude of force per unit distance. SI unit = N / m.

Surface tension of liquid droplet σ = pd / 4

Surface tension of hollow bubble σ = pd / 8
Surface tension of a liquid jet σ = pd / 2
Cohesion and Adhesion:

Cohesion means intermolecular attraction between molecules of the

same liquid. But adhesion means attraction between the molecules of a
liquid and the molecules of a solid boundary surface in contact with liquid.

Capillarity:

It is the phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid in a capillary tube

relative to the adjacent general level of liquid, when the tube is held
vertically in the liquid. Rise in liquid level is called as capillary rise and
fall in liquid level is called as capillary depression. ( First figure shows
capillarity rise and second figure shows capillarity depression ) Its value is
expressed in Cm or mm. Its value is dependent upon

• Surface tension,
• Diameter of pipe and
• Weight density of liquid.

Capillary rise = h= 4σ Cosθ / wd.

θ for glass and water = 0 and hence the above expression becomes h
= 4σ / wd.

Pascal's Law:

Pressure at a point in static fluid is equal in all directions.

Hydrostatic Law:
 The rate of increase in pressure in vertically downward direction
must be equal to specific weight at that point.

w=P/z

Where,

z = Height of fluid element from the fluid surface ( Pressure head )

p = Pressure above the atmospheric pressure.

Pressure management systems:

Atmospheric pressure is the weight of air above an area. At sea

level, a column of air extending up through the atmosphere, with a cross
sectional area of 1 m2, encloses about 10,000 kg of air. This air weighs
about 1 x 105 N. Atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude.

If measurement is made above complete vacuum then it is called as

absolute pressure. If the pressure is measured above atmospheric pressure
than it is called as gauge pressure. The atmospheric pressure at sea level at
15o is 101.3 KN / m2. There are two types of pressure measuring devices.
They are manometer and mechanical gauges.

Manometer: These are devices that are used for the measure of pressure at a
point in fluid by balancing a column of the fluid by same or another
column of fluid. There are two types of manometers. They are simple
manometers and differential manometers.

Simple Manometer: It is a glass tube where one end is connected to a point

where pressure is to be measured and the other end remains open in the
atmosphere. There are 3 types of simple manometers. They are

1. Piezometer,
2. U - Tube manometer and
3. Single column manometer.

U - Tube manometer: It contains a u tube. One end of which is connected to

a point where pressure is to be measured and the other end open to
atmosphere. The U - Tube contains mercury. There are two types of
manometer. They are

1. Single column manometer ( In this, there are further vertical

single column manometer and inclined single column
manometer )
 2. Differential manometer : These are devised used to measure
the pressure different between two points in a pipe or between
two different pipes. It contains a U tube with a heavier liquid.
( There are types. They are differential U - tube manometer
and inverted U - tube manometer. )

Mechanical gauges:

These are device that are useful for measuring the pressure by
balancing the fluid column by spring or dead weight.

Buoyancy:

When a body is immersed in a fluid a upward force is exerted by the

fluid on the body. This upward force is equal to the weight of fluid
displaced by the body.

Center of buoyancy:

It is the point through which the force of buoyancy acts on the body.
Buoyant force is a vertical force and is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced. Hence center of buoyancy = center of gravity of fluid displaced.

Meta centre: It is the point about which a body starts oscillating when the
body is tilted by a small angle.

Kinematics of flow:

There are two methods to describe the fluid motion. They are
lagrangian method and Euler method. In lagrangian method a fluid particle
is followed during its motion and its velocity, acceleration and density are
described.

But in Eulerian method the velocity, acceleration and density are

described at a point in flow field. This is most commonly used.

Velocity Potential:

It is defined as a scalar function of space and time such that its

negative derivative with respect to any direction gives the fluid velocity in
that direction.

Stream function:
 It is defined as the scalar function of space and time such that its
partial derivative with respect to any direction gives the velocity component
at right angles to this direction.

Types of fluid flows:

Steady Flow : is defined as the type of flow in which the fluid characteristics
like velocity, pressure and density at any point does not change with time.

Unsteady flow : is defined as the type of flow in which the fluid

characteristics like velocity, pressure and density at any point changes with
time.

Uniform motion : is defined as the type of flow in which the velocity at any
given time does not change with respect to space.

Non-Uniform motion : is defined as the type of flow in which the velocity

changes with respect to space.

Laminar flow : is the one in which the fluid particles move in well defined
paths, with one layer of fluid moving over another layer of fluid smoothly.
Streamlines are straight and parallel. This is also called as viscous flow.

Turbulent Flow : is the one in which the fluid move in Zigzag manner
randomly. Eddy formation takes place and thus there is a loss of energy.

Compressible Flow : Here the density of fluid changes from point to point.

Incompressible Flow :The density is constant. Thus gas is compressible

fluid, but liquids are incompressible fluids.
Rotational Flow : In this the fluid particles when traveling in a stream line,
rotate about their axis.

Discharge :

It is defined as the quantity of fluid flowing per second through a

section of pipe or channel.

For incompressible fluids discharge = Volume / second = Lit / sec.

For compressible fluid discharge = Weight / second = N / s.

Bernoulli's Equation :

In an ideal incompressible fluid when the flow is steady and

continuous, the sum of pressure energy, potential ( or datum ) energy and
kinetic energy is constant along a stream line. This law is based on the
conservation of energy.

Continuity Equation :

It is based on the principle of conservation of mass. For a fluid

flowing through a pipe, at any cross section, the quantity of fluid flowing
per second is constant. Any fluid must satisfy this equation.

ρ1A 1V1 = ρ2A2V2

Venturimeter:

It is a device used to measure the rate of flow of fluid in a pipe

Orifice meter:

It is a device used for the measurement of rate of flow of a fluid

through a pipe. Works on the same principle of venturimeter. But cheaper
than the Venturimeter. By reducing the cross sectional area of flow passage
a pressure difference between the two sections is developed and the
measurement of pressure difference enables the determination of the
discharge through the pipe.

Pitot's Tube:

is a device used to measure the velocity of flow at any point in a pipe

or channel. When a velocity of a fluid is made zero by bringing it to rest, the
kinetic energy is converted to pressure energy and hence pressure is
increased.
Flow over notches:

A notch may be defined as an opening provided in the side at a tank

or vessel such that the liquid surface in the tank is below the top edge of the
opening. In general notches are used for measuring the rate of flow of liquid
from a tank or in a channel. The sheet of water flowing through a notch is
knows as the nappae (French term meaning sheet) or vein. The bottom edge
of a notch over which the water flows is known as sill or crest, and its height
above the bottom of the tank or channel is known as crest height. A notch is
more often termed as sharp crested weir on account of similarity in the
pattern of flow over a notch and sharp crested weir. Notches are classified
as follows.

• Rectangular notch,
• Triangular notch
• Trapezoidal notch
• Parabolic notch and
• stepped notch

Notches may be classified according to the effect of the sides on the

nappe emerging from a notch, as notch with end contraction and notch
without end contraction or suppressed notch. If the sides at a notch cause
the contraction of nappe, then it is said to be notch with end contraction on
the other hand if there is no contraction of the nappe due to the sides or in
other words the end contractions are suppressed than it is known as a notch
without end contraction. In a channel, if the crest length of the notch is less
than the width of the channel then it is a notch with end contraction. But if
the crest length of the notch is equal to the width of the channel then it is a
notch without end contraction.

Dimensional Analysis:

It is a mathematical technique used in research works and for

conducting model test. It deals with the dimension of various physical
quantities involved in the phenomenon.

Boundary Layer Flow:

When a real fluid passes through the boundary, it adheres to it.

Hence the velocity of fluid near the boundary will be same as that of the
boundary. If the boundary is stationery then the velocity of fluid near the
boundary is zero. But for away from the boundary there is a high velocity
and hence a velocity gradient exists.
 The increase in velocity from zero to free stream velocity is normal
to the boundary. This variation takes place in a very small region near the
boundary. This is called as boundary layer. In the boundary layer region,
the fluid exerts a shear stress on the wall equal to

τ = µ du / dy

But however outside the boundary layer velocity V = U and du / dy

= 0 and hence shear stress = 0.

Forces acting on a body:

A force exerted by the fluid on the body. The total force Fr (

resultant force ) acts in a direction normal to the surface of the body.

Drag : This is the component of resultant force, in the direction of motion.

This force is exerted by the fluid in the direction of motion.

Lift : This is the component of resultant force which is exerted by the fluid
on the body normal to the direction of motion. Lift occurs only when the
body is inclined at an angle to the direction of fluid flow.

HYDRAULIC MACHINES:

Hydraulic machines convert fluid energy into mechanical energy or

vice versa.

Turbines:

Turbines convert Hydraulic energy to mechanical energy. A turbine

is a device which converts the enthalpy and kinetic energy of a moving fluid
into some form of mechanical work. A basic turbine consists of a rotor or
series of rotors. These rotors are mainly composed of fins connected to a
shaft. When a fluid flows through the fins, the angle of the fins causes the
rotor or rotors spin, which causes the shaft to rotate. The torque in the shaft
is then able to do some form of mechanical work, such as rotate a
compressor or turn a generator which produces current. An important
application is the steam power plant which utilizes steam pressure to rotate a
generator and produce electricity. As the fluid passes through the turbine, it
loses some of its velocity, pressure, and temperature.

There are three types of turbines. They are Pelton, Francis and
Kaplan turbines. Turbines are classified as

• Impulse turbine : Here the water at the inlet of turbine contains only
kinetic energy.
 • Reaction turbine :If the water at the inlet posses both kinetic energy
and pressure energy then it is called as reaction turbine.
• Tangential flow. The water flows tangential to the runner.
• Radial flow : If the water flows in the radial direction through runner
then it is called as radial flow. Further they are classified into Inward
radial and outward radial.
• Axial flow : The water flows in a direction parallel to the axis of
rotation of runner.
• Mixed flow : If the water enters radially, but leaves in a direction
parallel to the axis of rotation of runner, then it is called as mixed
flow turbine.

Draft Tube:

The pressure at exit in the reaction turbine is less than atmospheric

pressure. Hence a pipe of gradually increasing area is used to carry the
discharge from turbine outlet to tail race.

Unit Quantities in turbines:

In order to compare the performance of different turbines which

operate with different speeds, blade angles the results are obtained in terms
of quantities which is obtained when the head of the turbine is made unity.
Unit speed and unit discharge are two such quantities. Unit speed is the
speed of the turbine at unit head. and Unit discharge is the discharge is the
discharge of turbine at unit head.

Pumps:

Convert mechanical energy to Hydraulic energy. A pump is a device

used to raise, transfer, or compress liquids and gases. Water is a typical fluid
used by pumps in applications such as irrigation and cooling, among others.
Another very typical use of a pump is to force gas into a combustion
chamber such as in a jet engine, where it is termed a compressor. Multitudes
of uses have been discovered for pumps involving liquids varying from
blood to sludge. Although a pump can be used with almost any liquid,
certain attributes of the working fluid must be considered when designing a
pump. For example, if the pump must displace an acidic fluid, the pump
must be composed of materials which will not react with the acid.

In a pump system, there must be some form of work done on the

pump to make it operate. In most cases, this would be a motor which would
drive either a piston or a type of rotor. The pump then does work on the
fluid passing through it, and this work is translated into total energy within
the fluid. Following are the different types of pumps.
Centrifugal Pumps:

The hydraulic energy is in the form of pressure energy. If the

mechanical energy is converted to pressure energy by means of centrifugal
force then that hydraulic machine is called as centrifugal pump.

Principle:

The centrifugal pump works in the principle of forced vortex

flow. According to which when a liquid is rotated by a external tongue,
there is arise in pressure head. This rise in pressure head at any point in the
rotating liquid is proportional to the square of tangential velocity of the
liquid at that point. At the outlet of the impeller, the pressure is more and
hence the rise in pressure head is also more. The liquid will be discharged
at the outlet at a high pressure. This high pressure will be sufficient to lift
the liquid to a very great heights.

Multistage Centrifugal Pumps:

If the centrifugal pump contains two or more impellers then it is

multistage pump. They may be mounted on same shafts or different shafts.
This arrangement is done to obtain

• High head or
• Discharge huge quantity of water.

To obtain huge quantity of water impellers are connect in series ( In

same shaft). If the discharge is required is high the impellers are connected
in parallel ( different shafts )

Reciprocating Pump:

If the mechanical energy is converted into hydraulic energy by

sucking a liquid into a cylinder in which a piston reciprocates and exerts a
thrust on the liquid and increase the hydraulic energy is called the
reciprocating pump. Following are parts in reciprocating pumps.

• Suction Pipe and valve

• Delivery pipe and valve,
• piston, connecting rod and crank.

The piston moves back with the crank and connecting rod
attachment. The crank rotates by electric motor. Both the valves are one
way valves or Non return valves, allowing the water to flow only in one
direction.
 When the piston moves from right to left vacuum is created in
cylinder. But the liquid is at atmospheric pressure. Hence because of this
pressure drop, the liquid is forced through the suction valve into cylinder.
When it moves from left to right the pressure in cylinder is above
atmospheric suction valve closes and delivery valve opens and liquid is
forced into delivery pipe.

FLUID MECHANICS BOOKS

1. Introduction to Fluid Mechanics by Robert W. Fox, Alan T.

McDonald
2. Schaum's Outline of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics by Ranald
V. Giles, Jack B. Evett, Cheng Liu, Jack Evett
3. Investigating Solids, Liquids, and Gases with Toys by Jerry L.
Sarquis (Editor), Lynn Hogue, Mickey Sarquis, linda Woodward
4. Boundary-Layer Theory by Hermann Schlichting, Klaus Gersten,
Egon Krause, Katherine Mayes
5. Computational Methods for Fluid Dynamics by Joel H. Ferziger,
Milovan Peric
6. 2,500 Solved Problems In Fluid Mechanics and
Hydraulics by Jack B. Evett, Cheng Liu
7. Fluid Mechanics, Second Edition by Pijush K. Kundu, Ira M.
Cohen
8. Applied Fluid Mechanics (5th Edition) by Robert L. Mott
9. Chemical Engineering Fluid Mechanics by Ron Darby
10. Computational Fluid Dynamics by T. J. Chung
 IC ENGINES
SI Engines work at constant volume. They have a compression ratio
of around 6 - 10. But CI engines work at constant pressure and has a
compression ratio of 16 - 20.

In four stroke engines, one power stroke is generated for two

revolutions of crank shaft. However in case of two stroke engines, the cycle
is completed in one revolution of crank shaft.

Differences between SI and CI engines:

SI Engine CI Engine

Constant volume cycle. Constant pressure cycle

Petrol is fuel, which has a high self Diesel is used, has a low self ignition
ignition temperature temperature.

These are high speed engines Low speed engines

Low thermal efficiency High thermal efficiency

Knocking takes place at the end of Knocking takes place at the beginning
combustion. of combustion.

Homogenous mixture of fuel and Heterogeneous mixture, hence low

hence a high pressure is formed pressure is generated.
Differences between Four stoke and Two stroke engines:

Four stroke Engine Two Stroke Engine

Heavy flywheel is used Lighter flywheel is used

Less lubrication, because of low wear

Heavy lubrication
and tear.

Valve actuating mechanism is used Only ports are used.

High volumetric and thermal Lower volumetric and thermal

efficiency efficiency.

Indicated power ( Ip ) = Energy in fuel - Loss in exhaust, coolant and

radiation.

Brake power = Indicated power - Friction power

Mechanical efficiency = Brake power / Indicated power.

Engine Construction:

Cylinder Block:

It contains the following parts.

1. Cylinders in which pistons slide.

2. Port or opening for valves.
3. Passage for cooling water.
 Mirror finish required in cylinder block is obtained by accurate
grinding and honing process.

Cylinder Head :

The top of cylinder is covered by cylinder head. It contains

combustion chamber and spark plug and also passage for the flow of cooling
water.

Crank Case:

It is attached to bottom of cylinder block. It supports the crank shaft

and cam shaft in suitable bearings.

Oil pan of sump:

The bottom half of crank case is called as oil pan. It acts as a

reservoir for storage of lubricating oil. The oil pump draws oil from this oil
pan and sends to all working parts of engine.

Cylinder Liner:

There are used inside cylinder block. They are used to prevent wear
of cylinder block. There are 2 types of liners. They are dry and wet liners.

In Dry liners the outer surface of the liner bears against the cylinder block
and hence has to be machined accurately. It is put in position by shrinking.
This induces some amount of stress on the liners. The liner should not be
too loose or tight in the cylinder block. Both can cause scuffing. The
former because of poor heat dissipation and resulting in higher operating
temperatures. The later due to distortion of the cylinder block, liner
cracking , hot spots etc. They are not in direct contact with cooling water.
The thickness is about 1.5 mm to 3.0 mm. They are hardened by nitriding
or chrome plating.

In Wet liners the surface is in direct contact with cooling water. Hence no
need for accurate machining. Thickness is about1.5 mm - 6.0 mm. It forms
the complete cylinder barrel and its flange fits with groove of cylinder
block.

Piston:

This device converts chemical energy to mechanical energy.

Transmits the energy to crank shaft via the connecting rod. The piston is
provided with piston rings between the piston and cylinder wall. It operates
at a temperature of 2000o C -3000o C. The top of piston is called as head.
Grooves are cut along the circumference of piston for piston rings. The
parts below the ring grooves is called as skirt. This portion is separating the
grooves are called lands.

Piston Rings :

These are fitted in the grooves of piston to maintain the seal between
the piston and cylinder wall. The following are the important functions.

1. To prevent blow by because of which the burnt gas in CC escape via

the piston into crank case.
2. To provide heat transfer from the piston crown to the cylinder liners.
3. Controls the flow of oil to the skirt and rings. Prevents excess oil to
reach the combustion chamber and prevent carbonization.

In the piston construction, there is a end gap. This is necessary in

order to expand the ring and slip it over the piston into the ring grooves.
The gap is almost closed when the engine runs. The ring width is usually
1.5 mm. Rings may be provided with porous phosphate coating to reduce
the scoring of the surfaces during running.

There are two types of rings. They are compression rings and oil
control rings. The compression rings seals the Air / Fuel as the mixture is
compressed. But the oil rings scrap off excessive oil from the cylinder wall
and return to oil pan.

The piston rings are split, so that they can be slipped insider the
piston groove. Usually the Outer diameter of ring is larger than cylinder
bore. When it is installed in the piston, the joint is closed and piston tightly
presses against the cylinder walls. The number of compression rings
depends upon the compression ratio. The Piston pin connects the piston and
small end of connecting rod.

Piston clearance :

Some amount of clearance is provided between cylinder and piston.

It is necessary for the following reasons.

1. A gap is necessary for lubricating fluid between piston and cylinder

wall.
2. Prevents piston seizure at high operating temperature.

usually a gap of 0.025 - 0.100 mm is provided. If the clearance is

large, then piston slap results. It means the sudden tilting of cylinder. Here
the piston shifts from one side of the cylinder to another. If this clearance is
small, then seizure of piston results.

Combustion Chamber :

The region between cylinder head and piston head when the piston
is at TDC is called as combustion chamber. The inlet and outlet valves are
closed and spark plug projects in it. Depending on the location of spark
plug and valves there are different types of combustion chamber.

1. Spherical
2. I shape
3. T shape
4. F shape and
5. L shape.

Connecting Rod:

Connects the piston and crank shaft. The small end is connected to
piston and bigger end is connected to crankshaft. The function of the
connecting rod is to convert the linear motion of the piston to rotary motion
of crankshaft. It is has a I -Beam section.

Crank Shaft:

Contains crank pins, balancing weights and main journals. Fly wheel
is attached to the rear end of crank shaft.

Cam Shaft:

It is simply a shaft in which a number of cams at required angular

positions for operating the valves at exactly the timings relative to the piston
movement and in sequence compatible with the firing order. It is
responsible for opening and closing of valve. The Cam shaft is rotated by
crank shaft by means of gears and chains. Gears are used when the cam
shaft is nearer to crank shaft. In over head valve arrangements chains or
toothed belts are used. The cam shaft turns at half the speed of crank shaft.

Engine Valves:

To admit the air-fuel mixture in the engine cylinder and evacuate the
exhaust gases at correct timings these valves are used. They are divided into
three main categories namely Poppet valve, sleeve valve and Rotary valve.

Cylinder valve:
 There are attached to the top of the cylinder block by means of studs
fixed to the block. Gaskets are used to provide a tight leak proof joint at the
interface of the head and the block The cylinder head forms part of the
combustion chamber. It also contains spark plug or the injector head and
cooling water jackets. Valve openings are also provided in the head upon
which is mounted the complete valve operating mechanism. Depending
upon the valve and port layout, the cylinder head may be classified as loop-
flow type, offset cross flow type or the in-line cross flow type.

In loop flow type the inlet and exhaust valves manifolds are in the
same side. It facilitates preheating of the intake air. The offset cross-flow
type gives lower exhaust valve temperature. The in-line cross flow type
gives better engine performance though costlier. The cylinder head may be
cast integrated with cylinder block in case of racing engines. However,
detachable cylinder head offers many advantages over the integral
construction.

1. Production is easier,
2. De-carbonizing and valve grinding is simplified and
3. Slight changes in compression ratio is possible.

Engine Performance:

Piston Displacement:
The volume displaced by the engine, when it moves from TDC to
BDC.

Engine Displacement:

The volume displaced by all pistons when they move from TDC to
BDC.

Compression Ratio:

It is the ratio of volume of charge in cylinder when the piston is at

BDC and volume when the piston is at TDC.

Compression Ratio = ( Clearance volume + Displacement

Volume ) / Clearance volume.

Volumetric Efficiency:

The volume of A / F mixture taken in to the cylinder to the volume

of cylinders.
IHP:

The actual power developed by the combustion of fuel is called IHP.

BHP:

The actual power that the engine delivers for outside work is called as
BHP. It is usually 70 % of IHP.

Stochimetric A / F ratio:

A mixture that contains sufficient air for the complete combustion of

all fuel in the mixture.

Equivalent ratio = Actual A/F ratio / Stoichiometric A/F ratio.

Different cycles:

Cycle Process Involved

Carnot
2 Isothermal process & 2 adiabatic process
Cycle

Ericsson
2 Isothermal process & 2 Constant volume process
Cycle

Otto Cycle 2 Isothermal process & 2 Constant pressure process

Diesel cycle 2 Isentropic & 2 Constant volume process

Dual Cycle 2 Isentropic, 1 Constant volume & 1 Constant Pressure process

Lenoir
1 Isentropic, 1 Constant volume & 1 Constant Pressure process
Cycle

Brayton
2 Isentropic, 1 Constant volume & 2 Constant Pressure process
Cycle

Rating of fuels:

Octane number is used for rating petrol engines. Resistance to

knock is the important characteristic of fuel for SI engines.
 Cetane number is used for rating diesel engines.

Lead tetraethyl lead is used as anti knock agent in petrol engines and
Amyl nitrate is used as antiknock agent in diesel engines.

Carburetion:

The formation of required combustible fuel mixture by mixing fuel

and air before admission to engine cylinder is called carburetion. There are
three different types of carburetors.

1. Solex carburetor.
2. Carter carburetor
3. SU Carburetor.

Dual fuel engines:

Availability of liquid fuel is less. Gaseous fuel is cheaper. Hence

both fuel could be successfully used in high compression ratio engine. The
dual fuel engine works on diesel cycle. The gaseous fuel (The primary fuel)
is added to the air inducted. The mixture of air and gaseous fuel is
compressed in the cylinder just like air in a normal diesel operation. At
some point in the compression stroke, near top dead center, a small charge
of liquid fuel called secondary fuel is injected through a conventional diesel
fuel system. Pilot injection acts as a source of ignition. The gas-air mixture
at the vicinity of the injected spray ignites at number of places establishing
a number of flame fronts. Thus combustion starts smoothly and rapidly. In
a dual fuel engine combustion starts in a manner similar to CI engine but it
propagates by flame front in a manner similar to SI engine.

The power output of the engine is normally controlled by changing

the amount of gaseous fuel. The pilot oil quantity is usually kept constant
for a given engine and is 5 - 7 percent of the total heat of engine at full load.
The dual fuel engine is capable of running on either gas to diesel or a
combination of these two over a wide range of mixture ratios. Without
gaseous fuel the pilot fuel burns like that in a diesel operation.

Multi fuel operating engines:

A multi fuel engine is the one which would operate satisfactorily on

a wide variety of fuels ranging from diesel oil, crude oil, lubricating oil,
kerosene to gasoline. The main reason for the development is military
requirement. They require open combustion chamber and the injection
pump needs modification. Variable compression ratio engines and stratified
charge engines are examples of multi fuel engines. Methanol and Ethanol
are good source of alternate fuels. Ethanol can be produced by fermentation
of carbohydrates.

Methanol

It can be produced from coal, a relatively abundant fossil fuel.

Methanol has a lower heating value than petrol and is a poisonous liquid. It
is made of bio mass and is in liquid state under normal pressure and
temperature. Following are the unique merits.

• It is in liquid state at Normal conditions of pressure and temperate

and can be easily stored.
• Can be handled easily and safely.
• Can be transported over a long distance by pipeline.
• Has a higher conversion efficiency.
• It can be obtained from renewable bio mass.
• Single boiling point unlike petrol
• More power from the same engine.

Biomass:

The potential for application of bio mass as an alternative source of

energy in our country is very great. Bio mass is produced in nature through
photosynthesis achieve by solar energy conversion. The conversion cycle is
shown below

Solar Energy -------- Photosynthesis -------- Biomass -------- Energy

generaation

Bio mass means organic matter. The simplest form of reaction in the
process of photosynthesis is given by

H2O + CO2 ------- CH2O + OO2

CH2O is the basic molecule forming carbohydrate stable at low

temperature. Bio mass falls under three categories.

1. In its traditional form (Wood and agricultural residue)

2. Bio mass in non traditional form (Converted into liquid fuels)
3. Bio mass is fermented an-aerobically to obtain a gaseous fuel called
bio-gas.
 MECHANICS OF MACHINES

Plane Motion:

When the motion may be confined to one plane then it is called as

plane motion. There are two types

1. rectilinear motion - In rectilinear the motion is along a straight path.

2. curvilinear motion - It is in circular path.

Simple Harmonic Motion ( SHM ):

For a body to execute SHM, it should satisfy the following two

conditions.

1. Its acceleration is always directed towards the center called as the

mean position.
2. The acceleration is proportional to the distance from that point.

The following are the basic concepts to be worth noting.

Amplitude: Maximum displacement of a body from its mean position.

Time Period: Is the time taken for the complete revolution. Tp = 2
Frequency: Number of cycles per second.

Center of Percussion:

Also called as the center of oscillation. It is the point at which a

blow may be struck on a suspended body so that the reaction at the support
is zero.

Simple Mechanisms:

Types of Links: There are three types of links. They are

- Rigid link
- Flexible link and
- Fluid link.

Structure:

It is an assemblage of a number of members having no relative

motion between them and are meant for carrying loads. E.g.. Bridge, Truss
and Machine Frames.
Difference Between a Machine and Structure:

* In machines, the parts move relative to one another, but in structure, it is

not so.
* Machine transforms energy to useful work, but in structure there is no
such things.
* Links in machines transmit power and motion. But links of structure
transmit force.

Types of Motion

1. Completely Constrained Motion: In this the motion is limited to a definite

direction, irrespective of direction of force. E.g.. Piston and cylinder
2. Incompletely Constrained Motion: Here the motion between a pair takes
place in more than one direction.
3. Successfully Constrained Motion: When the motion between the elements
is such that the completed constrained motion is not completed by itself, but
a external source. E.g.: Shaft in a foot bearing.

Kinematics Pair:

Two elements in contact in a machine is called a pair. If the relative

motion between them is completely constrained, then it is called kinematic
pair.

Classification of Kinematic Pairs:

a. Sliding Pair :- Piston and cylinder ( Example of CCM )

b. Turning Pair :- Two elements of a pair are such that one element turns
about the fixed axis of another element.
c. Rolling Pair :- One element rolls over another fixed element. E.g.. Roller
and Ball bearing.
d. Screw Pair :- One element can turn about the other by means of screw
threads E.g.. Bold and nut.
e. Spherical Pair :- One element is spherical in shape, turns or swivels about
another fixed element. E.g.. Car mirror attachment.

Lower Pair:- When two elements of a pair have surface contact during
relative motion, then it is called as lower pair. E.g.. Sliding, shaft in
bearings, turning and Screw pairs.

Higher Pair:- When two elements in the pair have line or point contact
when relative motion takes place and the relative motion between them is
partly turning and sliding then it is a higher pair.

E.g.. - Belt and rope drives.

- Cam and
- Ball and roller Bearings.

Kinematic Chain: When the kinematic pairs are coupled in such a way that
the last link is joined to the first link to transmit definite motion. It is a
combination of kinematic pairs, joined in such a way that each link forms a
part of the pair and the relative motion between the links is in CCM or
SCM.

Mechanism:

When one link in a kinematic pair is fixed then the chain is called a
mechanism. It is used for transmitting or transforming motion. A simple
mechanism contains around four links and a complex mechanism contains
more than 4 links.

Friction:

Laws of Dynamic Friction:

• Force of friction always acts opposite to direction of motion.

• For moderate speed, force of friction is constant but decreases slightly
at higher speeds.

Laws of Fluid Friction:

• Friction force reduces with increase in temperature.

• The force of friction is different for different lubrication substance.

Screw friction:

Threads are of two types. They are V-Threads and Square threads. V
threads are stronger and offer more frictional resistance to motion. V-
Threads are used in nuts and bolts. Square threads are used in Screw jacks.

Simple Pendulum:

In its simples form this type of pendulum has a heavy bob,

suspended at the end of a light inextensible, flexible string and the other end
of the string is rigidly fixed to wall. 'm' is the mass of the bob and 'l' is the
length of string. Following laws of simple pendulum are important.
 1. Law of isochronism: It states that the time period (t) of simple
pendulum does not depend on its amplitude of vibrations, and remain
the same provided the angular acceleration does not exceed 4.
2. Law of mass: States that the time period of a simple pendulum does
not depend upon the mass of the body suspended at the free end of
the string.
3. Law of length: states that the time period of a simple pendulum is
proportional to √ l, where l is the length of the string.
4. Law of gravity: states that the time period of simple pendulum is
inversely proportional to √ g.

Hence the time period t = 2 π√ l / g

Belt Drives:

Belts are used to transmit power from one shaft to another by means
of a pulley. When the driver rotates, it carries the belt due to grip between
its surface and the belt. The belt in turn carries, the driven pulley which
starts rotating. The grip between the pulley and the belt is obtained by
friction. This friction grip if required is increased by tightening the belt.
The amount of power transmitted depends upon

1. Tension under the belt.

2. Velocity of belt. and
3. Arc of contact.

Leather, Rubber, cotton and Balata are the materials used for belt.
Flat belt, V-Belt and round belt are the different types of belt. The following
are the common terms used in belts.

Slip: This is caused because of less friction. The effect is that, it educes the
overall velocity ratio.

S1 - % Slip in driver belt.

S2 - % Slip in driven belt.

The speed ratio is given by

N2 / N1 = ( d1+ t ) / ( d2 + t ) x ( 1 - S / 100 )

Creep: When the belt passes from slack side to the tight side, a certain
portion of belt extends and contracts again when moving from tight to slack
side. Because of this, there is a relative motion between belt and pulley
called creep.
 V- Belts:

These belts are used when two pulleys are nearby each other. The
included angle is usually 30o -40o. In order to have good grip the V-Belt is
in contact with side faces of the groove.

Chain Drives:

The advantage of chain drive are that it prevents slipping. Steel

chains are used. The chains are made of rigid links, which are hinged
together. They wrap around the driving and driven wheels. The wheels are
also called sprocket and resemble spur gears.

Pitch of Chain: It is the distance between the hinge center of one link and
the hinge center of the adjacent link.

Gears:

Following are the different types of gears.

Parallel Gears: The shafts are parallel. Spur gears are where the teeth is
parallel to axis of wheel. But in helical gears the teeth are inclined at an
angle to the axis. A double helical gear is called as herringbone gears.

Non Parallel and Intersecting Gears: Bevel and Helical bevel gears are the
examples.

Non Parallel and Non Intersecting Gears: Spiral Gearing.

Terms Used in Gears:

S. Terms Definition
No

1 Pitch Circle A imaginary circle which by pure rolling action would give the
same motion as the actual gear.

2 Pitch Circle The diameter of Pitch circle. Gears are specified by this PCD.
Diameter

3 Addendum The radial distance between the PCD and top of tooth. Addendum
circle is drawn through the top of teeth and concentric to PC.

4 Deddendum The radial distance been the PC and bottom of teeth.

5 Circular Pitch The distance measured from the circumference of the pitch circle
from a point in one tooth, to the corresponding point in next tooth.

6 Module it is the ratio of PCD to the number of teeth.

7 Diametrical pitch Inverse of Module.

8 Total depth Addendum + Deddendum

9 Tooth Thickness Width of the tooth measured along pitch circle.

10 Face of Tooth Surface of gear above the pitch surface.

11 Flank of Tooth Surface of gear above the pitch surface.

System of Gear Teeth:

• 14.5o Composite System.

• 14.5o Full depth involute system.
• 20o Full depth involute system.
• 20o Stub involute system.

Gear ratio = T / t = Teeth on Wheel / Teeth on pinion.

Gear Trains:

Two or more gears are made to mesh with each other to transmit power
from one shaft to another shaft. Such a combination is called as gear train.

1. Simple gear train

2. compound gear train
3. Reverted gear train
4. Epicyclic gear train.

Flywheel:

It acts as a reservoir which stores energy when the energy supply is

more than requirement and releases it during the period when required
energy is less than supply.

Coefficient of Fluctuation of Speed in Flywheel :

The difference between Max. and Min speeds is called as Maximum

fluctuation of speed. The ratio between max. fluctuation of speed and mean
speed is called as Coefficient of Fluctuation of Speed.
 Cs = 2 ( N2 - N1 ) / ( N2 + N1 )

1 / Cs = m =Coefficient of steadiness.

Energy stored in a fly wheel = mk2w2Cs

Governors :

The function is to regulate the mean speed of the engine with

changes in load. The governor automatically controls the supply of working
fluid to the engine with the varying load conditions and keeps the mean
speed with the certain limits. Governors are broadly classified into
Centrifugal governors and Inertia governors.

Centrifugal governors :

The main principle of working of the centrifugal governor is based upon the
balancing of centrifugal force on the rotating balls by an equal and opposite radial
force, known as the controlling force.

• Pendulum Type - Watt governor

• Load type
o Dead weight governors - Proel and portel governors.
o Spring controlled governors - Hartnell, hartung governors,
Wilson-hartnell and Pickering governors.

Inertial governors :

They operate on different principle .Governor balls are arranged that

the inertia forces caused by an angular acceleration & retardation of the
governor shaft tend to alter their position. The obvious advantage of this
type of governor is quick response to load variation .This advantage is offset
however by the practical difficulty of arranging for complete balance of the
revolving parts of the governor.

Equilibrium speed: Is the speed at which the governor balls are at complete
equilibrium and the sleeve does not tend to move up or down.

Sensitiveness: If there is more displacement in sleeve for the same speed

then the governor is said to be sensitive. It is equal to

2 ( N2 - N1 ) / ( N2 + N 1 )

Hunting: In this the governor switches between the maximum and minimum
position.
Lubrication :

The different types of lubrication between two surfaces having

relative motion can be classified as

1. Fluid film lubrication

2. Boundary lubrication
3. Extreme boundary lubrication
4. Surface contact of the sliding members

Fluid film lubrication:

In this the moving or sliding surfaces are separated from each other
by a thick film of fluid which is at least 1000 angstrom thick so that direct
surface-to-surface contact and welding of junctions rarely occurs. This is
also called as hydrodynamic lubrication.

Fluid friction is considerably less than metallic friction and under

such circumstances, the viscosity of the fluid plays an important role in the
design parameters of the bearing. It is very clear that the lubricant chosen
should have the minimum viscosity under the working conditions. At the
same time it should remain in place and separate the surfaces. The co-
efficient of friction in such cases should be as low as 0.001 to 0.03. Fluid
film lubrication prevails when there is high relative velocity between sliding
surfaces. In a journal bearing the lubricating oil covers the irregularities of
shaft as well as the bearing surfaces and the metal surfaces do not come into
direct contact with each other.

Boundary lubrication:

This is also called as thin film lubrication. when t he relative

velocity between the two sliding surfaces is very low, the fluid film will not
be able to support the total load and under such circumstances boundary
lubrication is done.

The clearance space between the moving surface is lubricated with a

lubricating oil., a thin layer of which is adsorbed, on both the metallic
surfaces. These layers avoids direct metal-to-metal contact. The value of
co-efficient of friction is usually, 0.05 to 0.15.

The friction phenomena in this case is complicated and no exact

theory is available for boundary lubricated bearings. However it has been
found that certain metals and lubricants with less friction compared to others
have the same viscosity improve the performance of such bearings.
Extreme boundary lubrication:

When the moving surfaces are under very high pressure and speed, a
high local temperature is attained and under such condition the fluid film is
completely broken because of decomposition or vapoursation and there is
direct metal to metal contact at that high spots of the sliding materials. High
load and speed in turn generates heat with the following mentioned effects.

• Welded junction and metal tearing.

• Deformation and seizure of surfaces.
• Change in physical and chemical properties of metals and lubricants
that renders lubricants ineffective.

The mechanism of this type of lubrication is given below. Special

additives that are capable of withstanding very high load and temperatures
are added to the lubricants. These additives react with metallic surfaces at
prevailing high temperatures to form metallic chlorides, sulphides or
phosphides. These metallic compound posses high melting points and serve
as good lubricant under high temperature and pressure conditions. If by
chances, the low shear strength films are broken by the rubbing action of
moving parts, they are immediately replenished. Since a chemical reaction
takes place in this lubrication, the metal surface under goes certain wear.

The function of lubricant is to reduce the loss of energy, to reduce

surface deformation, war and tear, to increase the efficiency of engine, to
reduce the frictional heat and thus prevents the expansion of metals, to
reduce the maintenance cost of a machine etc.

Application of Liquid Lubricants:

Mechanical devices to supply lubricants are called lubricators. A

simple form of lubricator is a container mounted over a bearing or other part
and provided with a hole or an adjustable valve through which the lubricant
is gravity-fed at the desired rate of flow. Wick-feed oilers are placed under
moving parts, and by pressing against them they feed oil by capillary
action. Horizontal bearings are frequently oiled by a rotating ring or chain
that carries oil from a reservoir in the bearing housing and distributes it
along the bearing through grooves or channels. Bath oiling is useful where
an oil-tight reservoir can be provided in which the bearing journal may be
submerged; the pool of oil helps to carry away heat from contact surfaces.
Splash-oiling devices are used where gears, bearings, or other parts
contained in housings have moving parts that dip into the lubricant and
splash it on the bearings or into distribution channels. Centralized oiling
systems usually consist of a reservoir, pump, and tubes through which oil is
circulated, while heaters or coolers may be introduced to change the
viscosity of the lubricant for various parts of the system. Many oiling
operations are automatically synchronized to start and stop with the
machinery.

Application of Semisolid and Solid Lubricants:

Grease lubricants are semisolid and have several important

advantages. They resist being squeezed out, they are useful under heavy
load conditions and in inaccessible parts where the supply of lubricant
cannot easily be renewed, and they tend to form a crust that prevents the
entry of dirt or grit between contact surfaces. Grease is a mixture of a
lubricant and a thickener; often it is made from a mineral oil and a soap. It
may be applied in various ways: by packing enclosed parts with it, by
pressing it onto moving parts from an adjacent well, by forcing it through
grease cups by a spring device, and by pumping it through pressure guns.
Solid lubricants are especially useful at high and low temperatures, in high
vacuums, and in other applications where oil is not suitable; common solid
lubricants are graphite and molybdenum disulfide.

CAM:

Is a rotating machine element which transmits oscillating or

reciprocating motion to the follower. They have line contact and constitutes
higher pair. According to the type of follower they are classified as

1. Knife edge follower.

2. Roller follower.
3. Flat faced follower and
4. Spherical faced follower.

The four types of motion of follower are

1. Uniform Velocity
2. Uniform acceleration
3. SHM and
4. Cycloidal motion.

Types of Vibrations:

1. Free ( or natural ) vibration.

2. Forced vibration and
3. Damped vibration.
 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
There are three types of Materials. They are

1. Elastic : Undergoes deformation on loading and deformation disappears upon

unloading.
2. Plastic : Undergoes deformation on loading and it is permanent upon
unloading the effect is not reversed.
3. Rigid : No deformation on loading.

Stress:

When a material is subjected to a load, it undergoes deformation. Against this

deformation the material offers resistance to prevent it from deformation. This force
of resistance offered by a body against this deformation is called stress. The external
force is called load. Load is applied on the body, while the stress is induced in the
body. Load may be of two types. They are dead and live load. Dead load remains
constant, but a live load varies continuously.

Stress = Force ( or Pressure ) / Area = N / m2

There are different types of stress. They are tensile stress, compressive stress
and shear stress.

Tensile stress : When the resistance by a body is against the increase in length then it
is tensile stress.

e = Increase in length / Original length.

Compressive stress : If the resistance offered by the body is against the decrease in
length, then the stress induced is compressive stress.

e = Decrease in length / Original length.

Shear stress:

If two equal and parallel forces F, not in the same line act on parallel faces of a
member, then the member is said to be loaded in Shear. Consider the rectangular
block shown in the figure, a force F is applied tangentially along the top and bottom
face. ( The force is called as shear force ). The shear stress formula indicates only the
average shear stress. In reality the distribution of shear stress is far from uniform. In
reality it varies parabolically from zero at the edges to a maximum at the center.
 Shear stress = Shear force / Area = P / ( L x H )

Shear strain = Transverse displacement / Distance form lower face.

Thermal Stress :

The size of a body will change as the ambient temperature fluctuates,

expanding as it rises and contracting as it falls. If the natural change ( +ve or - ve ) in
the length of the rod is not prevented, then the stress is not induced. The increase in
length of a rod = α TL.

α = Coefficient of linear expansion.

T - Temperature rise.
L - Actual change in length.

Bending stress:

When bending a piece of metal, one surface of the material stretches in

tension while the opposite surface compresses. It follows that there is a line or region
of zero stress between the two surfaces, called the neutral axis. Make the following
assumptions in simple bending theory:

1. The beam is initially straight, unstressed and symmetric

2. The material of the beam is linearly elastic, homogeneous and isotropic.
3. The proportional limit is not exceeded.
4. Young's modulus for the material is the same in tension and compression
5. All deflections are small, so that planar cross-sections remain planar before
and after bending.

Strain:

It is the ratio of change in length to the original length. It has no units. It is

expressed with the Greek word (epsilon) ε = dl / l

Hooke's Law:

Within in elastic limits, the ratio of stress to strain is constant. This constant
is called Young's modulus of elasticity. In case of shear force, if the ratio of shear
stress to shear strain is also constant. That constant is called as shear modulus of
rigidity. This young's modulus of elasticity is a measure of stiffness. The greater the
Young's modulus for a material, the better it can withstand greater forces. More about
the relation between, stress and strain is discussed in the following paragraphs.

Young's modulus ( E ) = Stress / Strain.

Stress-strain curve:

The relationship between the stress and strain that a material displays is known
as a Stress-Strain curve. Stress-strain diagrams can be generated foraxial
tension and compression, and shear loading conditions.

• Tension specimens have a narrow region in the middle along the so-
called gage length.
• Compression specimens are much thicker and shorter than tension specimens
with no cross-sectional variations.

In either case, data are collected in terms of applied force and the change in
the gage length. The normal stress is obtained by dividing the applied force by the
cross-sectional area of the specimen, and the normal strain is obtained by dividing the
change in gage length by its original value. The plot of stress versus strain gives the
stress-strain diagram.. These curves reveal many of the properties of a material
(including data to establish the Modulus of Elasticity, E). A typical stress-strain
diagram for a ductile metal undergoing tension is given below.
Proportional limit:

During the first portion of the curve (up to a strain of less than 1%), the stress
and strain are proportional. The greatest stress at which a material is capable of
sustaining the applied load without deviating from proportionality or stress to strain.
This holds until the point 'a', the proportional limit, is reached. Stress and strain are
proportional because this segment of the line is straight.

Elastic limit:

From a to b on the diagram, stress and strain are not proportional, but
nevertheless, if the stress is removed at any point between O and b, the curve will be
retraced in the opposite direction and the material will return to its original shape and
length. In other words, the material will spring back into shape in a reverse order to
the way it sprung out of shape to begin with. In the region Ob, then, the material is
said to be elastic or to exhibit elastic behavior and the point b is called the elastic
limit. The point on the stress strain curve beyond which the material permanently
deforms, upon removal of the external load.

If the material is stressed further, the strain increases rapidly, but when the
stress is removed at some point beyond b, say c, the material does not come back to
its original shape or length but returns along a different path to a different point,
shown along the dashed line in figure. The length of the material at zero stress is now
greater than the original length and the material is said to have a permanent set.

Plastic behavior:

Further increase of stress beyond c produces a large increase in strain until

point d is reached at which fracture takes place. From b to d, the metal is said to
undergo plastic deformation. If large plastic deformation takes place between the
elastic limit and the fracture point, the metal is said to be ductile. Such materials are
capable of being drawn out like a wire or hammered thin like gold leaf. If, however,
fracture occurs soon after the elastic limit is passed, the metal is said to be brittle.
Ultimate strength:

The maximum stress that a material withstands when subjected to an applied

load. Dividing the load at failure by the cross sectional area determines the value.

Yield strength:

This is the point at which the material exceeds the elastic limits and will not
return to the original shape, if stress is removed. This value is determined by
evaluating a stress-strain diagram produced during a tensile test.

The stress-strain curve for different material is different. The figure below
shows the comparison of the curves for mild steel, cast iron and concrete. It can be
seen that the concrete curve is almost a straight line. There is an abrupt end to the
curve. This, and the fact that it is a very steep line, indicate that it is a brittle material.
The curve for cast iron has a slight curve to it. It is also a brittle material. Both of
these materials will fail with little warning once their limits are surpassed. Notice that
the curve for mild steel seems to have a long gently curving "tail". This indicates a
behavior that is distinctly different than either concrete or cast iron. The graph shows
that after a certain point mild steel will continue to strain (in the case of tension, to
stretch) as the stress (the loading) remains more or less constant. The steel will
actually stretch like taffy. This is a material property which indicates a high ductility.

If the original cross-sectional area is used to calculate the stress for every
value of applied force, then the resulting diagram is known as the Engineering Stress-
Strain Diagram. However, if the applied force is divided by the actual value of the
cross-sectional area, then the resulting diagram is known as the True Stress-Strain
Diagram. Therefore, in engineering stress-strain diagram the ultimate and failure
strength points do not coincide whereas in the true diagram they do. The difference in
the two diagrams becomes apparent in the inelastic region of the curve where the
change in the cross-sectional area of the specimen becomes very significant.

Yielding:
Yielding occurs when the design stress exceeds the material yield strength.
Design stress is typically maximum surface stress (simple loading) or Von Mises
stress (complex loading conditions). The Von Mises yield criterion states that yielding
occurs when the Von Mises stress, σv exceeds the yield strength in tension. Often,
Finite Element Analysis stress results use Von Mises stresses. Von Mises stress is

------------------------------------------
( σ1- σ2 )2 + ( σ2- σ3 )2 + ( σ1-
σ3 )2
σ
= ----------------------------------------
v
2

Where σ1, σ2, σ3 are principal stresses. Safety factor is a function of design
stress and yield strength. The following equation denotes safety factor, fs. Where Y S
is the Yield Strength and D S is the Design Stress

YS
fs= ---
DS

Poisson Ratio:

Within elastic limits the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain is constant
and is equal to Poisson ratio. When a load is applied on a body, there is a dimensional
increase along the longitudinal direction and dimensional decrease in lateral
direction. Poisson ratio is constant for a given material.

• Rubber has a Poisson ratio close to 0.5 and is therefore almost incompressible.
• Cork, on the other hand, has a Poisson ratio close to zero. This makes cork
function well as a bottle stopper, since an axially-loaded cork will not swell
laterally to resist bottle insertion.
• For non-dilatant materials the Poisson ratio is 0.6.
• The Poisson ratio for most metals falls between 0.25 to 0.35. However the
limiting values of Poisson ratio is -1 and 0.5
• Theoretical materials with a Poisson ratio of exactly 0.5 are
truly incompressible, since the sum of all their strains leads to a zero volume
change.

Volumetric Strain ( ev ):

Because of increase in length, and decrease in breadth and depth, there is a

change in volume. Volumetric strain is defined as the ratio of change in Volume to
original volume.

Ductility:

It is the capability of a material to be drawn into wires. There are two methods
used for its measurement. One based on total elongation produced and other based on
total reduction in sectional area.

% increase in elongation = ( L- l ) / l
% reduction in cross sectional area = ( A - a ) / A x 100
Impact Test:

This test is used to find out the resistance of a body against shock load. This
is called as Izod impact test. The test specimen is a 10 mm square rod and notched at
a face. The notch is at a depth of 2 mm and a radius of 0.25 mm at the bottom. It is
fixed in a vice. The pendulum is raised and the value stored is around 165 joules.

Fatigue:

Sometimes members are subjected to loads that vary in magnitudes. They may
be even reversible loading. ( The member is subjected to repeated tensile and
compressive stress ). These members fail at point lower than ultimate stress. This
property is called fatigue of materials. At a certain range of applied stress, the
number of cycles becomes infinite. That limit is called as Endurance limit.

Strain Energy:

It is the energy stored on a member when work is done on it to

deform it.

Types of Loading:

There are three types of loading. They are

• Gradually applied load,

• Suddenly applied load and
• Impact load.

Torsion in Shafts:

A shaft of circular cross section is said to be in torsion, when it is

subjected to equal and opposite end couples. Whose axes coincide with
axes of shaft. As a result of torsion, a shaft twists.

Torsional Rigidity:

It is the amount of torque required to produce a twist of 1 radian at

unit length of shaft.

Beams:

These are structural members in which the load is applied at right

angles to the axis. The following are the different types of beams.

• Cantilever beams,
• Freely supported beams,
 • Fixed beams and
• Continuous beams.

Column and Struts:

These are members that are subjected to compressive load along the
axis. Short columns fail by crushing. Thus we have to take care of crushing
load. But long columns fail by buckling or bending, hence we have to take
care of crippling load. This buckling load is less than the crushing load.

This value of bucking load is low for long members and vice versa.
Thus buckling load depends on

• Length of member and

• Least lateral dimensions.

Effective length:

Of a given column with the given end conditions is the length of the
equivalent column of the same section with hinged ends. The crippling load
is same in both cases. The effective length under different conditions is
given by

• Both ends pinned L = l

• One end fixed and other end free L = 2l
• Both fixed L = l / 2
• One end fixed and other end hinged L = l / √2

Proof resilience:

It is the maximum energy stored at elastic limits.

Factor of Safety:

It is the ratio of Ultimate stress / allowable stress. Following are the

reasons why factor of safety is used in manufacturing and design.

1. Loading uncertainty
2. Type of loading - Static, dynamic and impact.
3. Machine strength uncertainty
4. Work environment - corrosive
5. Reliability requirements and
6. Effect of manufacturing process.
Bulk Modulus:

It is the ratio of applied Stress to volumetric strain.

Stress concentration:

Sometimes the cross section of a member changes abruptly because

of presence of a hole, notch, groove or shoulder. In regions close to the
abrupt change the stress is of high magnitude. This change in section is
called discontinuity or stress raisers. Following are the causes.

1. Variation in properties of materials due to presence of internal cracks,

air holes in casting, cavities in welds
2. Abrupt changes in cross sectional area or due to surface conditions
like cuts and grooves.

Disc springs:

Disc spring / Belleville spring, Occupy small space and gives high
spring rates. Parallel arrangement takes a higher load for a given deflection
and series arrangement gives a larger deflection. Leaf springs are used in
automobiles. They are energy absorbing devices. There are two types.
Constant width and constant strength springs.

HARDNESS

Hardness of a substance is the resistance that a body offers or

indentation by other bodies. For testing hardness, there are two tests. They
are Scratch test and Indentation test. The greater the hardness of the metal,
the greater resistance it has to deformation. In mineralogy the property of
matter commonly described as the resistance of a substance to being
scratched by another substance. In metallurgy hardness is defined as the
ability of a material to resist plastic deformation.

Hardness measurement methods:

These hardness tests measure a metal's hardness is to determine the

metal's resistance to the penetration of a non-deformable ball or cone. The
tests determine the depth which such a ball or cone will sink into the metal,
under a given load, within a specific period of time. The followings are the
most common hardness test methods used in today's technology. More
details about each test is given in subsequently.

1. Rockwell hardness test

2. Brinell hardness
 3. Vickers
4. Knoop hardness
5. Shore

Rockwell Hardness Test:

The Rockwell Hardness test is based on the net increase in depth of

impression as a load is applied. Hardness numbers have no units and are
indicated R, L, M, E and K scales. The higher the number in each of the
scales means the harder the material. The type of indenter and the test load
determine the hardness scale (A, B, C, etc). In the Rockwell method of
hardness testing, the depth of penetration of an indenter under certain
arbitrary test conditions is determined. The indenter may either be a steel
ball of some specified diameter or a spherical diamond-tipped cone of 120°
angle and 0.2 mm tip radius, called Brale.

The Rockwell test uses two loads, one applied directly after the
other. The first load, known as the "minor", load of 10 kilograms is applied
to the specimen to help seat the indenter and remove the effects, in the test,
of any surface irregularities. In essence, the minor load creates a uniformly
shaped surface for the major load to be applied to. A minor load causes an
initial penetration and holds the indenter in place. Then, the dial is set to
zero and the major load is applied. Upon removal of the major load, the
depth reading is taken while the minor load is still on. The difference in the
depth of the indentation between the minor and major loads provides the
Rockwell hardness number. The hardness number may then be read directly
from the scale.

The Rockwell hardness tester to measure the hardness of metal

measures resistance to penetration like the Brinell test, but in the Rockwell
case, the depth of the impression is measured rather than the diametric area.
With the Rockwell tester, the hardness is indicated directly on the scale
attached to the machine. This dial like scale is really a depth gauge,
graduated in special units.

For soft materials a 1/16" diameter steel ball is used with a 100-
kilogram load and the hardness is read on the "B" scale. In testing harder
materials, a 120 degrees diamond cone is used with up to a 150 kilogram
load and the hardness is read on the "C" scale. There are several Rockwell
scales other than "B" & "C" scales, (which are called the common scales).
The other scales also use a letter for the scale symbol prefix, and many use a
different sized steel ball indenter. A properly used Rockwell designation
will have the hardness number followed by "HR" (Hardness Rockwell),
which will be followed by another letter which indicates the specific
Rockwell scale. An example is 60 HRB, which indicates that the specimen
has a hardness reading of 60 on the B scale.

Brinell Hardness Test:

Brinell hardness is determined by forcing a hard steel or carbide

sphere of a specified diameter under a specified load into the surface of a
material and measuring the diameter of the indentation left after the test.
The Brinell hardness number, is obtained by dividing the load used, in
kilograms, by the actual surface area of the indentation, in square
millimeters. The result is a pressure measurement, but the units are rarely
stated. The BHN is calculated according to the following formula

where

BHN = the Brinell hardness number

F = the imposed load in kg
D = the diameter of the spherical indenter in mm
Di = diameter of the resulting indenter impression in mm

The Brinell hardness test uses a desk top machine to press a 10 mm

diameter, hardened steel ball into the surface of the test specimen. The
machine applies a load of 500 kilograms for soft metals such as copper,
brass and thin stock. A 1500 kilogram load is used for aluminum castings,
and a 3000 kilogram load is used for materials such as iron and steel.

The load is usually applied for 10 to 15 seconds. After the

impression is made, a measurement of the diameter of the resulting round
impression is taken. It is measured to plus or minus 0.05mm using a low-
magnification portable microscope. The hardness is calculated by dividing
the load by the area of the curved surface of the indention, (the area of a
hemispherical surface is arrived at by multiplying the square of the diameter
by 3.14159 and then dividing by 2 -As shown in the formula above). A
well structured Brinell hardness number reveals the test conditions, and
looks like this, "75 HB 10/500/30" which means that a Brinell Hardness of
75 was obtained using a 10mm diameter hardened steel with a 500 kilogram
load applied for a period of 30 seconds. On tests of extremely hard metals
a tungsten carbide ball is substituted for the steel ball.

Vickers Hardness Test:

It is the standard method for measuring the hardness of metals,

particularly those with extremely hard surfaces, the surface is subjected to a
standard pressure for a standard length of time by means of a pyramid-
shaped diamond. The diagonal of the resulting indention is measured under
a microscope and the Vickers Hardness value read from a conversion table.

The indenter employed in the Vickers test is a square-based diamond

pyramid whose opposite sides meet at the apex at an angle of 136º. The
diamond material of the indenter has an advantage over other indenters
because it does not deform over time and use The diamond is pressed into
the surface of the material at loads ranging up to approximately 120
kilograms-force, and the size of the impression (usually no more than 0.5
mm) is measured with the aid of a calibrated microscope. The Vickers
number (HV) is calculated using the following formula

HV = 1.854(F/D2),

Where F is the applied load (measured in kilograms-force) and D2

the area of the indentation (measured in square millimeters). The impression
left by the Vickers penetrator is a dark square on a light background. The
Vickers impression is more easily "read" for area size than the circular
impression of the Brinell method. The load varies from 1 to 120 kilograms.
To perform the Vickers test, the specimen is placed on an anvil that has a
screw threaded base. The anvil is turned raising it by the screw threads until
it is close to the point of the indenter. With start lever activated, the load is
slowly applied to the indenter. The load is released and the anvil with the
specimen is lowered. The operation of applying and removing the load is
controlled automatically. Although thoroughly adaptable and very precise
for testing the softest and hardest of materials, under varying loads, the
Vickers machine more expensive than the Brinell or Rockwell machines.
 Vickers hardness test. Knoops Hardness Test

Knoop hardness:

This test method was devised in 1939 by F. Knoop at the National

Bureau of Standards in the United States. By using lower indentation
pressures than the Vickers hardness test, which had been designed for
measuring metals, the Knoop test allowed the hardness testing of brittle
materials such as glass and ceramics. In this test, a pyramid-shaped
diamond indenter with apical angles of 130° and 172°30 (called a Knoop
indenter) is pressed against a material. Making a thombohedral impression
with one diagonal seven times longer than the other. The hardness of the
material is determined by the depth to which the Knoop indenter
penetrates.

The diamond indenter employed in the Knoop test is in the shape of

an elongated four-sided pyramid, with the angle between two of the opposite
faces being approximately 170º and the angle between the other two being
130º. Pressed into the material under loads that are often less than one
kilogram-force, the indenter leaves a four-sided impression about 0.01 to 0.1
mm in size. The length of the impression is approximately seven times the
width, and the depth is 1/30 the length. Given such dimensions, the area of
the impression under load can be calculated after measuring only the length
of the longest side with the aid of a calibrated microscope. The final Knoop
hardness (HK) is derived from the following formula
 HK = 14.229(F/D2),

Where F is the applied load (measured in kilograms-force) and D2

the area of the indentation (measured in square millimeters). Knoop
hardness numbers are often cited in conjunction with specific load values.

Shore:

The shore scleroscope measures hardness in terms of the elasticity of

the material. A diamond-tipped hammer in a graduated glass tube is
allowed to fall from a known height on the specimen to be tested, and the
hardness number depends on the height to which the hammer rebounds; the
harder the material, the higher the rebound. Shore hardness is a measure of
the resistance of material to indentation by 3 spring-loaded indenter. The
higher the number, the greater the resistance. The Shore hardness is
measured with an apparatus known as a Durometer and consequently is also
known as 'Durometer hardness'. The hardness value is determined by the
penetration of the Durometer indenter foot into the sample. Because of the
resilience of rubbers and plastics, the hardness reading may change over
time - so the indentation time is sometimes reported along with the hardness
number.

Shore Hardness, using either the Shore A or Shore D scale, is the

preferred method for rubbers/elastomers and is also commonly used for
'softer' plastics. The Shore A scale is used for 'softer' rubbers while the
Shore D scale is used for 'harder' ones. The shore A Hardness is the relative
hardness of elastic materials such as rubber or soft plastics can be
determined with an instrument called a Shore A durometer. If the indenter
completely penetrates the sample, a reading of 0 is obtained, and if no
penetration occurs, a reading of 100 results. The reading is dimensionless.

EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

Introduction:

When mathematical methods become too cubersome or impossible

for application as in the case of determining stress concentration around
openings ( discontinuity ) or member with unusual cross section,
experimental methods are used to determine the stresses. This methods are
known as "Experimental stress analysis". Number of methods are available
to obtain stress or strain distribution in loaded members. Often it is
necessary to know either the stress or strain distribution in the whole field
on the stresses or strains at selected points. The stress distribution in the
entire field is obtained by the following methods.
Whole field method:

This method gives the overall (entire) stress distribution in the

loaded member. Two techniques, namely, the photo elastic method and the
brittle lacquer technique are available to evaluate the stress distribution in
the entire field.

Point by point method:

This gives the stress or strain at selected points, usually strain gauges
are used to obtain stresses at selected points.

Photo elastic method:

This method is one which is extensively used to solve the problem in

practical way. Basic principle involved in this method is "double refraction"
or "Bi-refringence". So, this method depends upon the property of certain
transparent solids by which they become doubly refractive under the action
of stress, the magnitude of optical effect bearing a definite relation to that of
the stress. This optical phenomenon is called as photo elastic effect. The
photo elastic method of evaluating the stress in a stress field is based on the
following two photo elastic laws.

1. "The light on passing through a stressed model becomes polarized in

the direction of principle stress axes and is transmitted only on the
plane of principal stress"
2. "The velocity of transmission in each principal plane is dependent on
the intensity of the principal stress in these planes.

When a ray of light is incident on certain crystals, it is split at entry

into components which generally, are transmitted through the crystal in
different directions with different velocities. This phenomenon is known as
"Natural double refraction" or "Bi-refringence". One of the component
which is not deviated is known as the "Ordinary ray" and the other ray,
which is always deviated is called the "Extra ordinary ray". For some
crystalline transparent materials such as mica, calcite, the property of double
refraction is a permanent property of material. Certain transparent
materials such as perpix, bakelite, araldite are optically sensitive and exhibit
the property of double refraction when external loads are applied. This
optical effect disappears when the external loads are removed. In other
words these materials are ordinarily isotropic, optically but become optically
anisotropic when loaded and display double refraction characteristics
temporarily. Such materials are called as photo elastic materials.
 When a material is subjected to external loads, it develops principal
stresses P1 and P2 at any point 'O' along two mutually perpendicular
directions. Because of this property of the material to exhibit double
refraction when stressed, the refractive index of the material which is n1 in
the direction of the principal stress P1 changes to n2 in the direction of the
principal stress P2. The changes in the refractive indices is fount to be
linearly proportional to the stresses.

The color of light is due to the frequency of waves and each

frequency produces a different color (VIBGYOR). A monochromatic light
may be considered as a light corresponding a particular wave length and
color. Thus, light from mercury vapor lamp produces green and violet color
with different wave frequencies. However, when a suitable filter is used,
violet waves may be absorbed and only green light may be obtained.
"Monochromatic light' is a light corresponding to a particular wave length or
color and are obtained by using suitable filters. "Polarization" denotes the
ability to extinguish light in all direction except one.

"Polariscopes" are devised to produce polarization of light. For the

photo elastic investigations two types of polariscope are used.

• Plane polariscope, plane polarized light is used,

• Circular polariscope, circular polarized light is used.

A plane polariscope consists of a light source, to emit

monochromatic light and white light, condensing lens to collect white rays,
the field lens to give a parallel light beam, the polarize to produce plane
polarized light, the loading frame by which external load can be applied as
the model itself made out of photo elastic material such as Epoxy resins,
columbic resin (CR - 39), homolite 100, Bakelite (carsalin 61 - 893), glass
etc. An analyzer which would combine the two beams emerging out of the
model to produce "Interference fringes". The projection lens projects the
image or the stress pattern on the screen. A camera may also be used in
pace of the screen to get the permanent record of the fringe patterns. A
typical arrangement of a plane polariscope is shown in the figure below.
 To analyzing the stress pattern, a scale model of the loaded member
is made using a photo elastic material. The model is subjected to loads
similar to the one that might be applied on the original member. Light, on
passing through the polarizer, will be plane polarized, on entering the stress
model, the light vector decomposes into two vectors along the two principal
plane directions. As the result of this optical effect stress patterns known as
"fringes" are developed. Fringes represent the loci or points of equal "Phase
difference" produced by "temporary double refraction".

There are points of equal brightness or darkness. "Phase difference"

is proportional to the difference of principal stresses or maximum shear
stress. The fringe pattern related to the principal stress difference is called
"Isochromatic fringe pattern" the fringe pattern consists of 'isoclinic and
isochromatic' fringes.

Using law of elasticity and stress-optic law the stress pattern

produced are transformed into stress differences and ultimately the state of
stress at all points of the model are obtained. One such advanced automatic
polariscope is shown in the figure.
 Brittle coating method:

In this method, a brittle coating is sprayed over the surface of the

specimen for about 0.1 to 0.25 mm thick. The coating is allowed to dry
completely. The loads are applied on the sample. Since the coating is very
ting the strains on the surface of the specimen are totally transmitted to the
coating without any increase or decrease. White wash on walls represent the
very common example of brittle coating, but these coatings require large
strains to cause them crack. When the specimen is stressed, the coating
cracks in a direction perpendicular to the maximum principal stress.
Stresses in the specimen and the stresses in the coating are related using the
theory of elasticity.

This method represent on the non-destructive methods of stress

determination and the coating fails at very low stresses and the specimen is
not over stressed. Commonly used coating is known as "Stress coat" and
consist of a zing resinate as base, carbon di sulphide as solvent and dibutyl
pthlate as plasticizer to control the plasticity of the coating and to vary the
degree of brittleness of the coating.

This method is inexpensive and stress evaluation is easy and quick

and also provides a simple and direct approach for failure analysis or is
service components, determining the location and direction of stress sensors
such as strain gauges. It is also useful in determining areas of stress
concentration, measurements of thermal and residual strains in members and
estimating the magnitude and directions of principal stresses in a stress
fields. Following are the advantage of this method.

• Enables stress in the whole field to be determined,

• Directly applied to a prototype, no need for a model,
• This technique may be applied to an actual machine component while
working, and hence no need for simulation.
• Analyzing the specimen stressed from coating stresses is simple and
easy.

Disadvantages:

1. Behavior of coating depends upon temperature and humidity.

2. Behavior of coating should be properly understood as a number of
variables affect the behavior.
3. The technique is more qualitative than quantitative.

Strain gauges:
 A strain gauge may be defined a any instrument or device that is
employed to measure the linear deformation over a given gauge length,
occurring in the material of a structure during the loading of structure.
Depending upon the magnification system, the strain gauges may be
classified as follows

• Mechanical gauges ( wedge and screw, lever spindle and compound,

rack and pinion, combination of lever and rack and pinion and dial
indicators)
• Optical strain gauges.
• Interferometric type
• Electrical (Inductance, Capacitance, Resistance, Pieze electric and
Piezo resistive)
• Magnetic
• Acoustical and
• Photo stress gauge.

Mechanical strain gauge:

To meet the demand for greater sensitivity while retaining the

advantage of relative ease of applying the mechanical gauges, mechanical
magnification is used. Two commercially available gauges are Berry gauge
and Tinius olsen strain gauge.

BERRY GAUGE
 TINIUS AND OLESON GAUGE

Rack and Pinion:

The rack and pinion principle along with various types of gear trains
is employed in gauges in which the magnification system is incorporated in
an indicating dial. In general a dial indicator consists of an encased gear
train actuated by a rack cut in the spindle, which follows the motion to be
measured. A spring imposes sufficient spindle force to maintain a
reasonable uniform and positive contact with moving part. The gear train
terminates with a light weight pointer which indicates spindle travel on a
graduated dial. Lost motion in the gear train is minimized by the positive
force of a small coil spring. Dial gauges are permanently attached to
structure to indicate the deflection on deformation obtained under working
conditions These gauges then indicate excessive deformation due to either
an overload or damage to the structure.

Electrical strain gauges:

These are usually measured on a small area. A very thin wire,

usually 20 - 25 microns in diameter and having a considerable initial
resistance is used to measure the strain at a point. This think wire is
attached to the specimen surface using a suitable adhesive at the point where
strain is to be measured in such a way that the strains on the surface of the
specimen is totally transmitted to the wire. When the specimen suffers a
tensile strain, the length of the wire increases, thus its area decreases and
consequently the resistance will increase. This change in resistance is
 proportional to the tensile strain suffered by the specimen therefore, by
measuring the change in resistance the strain at the surface of the specimen
may be evaluated.

Most commonly used alloys as strain gauges are constantan (Nickel

copper alloy), Nichrome (Nickel chromium alloy) and Isoelastic (Nickel,
chromium, Molybdenum and Iron alloy). Resin adhesives are commonly
used.

BOOKS ON STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

1. Schaum's Outline of Statics and Strength of Materials by by John

H. Jackson
2. Problem Solver in Strength of Materials and Mechanics of
Solids by James R. Ogden
3. Advanced Mechanics of Materials by Robert Cook
4. Practical Stress Analysis in Engineering Design by Alexander
Blake
5. Advanced Strength of Materials by J. P. Den Hartog
6. Practical Stress Analysis in Engineering Design by Alexander
Blake
7. Mechanics of Materials by James M. Gere
8. Advanced Mechanics of Materials by Richard J. Schmidt, Arthur P.
Boresi
9. Mechanics of Materials by Anthony Bedford, Kenneth M. Liechti
10. Applied Statics and Strength of Materials (3rd
Edition) by Leonard Spiegel, George F. Limbrunner
11. Strength of Materials and Mechanics of Solids Problem
Solver by James Ogden
 GRINDING
Grinding is a finishing process used to improve surface finish,
abrade hard materials, and tighten the tolerance on flat and cylindrical
surfaces by removing a small amount of material. In grinding, an abrasive
material rubs against the metal part and removes tiny pieces of material. The
abrasive material is typically on the surface of a wheel or belt and abrades
material in a way similar to sanding. On a microscopic scale, the chip
formation in grinding is the same as that found in other machining
processes. The abrasive action of grinding generates excessive heat so that
flooding of the cutting area with fluid is necessary. Following are the
reasons for using grinding operation.

• The material is too hard to be machined economically. (The material

may have been hardened in order to produce a low-wear finish, such
as that in a bearing raceway.).
• Tolerances required preclude machining. Grinding can produce
flatness tolerances of less than ±0.0025 mm (±0.0001 in) on a 127 x
127 mm (5 x 5 in) steel surface if the surface is adequately supported.
• Machining removes excessive material.

Principle of Operation:

To grind means to abrade, to war away by friction or to sharpen. In

manufacturing it refers to the removal of metal by an abrasive wheel
rotating at high speeds and working on the external or internal surface of a
metallic or other part hard enough to be abraded, rather than indented by the
grinding wheel. The action of the grinding wheel is similar to that of a
milling cutter. The grinding wheel is composed of many small abrasive
particles bounded together, each one acting as a miniature cutting point.

Grinding removes metal from the work piece in the form of small
chips by the mechanical action of abrasive particles bonded together in a
grinding wheel.

Grinding operations :

Following are the different grinding operations that could be

performed.

1. Grinding flat surface

2. Grinding vertical surface
3. Grinding slot
4. Grinding angular surfaces
5. Grinding a radius
 6. Cutting off.

TYPES OF GRINDING MACHINES:

Grinding machines are designed principally for finishing parts

having cylindrical, flat or internal surfaces. The kind of surface machined
largely determines the type of grinding machine. Following is the
classification of various types of grinding machines.

1. Surface grinding machine:

It is a precision grinding machine to produce flat surfaces on a work

piece. It is more economical and practical method of accurately finished flat
surfaces than filling and scraping. The grinding is done on the
circumference of the plain wheel. Area of contact is less. Following are the
different types of surface grinders. In general, following are the parts of any
grinding machine.

Base: It has a driving mechanism ( hydraulic device, tank and motor. ) It has
column at the back for supporting the wheel head.

Saddle: It is the frame. It carries the table in its cross wise movement. It is
used to give cross-feed to the work. It can be moved by hand feed or auto-
feed.

Table: It is fitted on the saddle. It reciprocates along the guide ways to

proved the longitudinal feed to the work. It has 'T' slots for clamping
purposes. It is moved by hand or auto-feed.

Wheel head: It is mounted on the column. It can be moved vertically up and

down to accommodate work piece of different lengths. The wheel rotates at
a constant speed of 1500 m / min.

Horizontal spindle reciprocating table Horizontal spindle rotary table

 Vertical spindle reciprocating table Vertical spindle rotary table

Specification of surface grinder:

• Maximum diameter of the wheel that can be held one the spindle.
• Maximum size of the job that can be ground.
• The type of drive of the work table ( Hydraulic / electrical )

2. Centered Grinding:

Grinding for surfaces of rotation (axially symmetric surfaces) can be

either centered or centerless. Centered grinding involves fixturing the part
on a spindle axis as it is ground, as illustrated below. This configuration can
be compared to fixturing a part on a lathe with or without a tail stock. The
abrasive material is on a grinding wheel that rotates in a direction such that
rolling or sliding contact occurs where the wheel and work piece touch.
Centered grinding is accurate and stable, but set-up takes time and through-
put suffers.
3. Centreless Grinding:

Center less grinding is similar to centered grinding except that there

is no spindle. This allows high through-put since parts can be quickly
inserted and removed from the process. Out of the two wheels the large
wheel is the grinding wheel, and the smaller one is the pressure wheel. In
operation, the pressure exerted by the grinding wheel on the work forces the
work against the work rest and regulating wheel. The regulating wheel is of
rubber bonded abrasive having the frictional characteristics to rotate the
work at its own rotational speed.

The axial movement of the work piece past the grinding wheels is
obtained, by tilting the regulating wheel at a slight angel from horizontal.
An angular adjustment of 0o to 10o is provided in the machine for this
purpose. There are three main types of center less grinding.

Through-feed grinding:

In through-feed grinding, the part rotates between the grinding wheel

and a regulating wheel as shown below. For through-feed grinding, one or
both wheels of the centerless grinding machine are canted out of the
horizontal plane, as shown below. This imparts a horizontal velocity
component to the work piece, so that outside feed mechanisms are not
necessary.

The grinding wheel is canted with respect to the other two axes so
that a component of its surface velocity pushes the part in the direction
shown below. This auto feeding characteristic is useful for rapidly
processing many parts in quick sequence. Because of the axial movement,
through-feed parts can only have right circular cylindrical ground surfaces.
The wheel cannot be dressed to grind more complex shapes.
In-Feed Grinding:

It is used for jobs that, because of a shoulder or some other

obstruction on the part, can only enter the machine so far and then, after the
grinding is done, must be with drawn. In-feed grinding differs from
through-feed grinding in that the part is not fed axially so that the ground
surface does not need to be a right circular cylinder. The grinding wheel can
be dressed to accommodate the part. Once the work piece part is in place,
the grinding wheel is fed in radially.

Because of the set up time involved for each part, in-feed grinding
does not have the high throughput of through-feed grinding. In-feed
grinding is illustrated below.

End-Feed Grinding:

In end-feed grinding, the part moves in axially between the grinding

wheels, stops for grinding, and then moves out again. The wheel can be
dressed to form more complex shapes, but the part can only get
progressively smaller in diameter. End-feed grinding is illustrated below.
Advantage:

Center less grinding is used when large quantities of the same part
are required. Production is high and cost are relatively low because there is
not need to drill center holes nor to mount the work in holding device.
Almost an material can be ground with this technique. Minimum time is
lost in loading and unloading. Since no axial force is acting on the work
piece, long slender work pieces can be used without being distorted.

Large grinding wheels are used and hence wear is less and minimum
amount of adjustment. A low order of skill is required to attend the
centerless grinding much of the time.

4. Cylindrical grinder:

It produces a cylindrical or conical shape on a work piece. The work

piece is mounted between centers or in a chuck and the face of the grinding
wheel passes over the external surface of the revolving work piece. There
are two types of cylindrical grinders. They are

Plain cylindrical grinders:

These are the machines that are designed for simple external
grinding. The wheel head is made to operate to and from the work table but
cannot be swiveled. The work table holds the work head and tail stock and
can be swiveled for slight tapers. The head stock is rigidly attached to the
work table and cannot be swiveled. It is located to the left of the operator.
These grinders are used to produce
 • Plain or stepped surface,
• External cylinders.
• Tapers,
• Concave or convex radii,
• Under cuts and
• Form grinding by dressing the grinding wheel the desired shape.

Universal cylindrical grinders:

It is different from the above grinder in the sense that the wheel head
can be swiveled on its base and can be fed to and from the table. The upper
work table can be swiveled and is equipped with scales and adjusting screws
for setting the table to produce slight tapers. Steep tapers may be ground by
swiveling the headstock on its base. The universal grinding machine is a
tool room machine.

5. Internal Grinder:

It is designed to facilitate the finishing of holes. There are three type

of internal grinders. They are

• Work rotating type machine is commonly used in tool and die rooms.
In this grinder, the wheel head may be stationary with a reciprocating
work table or the wheel head may reciprocate and the work table
remains stationery.
• Planetary internal grinder is where the wheel spindle is arranged that
besides rotating on its axis it can be made to run eccentrically, thus
making it possible to grind large holes of varying diameter depending
upon how much the wheel spindle is made to run eccentric. The
work is mounted on a table which has vertical, horizontal and
longitudinal adjustments similar to those of the plain milling
machine.
• Centreless internal grinder works on a roller chucking principle in
which the rollers hold the work and impart the rotary motion to the
work. The wheel head has reciprocating motion and may be fed in
and out by hand. This machine issued for work of a repetitive nature.

6. Tool and cutter grinder:

In a machine shop, many of the operations are done by single point

cutting tools or multipoint cutting tools called as milling cutters. The
cutting tools become blunt and becomes important to carry out re-
sharpening. This is done in tool rooms where a tool and cutter grinder is
sued for this purpose. A universal tool and cutter grinder is used to re-
sharpen reamers, taps, single point tools dies and punches. A tool and cutter
grinder is also used as a surface, grinding, cylindrical grinding and internal
grinding machine with the help of certain attachments.

GRINDING WHEELS:

A grinding wheel may be considered as a multipoint cutting tool

with a cutting action similar to that of a milling cutter except that the cutting
points are irregularly shaped and randomly distributed over the active face
of the wheel. In order to make the grinding wheel suitable for different
work situations, the features such as abrasive, grain size, grade, structure
and bonding materials can be varied.

Those grains which actually perform the cutting operation are called
active grains. In peripheral grinding, each active grain removes a short chip
of gradually increasing thickness in a way that is similar to the action of a
tooth on a slab milling cutter. Because of irregular shape of the grains, there
is considerable plowing action, between each active grain and the new work
surface. The plowing results in progressive wear, causing the formation of
worn areas on the active grains. As grinding proceeds the number and size
of these worn areas increase, thus increasing the interference or friction,
resulting in an increase in the force acting on the grain. Eventually this
force become large enough to tear the work grain from the bond of the
wheel and thus expose a new cutting edges. Thus grinding wheel has self
sharpening characteristics.

A grinding wheel consists of an abrasive that does the cutting and a

bond that holds the abrasive particles together. There are two types of
abrasives. They are Natural and Artificial abrasives. The natural abrasives
are emery and corundum. These are impure forms of aluminum oxide.
Artificial abrasives are silicon carbide and aluminum oxide. The abrasives
are selected depending upon the materials to be ground. Following are
important criteria in grinding wheel manufacture.

Grain size: The number indicating the size of the grit represents the number
of openings in the sieve used to size the grain. Larger the grit size number,
finer the grit.

Grade: Indicates the strength of the bond and, therefore the hardness of the
wheel. In a hard wheel the bond is strong and it securely anchors the grit in
place, and therefore, reduces the rate of wear. In a soft wheel, the bond is
weak and he grit is easily detached resulting in a high rate of wear.
Structure: This indicate the amount of bond present between the individual
abrasive grains, and the closeness of the individual grains to each other. An
open structure will cut more freely. That is, it will remove more material in
a give time and produce less heat.

Bond: Is a substance which, when mixed with abrasive grains holds them
together, enabling the mixture to be shaped in the form of the wheel, and
after suitable treatment to take on the form of the wheel and the necessary
mechanical strength for its work. The degree of hardness possessed by the
bond is called as 'grade' of the wheel, and this indicates the ability of the
bond to hold the abrasive grains in the wheel. There are several types of
bonding materials used for making wheels.

Types of bonding:

Vitrified bonding ( V ):

Vitrify means to change into glass by heat and fusion. Thus when
clay, feldspar or flint are mixed with the abrasive grains and heated to
1200o C, the ceramic material melts and forms a lass like coating and
bonding agent for the grains. The forming of wheels is mostly done by the
puddled or pressed process.

In puddled process, the correct proportion of grain and bonding

material are mixed wet and poured into a molt to dry. The wheel is then
shaped on a machine operating on the principle of potters wheel. The wheel
are then charged into a kiln for the burning process which takes 2 - 3 weeks.
In pressed process the grains and bonding clay are mixed in a semi-dry state
and the wheel moulded under pressure. But this process the wheels can be
made under better control as regards density, giving a wider range of
grades.

It has high porosity and strength which makes this type of wheel
suitable for high rate of stock removal. It is not adversely affected by water,
acid, oils at ordinary temperature conditions.

Silicate bonding ( S ):

Silicate wheels have a milder action and cut with less hardness than
vitrified wheels. For this reason they are suitable for grinding fine edge
tools, cutlery etc.

Shellac bonding ( E ):
 This is used for heavy duty, large diameter wheels where a fine
finish is required. These are expensive and comparatively very rare. They
are used where their exceptionally cool cutting abilities are essential to
prevent burn damage or to provide very fine finish. Applications include
metallurgical sample cutting and Tool & Cutter grinding for reclaiming
broken slot and end mills. Shellac wheels may be made to 3 mm or less in
thickness. Shellac wheels posses considerable elasticity.

Rubber bonding ( R ):

This is used where a small degree of flexibility is required on the

wheel as in the cutting of the cutting off wheels. They produce good quality
of cut with minimal of burr formation. This could be uses in places where
there is polishing of metals such as ball bearing races and for cutoff wheels
where burr and burn must be avoided.

Resinoid bonding ( B ):

This is used for high speed wheels. Such wheels are used in
foundries for dressing castings. Resinoid bond wheels are also used for
cutting off parts. They are strong enough to with stand considerable abuse.
Resinoid bond is made from powdered synthetic resin used as phenol
formaldehyde. This is mixed pressed and heated to 177o C. After cooling,
this makes a wheel which is less brittle, tougher and more flexible than the
vitrified bond and which can be run up to 2900 m/min.

Wheel structure:

Wheel structure defines how "open" or "closed" the wheel surface is.
An "open" wheel is one with the grits spaced relatively far apart, a "closed"
wheel is one with the grits spaced close together. For conventional wheels, it
is assigned a number, normally between 1 [most closed] and 15 [most open].
It is a measure of the percentage of grit by volume. The less volume of grit,
the more open the wheel structure is with more space for coolant and chip
clearance.

Vitrified bond wheels naturally have a certain amount of porosity in

their structure. The porosity level can typically be up to 50%. The structure
can be artificially changed to increase the porosity level by introducing an
additional material when the grit and bond are mixed together before firing.
This material is in particle form of a specified size. During firing of the
wheel, this material is removed to leave pores of the same size as the
original particles. This type of wheel is called an induced porosity wheel.
The wheel then contains natural porosity plus induced porosity as shown in
the figure. Induced porosity wheels provide additional space for chip
clearance and for coolant. They are particularly useful for grinding
processes which have a long arc of contact between wheel and component.
For this reason, they are used almost invariably for creep feed grinding.
They are also used for the grinding of rubbers, plastics and polyurethane.

Types of Lay:

Each method will produce a characteristic finished determined by the

lay of the surface of the work piece after the grinding operation. A straight
wheel with reciprocating motion produces fine straight lines on the work
piece. Where as a cup wheel with reciprocating motion will produce
curving lines. A cup wheel with rotating work piece will produce concentric
circles.

Marking system for grinding wheels:

Standard wheel markings specify all the important wheel

characteristics. The marking system comprises of seven symbols which are
arranged in the following order.

E.g.. 51 - A46 H5V8

51 - Manufacturers symbol for abrasive

AA - Type of abrasive grit
46 - Grain size
H - Grade
5 - Structure
V - Type of bond
8 - Manufacturers own mark.

Specification of grinding wheels:

A grinding wheel is specified by the marking, shape, outside

diameter, bore diameter, thickness etc. A recessed wheel is specified with
all the above given particulars plus the diameter of the recess and the depth
of the recess.

Selection of grinding wheel:

For grinding a job the right grinding wheel is to be selected. The

selection of a grinding wheel will depend on the following factors.

Material to be ground: For grinding high tensile material an aluminum

oxide wheel, and for low tensile material silicon, a carbide wheel should be
selected. For grinding hard materials a soft wheel and for grinding soft
material, a hard wheel is chosen.

Amount of stock to be removed: When the stock of material to be removed is

more with heavy cuts select a coarse grain, open structured and hard grade
wheels. For removing less stock of material with light cut, select fine dense
structured soft wheel.

Finish required: Rough finish requires coarse grains and open structure.
High finish requires fine grain and dense structure.

Area of contact: The are of contact depends on the size of the work piece,
the grinding wheel and the nature of operation. When the area of contact is
more a soft grade and coarse grain wheel is to be selected. For less area of
contact select hard grade and fine grain wheel.

Type of grinding operation: The selection of grinding wheel is affected by

the grinding operation to be done. The wheel shape and size are to be
selected on the basis of the grinding operation such as surface, cylindrical or
tool grinding.

Wheel speed: Generally the speed at which a grinding wheel is to be used

will be marked on the wheel by the manufacturer. Select a soft wheel for
high speed and a hard wheel for low speed.

Work speed: Select a hard wheel for high work speed and a soft wheel for
low work speed.
Condition of the machine: For rigid and new machines, select a soft grade
and open structured wheel. For light and old machines, select a hard grade
and dense structured wheel.

Personal factor: A skilled person can do the operation effectively, even if

there is a slight deviation in the selection. But for a semi skilled labor,
perfect selection is essential.

Method of cooling: If better cooling is required select an open structured

wheel. Always the coolant should be directed at the cutting areas to
minimize the heat and to wash away the grain particles.

Balancing of grinding wheels:

When a new grinding wheel is used it should be checked for

balancing. Most manufacturers balance their wheels before selling them.
For checking the balance of the grinding wheels, it is mounted at the center
of a perfect straight and round spindle, the assembly then being rested on
level knife-edge ways on a lathe bed or on a special stand. For the test to be
really satisfactory the wheel should be mounted on its won spindle. The
wheel is then rolled a little and left. Any out of balance will result in the
wheel coming to the rest with the heavy side underneath.

Balancing may be achieved by adding lead weight to the light side.

This may be accomplished by removing small amounts of the wheel beneath
the flanges and then filling the hole thus made with lead. The wheel is
mounted on its own spindle kept on knife edge ways, and again give a slight
push, allowing it to roll back and forth until it comes to rest, which it will do
with the heavy portion of the wheel at the bottom. Continue adding weight
from the wheel, until it is balanced. This will be evident when the wheel
rolls to a gentle sop with no apparent tendency to roll backward.

Types of grinding fluid:

There are 5 main types of grinding fluid. Of these four are water
based and the other is a neat oil. With the water based fluids, the main
constituent is water with a concentrate added to a specified percentage. The
concentrate should always be added to the water, rather than the other way
round, so that a stable emulsion will be formed.

1. Emulsion: The concentrate normally has an oil content of 30-80%.

When mixed with water, oil droplets are formed and these are
 dispersed evenly throughout the fluid. Droplet size is typically 3-
8 um, which gives the fluid a milky appearance.
2. Semi-synthetic: The concentrate contains both oil and a synthetic
lubricant. The oil content is in the range 4-30%.
3. Micro-emulsion: The concentrate has an increased emulsifier system
to reduce the oil droplet size to less than 2 um. This makes the fluid
transparent. Oil content in the concentrate can be up to 60%.
4. Synthetic: The concentrate contains no oil and a clear solution is
formed. It can contain non-mineral lubricity materials at levels
between 0 and 60%. With no oil content, a rust inhibitor is an
essential additive.
5. Neat oil: The main constituent is a mineral oil. The type of base oil
determines the viscosity. The viscosity affects the power required
from the coolant pump and friction losses in the pipe work. A higher
viscosity requires more pumping power and loses more velocity
through friction in the pipes. The type of base oil, and the viscosity,
selected depends on the application. Values of viscosity can range
from 2 to 100 cSt @ 40oC, with 80% of applications in the range
6 to 40 cSt @ 40oC. Additives are usually included, with the types of
additive depending on the application.

GLAZING, LOADING, WHEEL DRESSING AND DRESSING

TOOLS:

Glazing:

When the surface of a grinding wheel develops a smooth and shining

appearance, then it is said to be glazed. This indicates the abrasive particles
on the wheel face are not sharp. These are worked down to their bond level.

Loading:

When soft materials like aluminium, copper, lead etc are ground the
metal particles get clogged between the abrasive particles. This condition is
called as loading. The effects of glazing and loading are almost same.
Following are the effects.

• Excessive cutting pressure between wheel and work.

• More heat generation,
• Burning of the ground surface,
• Poor surface finish,
• Inaccuracies in the size and shape of the work piece and
• Wheel breakage.
Causes of glazing:

• Wrong selection of grade and size,

• High wheel speed,
• Feed too fine
• Dirty coolant

A glazed or loaded grinding wheel can be reused after removing the

glazed or loaded particles from the grinding wheel face.

Grinding wheel dressing:

Dressing is an operation to change the cutting action of a wheel or to

recondition its grinding surface. Mostly dressing and truing are done at the
same time. Grinding wheels should be dressed and trued regularly to
improve

• Work production,
• Wheel performance and
• Grinding economy.

Dressing Truing

Refers to the removing of clogs Refers to the shaping of the wheel

and blunt abrasive grains from
the surface of the grinding
wheel. Dressing exposes the
cutting edges which restore the
correct cutting action of the
wheel. Dressing is done on a
glazed or loaded wheel to
recondition it.
to make it run concentric with the
axis. When a new grinding wheel
is mounted, it must be trued
before use to remove the run out.
Truing is done on the wheel
which is out of shape due to long
use. Sometime a wheel is also
trued to change the shape of the
grinding wheel face for a specific
grinding operation like form
grinding.

There are three types of wheel dressers. They are

• Diamond,
• Steel and
• Abrasive.

Dressing tools:
 A diamond dressing tool has a hard diamond point mounted in a
metal shank. The shank is fitted in a tool holder for location on the grinding
machine to perform dressing. Diamond dressers are most effective for
precision grinding wheels. The low feed of a diamond dresser can glaze the
wheel. They are specified by their weight in carats. Usually 0.5 carat to 1
carat diamond is used for dressing up to 300 mm diameter of wheels.

Steel dressers for dressing a grinding wheel have rotary cutting

surfaces made from hard steel. They are held in place against the grinding
wheel by hand and moved across the face of the grinding wheel to do the
dressing. The tool rest or other rigid support must be used during this
operation.

When only light dressing is required abrasive sticks are used. There
are abrasive materials made in the form of square or round sticks or put in
metal tubes for convenient handling. This type of dresser is more common
in tool and cutter grinders where truing and dressing is necessary.

Measurement of Grinding process:

There are two types of measurement. Those that are necessary to

check component quality and those that can be used to check efficiency of
the grinding process.

Measuring quality: There are three main checks on component quality.

[1] Accuracy: This involves overall dimensions and profile shape.

[2] Surface finish: This is often specified as a value of a surface roughness

parameter. Ra is probably the most common, other parameters such as Rz
and Rt are also used. As well as conforming to a measured value, visual
appearance is also important in some applications. This may mean avoiding
vibration or chatter marking and deep scratches.

[3] Component material condition: In many grinding applications it is

essential to avoid grinding burn (also called grinding abuse). This usually
means damage to the material structure of the component. There are three
degrees of abuse:

[a] Rehardening burn. This is the most severe type of grinding

damage. It produces a hard, brittle layer on the surface. This is
often associated with grinding cracks.

[b] Temper burn. This is a softening of the material through

overheating during grinding. It is less severe than re hardening
 burn. Requirements vary from no temper burn allowed to no
check required. In between, specifications are sometimes laid
down for the amount of surface softening that can be allowed.

[c] Residual stress. Grinding can leave stresses in the

component material, even when there is no burn. This can be
critical for certain applications such as gears and bearings,
since fatigue life can be affected.

Rehardening burn and temper burn are commonly assessed using a

Nital etch. Temper burn shows up as a darker area. Re hardening burn
shows up as a lighter area, usually surrounded by an area of temper burn.
Residual stress measurement is not common, but may become more so, as
component quality requirements become more stringent. Specialized
equipment is needed.

Measuring grinding efficiency:

The following are three ways in which grinding efficiency can be

measured, additional to the quality checks above. These have not
traditionally been measured, but the trend is to add these to quality checks as
a way of improving the control of the grinding process and as a means of
ensuring defects do not occur, rather than leaving inspection to discover
them and then scrap the component.

[1] Grinding power: A measurement of grinding power will show how

efficiently the wheel is cutting. A blunt or worn wheel will tend to rub so
creating friction and increased grinding power. This can be used to indicate
when dressing is required. Grinding power can also be used to detect if burn
is likely to occur, since in some cases, the start of burn can be related to a
specific level of grinding power.

[2] Grinding ratio: This is defined as the ratio of the volume of component
material removed to the volume of the wheel consumed in the process. It is
therefore a measure of the efficiency with which the wheel is being used.
This measurement can be used to check if the wheel specification is correct.
A low grinding ratio may mean the wheel is too soft and is therefore
breaking down too easily under the grinding forces. Care is needed here, as
too hard a wheel can sometimes give a low grinding ratio as well. Too hard
a wheel encourages chips to stick to the wheel surface and this can cause
grits to fall out too soon.

[3] Vibration: Vibration can be caused by many factors including a low

stiffness machine, too high a work speed, too hard a wheel, faulty bearings,
out-of-balance, etc. It usually leads to more efficient cutting as the vibration
gives a self-dressing effect. However, it is detrimental to surface finish,
wheel life and machine life. Also, it often causes excessive noise.

Grinding speed, feed and depth of cut:

Grinding speed:

It is the rate of travel of the wheel surface past a point on the work
piece. Wheel speed is otherwise called surface speed. It is expressed in
terms of meters per second.

N = V x 1000 / π x d

V - Surface speed in meters / second.

D - Diameter of the wheel in mm.
N - RPM of the machine spindle.
1000 - to convert mm to meters.
60 - to convert RPM to revolution per second.

Feed:

In grinding refers to the movement of the wheel per stroke across the
work surface. The feed in grinding depends on the work speed, wheel width
and the finish required. It is generally 3/4th to 2/3rd of the wheel face width
for rough grinding and 1/4th to 1/8 of the wheel face width in case of the
finish grinding. When feed is high the wheel wear increases surface finish
deteriorates and the dimensional accuracy of the work piece is affected.

Depth of cut:

It is the thickness of the material removed in surface grinding for one

cut. Depth of cut depends on the cutting load, power of the machine and
finish required. Generally the depth of cut is 0.02 to 0.03 mm for rough cut
and 0.005 to 0.01 mm for finish cut.
 Mechanical Engineering Sites
Tutorial Sites

No. Site Address Brief Description

http://www.mech.f2s.com/ Contains information on statics
1 & dynamics, heat transfer, and
fluid mechanics.
Basic Thermodynamics This web site is intended for
new thermodynamics students
2
to gain a basic understanding of
cycles and components.
Ansys Tutorials Contains tutorials on using
3
Ansys Package.
http://www.proedesigns.com/ Contains tutorials and tips for
4
Using PRO-E.
http://www.cadregister.com/ Provides millions of
component drawings from
5
manufacturers free for
download.
http://www.tenlinks.com/ A Unique site for CAD
Engineers, with coverage on
6
CAE, GIS and other Advanced
concepts.
http://www.cfd-online.com/ Contains rich information on
7 CFD (Computational Fluid
Dynamics)
http://www.mossdesigns.com/ This site contains AutoCAD
8
tutorials.
http://www.englinks.com/ Contains resources on various
disciplines of engineering such
9
as Aerospace, geology,
Mechanical engineering etc.
http://www.gearhob.com/ Contains information about
CAD / CAM / CAE, Machine
10
shop, semiconductors and finite
element methods.
www.howstuffworks.com/stinger2.htm Details about the working of
11 the famous "fire and forget"
Stinger missile.
http://www.howstuffworks.com/ A site ( Indeed a treasure )
12
which contains lot of
 information about the
functioning of various
engineering components and
structures.
www2.lib.udel.edu/subj/mee/internet.htm#sites A guide to internet resources in
13
Mechanical Engineering.
www.efunda.com This site contains exhaustive
information on fundamentals of
14
various disciplines of
Engineering

Job Sites

These sites contain information that would be useful for Mechanical

Engineers. More information about what the site contains can be found
from the respective Sites. I thank Mr. Sanjay Kumar Singh for contributing
a majority of these valuable sites.

http://www.ugjn.com/ Unigraphics Job Junction.

http://www.acjn.com/ AutoCAD Job Junction.

http://www.pejn.com/ PRO-E Job Junction.

http://www.ideasjn.com/ I-Deas Job Junction.

http://www.cncjn.com/ CNC Job Junction.

http://www.catjn.com/ Catia Job Junction.

http://www.sejn.com/ Solid Edge Job Junction.

This site contains about CAD jobs and

CAD Jobs
services.

CADForum Contains CAD jobs and services.

 Composite Materials
Many of our modern technologies require materials with
combinations of properties that cannot be met by conventional metals,
alloys, ceramics and polymeric materials. This is especially the case of
aerospace industries, underwater and transportation applications. A
composite is considered to be any multiphase material that exhibit a
significant proportion of properties of both constituent phases such that a
better combination of properties is realized. Most composites have been
created to improve combinations of mechanical characteristics such as
stiffness, toughness and ambient temperature and high temperature
strength.

Many composite materials are composed of just two phases one is

termed the matrix, which is continuous and surrounds other phase often
called dispersed phase. The properties of composites are a function of
properties of constituent phases, their relative amounts and geometry of
dispersed phase. Dispersed phase geometry means the shape of particles an
particle size, distribution and orientation. The special property exhibited by
the composite materials is that they exhibit directional properties, strongly
only where required. Thus the designer can achieve optimum weight. This
is also called as selective strengthening. Apart from Aircraft industry
composite materials are also used in

• Compressor blades,
• Engine ducts,
• Panels
• connecting rods and
• Axle castings.

Fibres like boron, glass or carbon has greater tensile strength,

stiffness than High speed steel. To use the superior property of fibres,
composite materials are made with a two phase structure.

1. A fibre which acts a reinforcement.

2. A matrix which bonds and holds the fibres.

Classification of composites:

• Large particle
Particle
1 • Dispersion strengthened
reinforced

Fibre • Continuous
2
reinforced • Discontinuous ( Aligned
 and randomly oriented)

• Laminates
Structural
3 • Sandwich panels
composites

Dispersion phase for particle reinforced composites is equiaxed.

Fibre reinforced composites the dispersed phase has geometry of a fibre
(Large length to diameter ratio). Structure composite are combination of
composites and homogenous materials.

1. Particle reinforced composites:

Large particle and dispersion strengthened composites are

classification of particle reinforced composites. Distinction between these is
based upon reinforcement or strengthen mechanism. The term large is used
to indicate that particle matrix interaction cannot be treated on atomic level
or molecular level rather continuous mechanics is used. For most of these
composites the particulate phase is harder and stiffer than matrix. These
reinforcing particles tend to restrain movement of matrix phase of applied
stress to particle which bear a friction of load, the degree of reinforcement
or improvement of behavior depends on strong bonding at matrix particle
interface E.g.. Concrete.

For dispersion strengthened composites particles are normally much

smaller having diameters between 0.01 and 0.1 x 10-6 m. Particle matrix
interactions that lead to strengthening occur on atomic level. The matrix
bears the major portion of an applied load the small dispersed particles
hinder or impede motion of dislocations. Thus plastic deformation is
restricted such that yield and tensile strength as well as hardness improve
E.g.. Thoria dispersed nickel.

2. Fibre-reinforced composites:

Technologically important composites are those in which dispersed

phase is in the form of fibre. Design goals are to include high strength or
stiffness on a weight basis. These characteristics are expressed in terms of
specific strength i.e.. Ratio of modulus of elasticity to specific gravity.
Fibre reinforced composites with exceptionally high specific strength and
moduli having been produced that utilize low density fibres and matrix
materials.

2a. Fibre phase:

 On the basis of diameter and character fibres are grouped into three
different classifications as

• Whiskers,
• Fibres and
• Wires.

Whiskers are thin single crystals that have extremely large length to
diameter ratios. As a consequence of their small size that have extremely
high degree of crystalline perfection and are virtually are strongest known
materials. In spite of these high strengths whiskers are not utilize
extensively as a reinforcement medium because they are very expensive.
Moreover it is difficult and often impractical to incorporate whiskers into
matrix. Whisker material include graphite, silicon carbide, silicon nitride.

Materials that are classified as fibres are either polycrystalline or

amorphous and have small diameters. Fibrous materials are generally either
polymers or ceramics (Glass, carbon, Boron etc.) Fine wires have relatively
large diameters. Typical material include steel, molybdenum, tungsten.
Great strength of structural materials offers great strength and high load
carrying capacity. Good ductility prevents sudden and catastrophic failures.
However good strength and ductility are generally incompatible. Composite
materials provide a balance of both properties (Strength and ductility). The
stiff reinforcing fibres fibres are responsible for carrying load and ductility,
toughness is offered by matrix. Fracture of fibres in brittle manner is
retarded by soft matrix. Thus combination of matrix and reinforcement
offers strength as well as toughness which cannot be separately attained by
either components.

2b. Matrix phase:

It is the phase of fibrous composites may be a metal, polymer or

ceramic. In general metals and polymers are used as matrix material
because some ductility is desirable. For ceramics matrix composites the
reinforcing component is added to improve fracture roughness. Matrix
materials should be ductile. In addition the elastic modulus of fibres should
be much higher than that of matrix. Secondly the function of matrix is to
protect the individual fibres from surface damage as a result of mechanical
abrasion or chemical reactions with environment. Such interactions may
introduce surface flows capable of forming cracks, Which may lead to
failure at low tensile stress levels. Finally the matrix separates the fibres
and virtue of its relative softness and plasticity prevents the propagation of
brittle cracks from fibre to fibre which could result in catastrophic failure.
In other words the matrix phase serves as a barrier to crack propagation.
2c. Polymer-Matrix composites:

It consists of polymer resin as matrix with fibre as reinforcement

medium. These materials are used in greatest diversity of composite
application due to ease of fabrication and cost. Various classification are
discussed according to the type of reinforcement.

Glass fibre-reinforced polymer composites:

It consists of glass fibres either continuous or discontinuous

contained within a polymer matrix fibre diameter normally in the range
between 3 and 20 x 10-6 m. Glass is used because of the following
advantages.

1. It is easily drawn into high strength fibres from molten state.

2. Readily available and may be fabricated into glass reinforced plastic.
3. As a fibre it is relatively strong and when embedded with plastic
matrix it produces a composite having high specific strength.
4. When cooled with various plastics it possess a chemical inertness that
renders composite very useful in variety of corrosive environment.

Carbon fibre reinforced polymer composites:

Carbon is a high performance fibre material most commonly sued

reinforcement in advanced polymer matrix composites. Following are the
important characteristics.

1. Carbon fibres have highest specific modulus and specific strength of

all reinforcing material.
2. Retain their high tensile modulus and specific strength at elevated
temperature, high temperature. However oxidation may be a
problem.
3. At room temperatures, carbon fibres are not affected by moisture nor
a wide variety of solvents, acids and bases.
4. These fibres exhibit a diversity of physical and mechanical
characteristics allowing composites incorporating these fibres to have
specific engineering properties.
5. Carbon fibres are normally coated with protected epoxy size which
also improves adhesion with polymer matrix.

Aramid fibre reinforced polymer composites:

Aramid fibres are high strength, high modulus materials. This group
of materials is known as polyparaphenylene tere pthalamide (Trade name is
Kevlar). There are various grades, with various mechanical properties.
Even though Aramids are thermoplastics they are resistant to combustion
and stable to relatively high temperatures. The temperature range over
which they retain their high mechanical properties is between -200 to 200
degree centigrade. They are cheaper than carbon fibres. They are 50%
cheaper than carbon fibre for the same weight, and thickness. For a heavily
loaded structures a hybrid combination of Kevlar and carbon fibres are
used. Boron fibre reinforced composite is used mainly in the manufacture of
Helicopter blades.

Metal matrix composites:

These materials may be used at higher temperatures than their base

metal counterparts. The reinforcement may improve specific stiffness,
specific strength, abrasion resistance, creep superior with respect to strength,
stability, better hazardous environment conditions.

Carbon-carbon composite:

One of the most advanced and promising engineering materials is

carbon fibre reinforced carbon matrix composite. Both reinforcement and
matrix are carbon. They are expensive and are not used extensively. Their
desirable properties include high tensile moduli, tensile strength which are
retained even at 2000oC. These materials have a high resistance to creep
and relatively large fracture toughness values and low coefficient of thermal
expansion and relatively high thermal conductivity. The biggest drawback
of this material is the high temperature oxidation.

2d. Processing of fibre reinforced composites:

To fabricate continuous fibre reinforced plastics that meet design

specification the fibres should be uniformly distributed within plastic matrix
and in most instances all oriented in virtually same direction. Various
process are

• Pultrusion
• Filament winding
• Pre preg production process.

3. Structural composites:

It is normally composed of both homogenous and composite

materials. The properties of which depend not only on properties of
constituent materials but along on the geometrical design of various
structural elements.
 • Laminar composites and
• Sandwich panels.

3a. Laminar composites:

It is made of two dimensional sheets or panels that have a preferred

high strength direction such as in wood and continuous and aligned fibre
reinforced plastics. Layers are stacked and subsequently cemented together
such that the orientation of high strength direction varies with each
successive layer laminations may also be constructed using fabric material
such as cotton, paper etc. Thus a laminar composite has relatively high
strength in a number of directions. However the strength in any given
direction is of course lower than it would be if all fibres were oriented in
that direction.

3b. Sandwich panels:

Consists of two strong outer sheets, or faces separated by a layer of

less dense material or core which has lower stiffness and lower strength.
The faces bear most of the in-plane loading and also any traverse bending
stresses. Typical face materials include Aluminum alloys, fibre reinforced
plastics, Titanium, steel core serve two functions. First it separates the faces
and resists deformation perpendicular to face plane.

Secondly it provides certain degree of shear rigidity along planes

which are perpendicular to faces. Various materials and structures are
utilized for cores, including foamed polymers, synthetic rubber, inorganic
cement. Another popular core consist of honey comb structure. Here thin
foils that have been formed into interlocking hexagonal cells with axes
oriented perpendicular to the face planes. Material of honey comb is made
my be similar to face material.

Advantages of using composite:

• Light weight,
• Stiff,
• Resistant to corrosion,
• resistant to fatigue,
• Easily moldable to complex shapes and
• Weight reduction of the range of 20 % - 40 %.

Difficulties associated with composites:

The conditions for machining are different from metals. There is a

limit to the temperature that can be attained while machining otherwise the
curing temperature will be reached ( or exceeded ) and the materials gets
destroyed. Hence maintaining dimensional accuracy is difficult. Specials
tools and drills are to be used for this purpose.
 Basics of Flight
Forces on a Plane :

When a plane flies there are four forces at work that keep the plane
flying. These forces are lift, thrust, gravity, and drag. For the aircraft to
generate lift, it wings have a special airfoil section as shown in the figure.

Lift & Pressure :

Airplane wings are created with a special design called an airfoil.

The airfoil design bulges out more on the top than on the bottom, as shown
in the figure. This causes the air that hits the wing to go off into two
different streams, one that goes over the top and one that goes under, and
they both meet up in the back.

The air moving over the top of the wing is caused to go faster than
the slower moving air on the bottom. Faster moving air has less pressure, so
this causes the pressure on the bottom of the wing to be greater and the
plane is lifted. This effect is known as the Bernoulli Principle. When a plane
creates sufficient lift it overcomes the force of gravity that is pulling the
plane down.

Air pressure plays a big part in flight also. Air pressure is a force
pushing on every square inch of an airplane. When a plane is parked the air
pressure is distributed evenly around the plane's surface. When a plane is in
flight the pressure on top of the wings pushes down less and the pressure on
the bottom of the wings pushes more. This is what causes the plane to feel a
lift.

The Lift Diagram shows some of the basic terms relating to a wing section.
These terms are common to R/C flight.

Airfoil - The cross section of the wing

Angle of Attack - The angle between the chord line and the relative
 direction of flight
The line between the leading edge and the trailing edge
Chord Line -
of the airfoil
Direction of
- The relative direction of the wing in relation to still air
Flight
Leading Edge - The most forward edge of the wing
Trailing Edge - The most rearward edge of the wing

Drag:

Another force that has a great part in flight is drag. Drag is the force
pulling the plane backwards. Drag is the resistance created by the air
molecules struck by the aircraft, being spread apart and flowing around the
plane as it flies through them. Drag is created when the air collides with the
airplanes wings and creates friction. This friction causes the plane to slow
down and feel a drag. When wings are produced the designers make the
wings in such a manner to create lift but also minimize friction with the air.
Drag increases in proportion to the square of the velocity. So if the aircraft
flies three times as fast, then drag is nine times.

Total drag produced by an aircraft is the sum of

the profile drag, induced drag, and parasitedrag. Total drag is primarily a
function of airspeed. The airspeed that produces the lowest total drag
normally determines the aircraft best-rate-of-climb speed, minimum rate-of-
descent speed for autorotation, and maximum endurance speed. The
following picture illustrates the different forms of drag versus airspeed

• Profile drag is the drag incurred from frictional resistance of the

blades passing through the air. It does not change significantly with
angle of attack of the airfoil section, but increases moderately as
airspeed increases.
• Induced drag is the drag incurred as a result of production of lift.
Higher angles of attack which produce more lift also produce
increased induced drag. In rotary-wing aircraft, induced drag
decreases with increased aircraft airspeed. The induced drag is the
portion of the total aerodynamic force which is oriented in the
direction opposing the movement of the airfoil. Think of it as lift
which is in the wrong direction.
• Parasite drag is the drag incurred from the non lifting portions of the
aircraft. It includes the form drag and skin friction associated with the
fuselage, cockpit, engine cowlings, rotor hub, landing gear, and tail
boom to mention a few. Parasite drag increases with airspeed.
 Curve "A" shows that parasite drag is very low at slow airspeeds and
increases with higher airspeeds. Parasite drag goes up at an increasing rate at
airspeeds above the midrange.

Curve "B" shows how induced drag decreases as aircraft airspeed

increases. At a hover, or at lower airspeeds, induced drag is highest. It
decreases as airspeed increases and the helicopter moves into undisturbed
air.

Curve "C" shows the profile drag curve. Profile drag remains relatively
constant throughout the speed range with some increase at the higher
airspeeds.

Curve "D" shows total drag and represents the sum of the other three
curves. It identifies the airspeed range, line "E", at which total drag is
lowest. That airspeed is the best airspeed for maximum endurance, best rate
of climb, and minimum rate of descent in autorotation.

Weight:

Weight is the force of gravity trying to pull the plane back to earth.
The important thing about this force is that it acts as though all the weight
of the aircraft is centered at one point. That point is called the Center of
Gravity or CG. When loading passengers and their baggage, always keep
in mind that the CG must be located within specified limits for that
particular aircraft.

Thrust:

Thrust is the force that causes a plane to move forward and is created
by the plane's propeller or jet engines. Thrust is created by a propeller by
using the same concept as lift. The propeller is specially shaped like an
airfoil but it uses the lift to pull the plane forward instead of pushing the
plane up.

Axes in a Flight:

An aircraft pivots about three (3) axes; the yaw or vertical axis
controlled by the rudder, the pitch or lateral axis controlled by the elevator,
and the roll or longitudinal axis controlled by the ailerons. It can pivot about
any one of these individually or in combination based on the control
surfaces that are moved and the direction of the movement.
 When the rudder is moved to the right, the aircraft will rotate to the
right about the yaw axis and vice versa. When the elevator is moved up, the
aircraft will pitch the nose upwards. The ailerons move in opposite
directions. When the left aileron is moved up and right one down, the
aircraft will rotate to the left and vice versa.

Aircraft during Flight:

The aircraft moves forward because of the thrust produced by

propellers rotation or by Jet efflux in case of jet engines. When Thrust
produced is greater than ( Drag and Rolling resistance ), the aircraft moves
forward. As the aircraft moves forward, air flows over the wings such that
there is a Low pressure above the wing and High pressure below the wing.
Thus producing lift. Lift and Drag increases proportionately with forward
speed. Lift also increases with angle of attack. When lift is greater than
Weight of aircraft, the plane flies and landing gear is retracted to reduce
drag.

Lift, drag and moment ( Resultant force X arm of the aerofoil ) are
the forces in a aircraft during flight. These values can be determined
experimentally in a wind tunnel.

Major Components of Aircraft:

1. Wings
 2. Fuselage ( Passengers and Pay load )
3. Empennage ( Tail plane and fin )
4. Control surface ( Ailerons, flaps, elevators and rudders ) and
5. Landing gear.

The wings and Empennage are attached to Fuselage. Following are

the different attachments.
Wings and Empennage are attached with Fuselage.
Ailerons and flaps are attached to wings.
Elevators are attached to Tail plane.
Rudder is attached to Fin.
Landing Gear / Power plant is attached to Wings.
Major Aircraft Systems :

1. Brakes
2. Navigation
3. Communication
4. Fuel and power plant
5. Instrumentation
6. Blind landing aids.
7. Weapons and electronic counter measures.
8. Cabin furnishing
9. Cabin equipment
10. Cargo equipment
11. Air pressurization and
12. Air-conditioning & Oxygen.

The uses of different aircraft components are given below.

• Wings - Produce lift.

• Control surface - Control the aircraft movement in different direction
• Landing gear - Support the aircraft in land.
• Power plant - Provides Thrust.

Aircraft Maneuvers :

1. Take off
2. Climb
3. Cruise
4. Turn and bank
5. Descent and
6. Landing.

Fighter aircrafts do additional maneuvers which include,

 1. Loop
2. Roll
3. Dive
4. Tight turn
5. Side slip
6. Inverted flight and
7. Spin.

Mach Number (M) = Speed of aircraft / Speed of sound.

The Landing Gear:

On a modern single engine the landing gear (or undercarriage)

consists of a nose wheel and a right and a left main wheel. Older aircraft
with a tail wheel were said to have "conventional" landing gear. The
modern type gear is called a "tricycle" landing gear. Although some tricycle
gear are fixed in place, most are retractable into housing to reduce aircraft
drag in flight. Multi-engine aircraft usually have a steer able nose wheel
which is controlled by the rudder pedals. Many aircraft accidents are
caused by pilots attempting to land their aircraft without lowering their
landing gear. On a normal landing approach, the gear should be lowered
when leaving or passing through airport pattern altitude which is usually
about 1200 feet AGL. On take-off, the gear should not be raised until the
pilot is certain he could not land on the runway if his engine should quit.
On real aircraft it's a good idea to touch your brakes before you retract your
landing gear to stop the wheels from spinning and save wear and tear on
your tires.

The basic flight instruments :

Magnetic compass -- Like the compass in a car or boat, it tells about the
airplane's heading -- the direction it's flying. It requires no power source.

Airspeed indicator -- It shows the speed of the airplane through the

air. This instrument measures the speed of the aircraft through the air NOT
OVER THE GROUND in knots. The speed it shows is called True
Airspeed (TAS) if it has been corrected for the density of the air outside the
aircraft. Without this correction it is called Indicated Airspeed (IAS). The
instrument operates by comparing the pressure of the air being pushed into a
probe under the aircraft, called a Pitot Tube, with the static air pressure
inside the aircraft. Many pilot had crashed on take-off because they
neglected to remove the cover from his Pitot Tube.

Attitude indicator -- This instrument is like the horizon we see looking out
from the pilot's seat. It tells whether the nose of the airplane is pointed above
or below the horizon and whether the airplane is turning (banking) to the left
or right (left wing down or right wing down). This instrument uses a
gyroscopically controlled horizon, moving behind a fixed representation of
an aircraft, to indicate your plane's movement about both the lateral axis
(nose position) and the longitudinal axis (wing position) relative to the
actual horizon. When flying under Visual Flight Rules (VFR), the pilot
should ignore this instrument and use the actual horizon instead. In fact,
the other instruments should be only checked periodically. in a quick scan
pattern, as the pilot should be mostly looking outside the aircraft.

Altimeter -- This instrument shows the airplane's altitude in feet above sea
level. The altimeter uses a sealed tin called an aneroid barometer to
measure altitude. It compares the atmospheric pressure outside your
aircraft to the pressure inside the tin. As outside pressure changes, the tin
expands or contracts from the pressure sealed inside. Each tick mark on the
instrument face represents one hundred feet of altitude. Each rotation of the
needle represents 1000 feet.

Vertical speed indicator -- This instrument tells you how quickly the
aircraft is climbing or descending in feet per minute. When in level flight, it
reads "0". It operates by measuring the relative change in atmospheric
pressure. Since the change is relative, unlike the altimeter, it does not
require calibration. There is a lag in the measuring process, however, and
therefore it is important not to take any corrective action until you have
given the instrument time to do it's thing. A second or less is all it takes.

Heading indicator (directional gyro) -- This instrument is another compass.

It shows the direction that the airplane is flying. It's usually bigger and
easier to read than the magnetic compass, but requires some source of power
to work.

Turn coordinator -- When turning the airplane, this instrument shows the
rate and the direction of the turn. In this way we can adjust to a slower or
faster rate of turn. This instrument has a representation of an aircraft which
banks to indicate the direction and rate of the aircraft turns. It also has a
liquid-damped ball which will be in the center of the glass tube when the
aircraft is in a coordinated turn. If the aircraft is skidding around the turn,
the ball will be displaced to the side of the tube in the direction of the turn.
Application of rudder in the direction of the turn will bring the aircraft
back to coordinated flight and the ball back to it's middle position in the
tube.

Angle of Attack :

The angle made by the chord of aerofoil to the relative air flow.
Chord is obtained by line joining lead edge with trailing edge.

Stall :

It is the condition where the air separates from wing surface and
causes loss in lift and drag. C L and CD increase with increasing angle of
attack. But at 16o there is a drop in CL and rapid rise inC D. At this point, (
Stall ) the aircraft cannot fly safely.

The ratio of Lift to Drag is important from the point of fuel

economy. The optimum value of L/D is obtained at an angle of attack of 4o.

Designer should consider the ratio of Thickness to chord. For low

speed aircraft the ratio is 12% - 15%. In case of supersonic aircrraft, it is
about 4%. This leads to thin thickness which cannot support other structural
members. But delta plan solves the problem. MIG has a Delta plan.

Sweep Angle :

is the angle made by Quarter chord line along the lateral axis. In Mig
27 and Tornado, the sweep angle can be varied during flight.

The curvature of mean line between top and bottom surfaces is called
Camber. Increase in Camber increase Lift and Drag. Leading edge radius
also affects lift and drag. A large radius is used in low speed aircraft.

Aspect Ratio :

It is defined as Span / Mean Chord or Span2 / Area.

If Lift / Drag is high, when aspect ratio is high. For passenger

aircrafts Aspect Ratio is around 8 - 12. But in fighter aircrafts, long wings
are not acceptable, hence 2 - 4 is preferred.

Control Surfaces in a Aircraft :

Flaps :

Flaps are attached to the trailing edge of the wings, they are used to
change the camber of wings. Flaps augment lift at the time of take off, but
during normal flight, it is retracted back to reduce drag. Slats are attached to
the front portion of wings. Flaps are relatively large, movable, hinged
panels located inboard of the ailerons on each wing. Lowering them into
the airflow under the wing increases both lift and drag significantly. Their
main purpose is to permit a slower airspeed during a landing approach.
 They are also useful in shorten the distance required to take-off from short
runways or from airports at higher altitudes. It is recommended that one-
third flaps be set routinely for any take-off. Hanging low to the ground they
can be easily damaged by debris being kicked up by the propeller or the
landing gear.

The Rudder :

The Vertical Stabilizer is the vertical fin at the rear of the aircraft. The
rear portion of the vertical stabilizer is a hinged section called the rudder.
The rudder is moved on its hinges by pedals on the floor of the cockpit.
The truth of the matter is that the rudder is of little or no real value in
controlling the aircraft in the air during normal flight. On the ground, in
single engine aircraft, it is useful for taxiing and take-off when the other
control surfaces are still ineffective due to the low speed of the aircraft. In
multi-engine aircraft it can be necessary to counter the loss of an engine. It
is useful, and sometimes necessary, during stall and spin recovery when
other control surfaces have lost effectiveness, and it is helpful in
maintaining co-ordinated flight during turns. In a turn the inside wing has
lost some lift and without the use of the rudder the aircraft would "skid"
through the turn, a very sloppy and uncomfortable way to fly. Once
this option is set permanently, your aircraft will fly with simulated rudder
movement and keep your turns coordinated automatically.

The Ailerons :

The ailerons are a set of hinged surfaces found at the rear edge of
each wing. They are controlled by the side-to-side movement of the
joystick or yoke (control wheel). By moving the aileron, on the side of the
aircraft you wish to turn toward, up into the flow of air over the wing, some
lift is lost and the wing drops. At the same time the aileron on the outside
wing has been moved downward, producing additional lift on that side and
that wing rises. The combined effect is to turn the plane in the direction you
have moved the stick. Are ailerons the only way to turn an aircraft? The
answer is no. A Piper Cub, for instance, can be turned by merely sticking
your arm out of the open cockpit as if you were signaling a turn in that
direction. The drag produced will turn the plane in the direction you
signaled.

The Trim Tabs :

Holding the control surfaces in one position for long periods of time
can be tiring. This is especially true of the elevator. So small tabs on the
edge of the control surfaces can be set to hold the surface in a steady
position. On most modern aircraft this allows the pilot to remove his hands
from the controls and/or use only light pressures to maintain steady flight
conditions.

The Brakes :

At the tip of each rudder pedal is a foot brake. These brakes are not
only used to help stop the aircraft, but are necessary to steer the aircraft on
the ground if the plane does not have a steerable nose wheel. This is
especially true at lower speeds when the rudder is ineffective. Aircraft are
also equipped with a parking brake. Any time the aircraft is stopped with
the engine running the parking brake MUST be set for safety reasons.
Brakes should be used sparingly on landing to avoid blowing out the tires.
Jet aircraft use spoilers which are inserted into the air stream to slow down
the plane and most jet engines are capable of reversing thrust to slow the
aircraft. This feature is also helpful in backing out of parking spaces at the
gate.

Different types of Loads on Aircraft :

• Gust load ( Vertical air )

• Control load
• Thermal load
• Crash load
• Landing load
• Power plant load and
• Pressurization load.

Loads in Consideration from Design Point of View :

• Limit Load :- The maximum load on any aircraft member.

• Proof Load :- Limit load X ( 1.1 or 1.125 ). When loaded upto this
limit, safety of aircraft should not be impaired.
• Design Load :- Limit load X 1.5. When a load lower than this is
applied there should not be any breakage but may deform
permanently in any way.
 Riveting in Aircraft Industry
Prior to riveting, drilling is done, after which de-burring and
cleaning operation is done. Air operated drill guns are used. Straight and
angular drill guns ( 30o & 90o ) are available. After drilling counter sunk
operation is carried out to accommodate CSK rivets correct depth of CSK is
required. Else the rivets will be either depressed or protruding.

How do solid rivets work?

Riveting can be explained by using the classic "swinging balls"

physics demonstration. One ball swings in and strikes the other balls, the
ball on the other end swings off, and the process repeats back and forth.

Riveting is just like that. On one end, is the rivet gun. On the other end is a
bucking bar ( Bucking bar is a chunk of steel of some convenient shape and
weight, with a smooth striking surface ). In the middle is the rivet itself. The
pneumatic rivet gun impacts the rivet, which acts as a medium and sends the
impulse through to the bucking bar resting on the other end. The bucking
bar swings away from the rivet. The small force of the bucker holding that
bar in place "swings" the bucking bar back at the rivet. Now here's where
riveting diverges from the ball demonstration, if the rivet gun had shot a
single impulse, the bucking bar would strike the rivet and then the gun
would get pushed away in turn, conservation of momentum and all that. But
the difference is that the gun is held firmly in place and is sending a
continuous stream of impulses through the rivet. As soon as the bucking bar
hits the rivet, another impulse from the gun counteracts that momentum and
cancels it out. In the process, the momentum canceling effect
is absorbed by the rivet, which gets smushed a little bit. This happens
several times per second, and the rivet gets driven down and flattened.

The most common types of rivets fall into the following categories:

• Universal (or standard head) rivets

• Countersunk head rivets
• Blind rivets

The universal rivet is used where a smooth exterior surface is not

needed. It is also used in areas which do not have to fit flush with another
part. Such areas of an aircraft might be in the interior. The round head of the
rivet could interfere in areas that have to meet close tolerances. The
diameter of the rounded head by a general rule is about twice the diameter
of the shank of the rivet.
 Countersunk rivets are used in areas where the surface finish is
important or where parts have to fit closely together. A countersunk rivet
usually has a flat head and from the top of the head to the shank the rivet is
chamfered. The standard chamfer is 100 degrees. The hole in the material
must also be made to account for the chamfer. When joining materials with
countersunk rivets it is important that the seam between the materials is
either at or below the place on the rivet where the head and the shank meet.
Otherwise the joint will fail do to stress fractures at the edge of the rivet
head. Countersunk rivets are used on the exterior of aircraft to reduce the
drag.

Blind rivets are used in places where it is not possible to place a

bucking bar on one side of the sheets being joined. These places where only
one side of the joint is accessible are places such as the wings and tail. There
are several types of blind rivets. The most common type is the Cherry rivet.
Cherry rivets can have universal or countersunk heads. These rivets are
hollow with a stem which protrudes from the top of the head and a small
bulb at the bottom. The stem is pulled through the center. Depending on the
type of Cherry rivet the stem either breaks when the bulb has sufficiently
spread the bottom end of the rivet or the bulb deforms and the shaft is pulled
through the hollow center. Another type of blind rivet is the Du Pont
explosive rivet. In these rivets the shank is filled with an explosive
compound and the head of the rivet is heated to ignite the explosives. The
explosion forces the bottom of the rivet which extends past the edge of the
material to expand to be larger than the diameter of the drilled hole.

Solid rivets:

These are driven by a rivet hammer ( either on head of shank side )

and bucked on opposite side by using bucking bar. Bucking facilitates the
formation of head. Solid rivets need access on both sides. Aluminum rivets
may be installed by using a rivet squeezer. Squeezed rivets are preferable,
because there is no damage to sheet metal and we have a well formed
heads. Also it could be operated by a single person. The first few blows
should be hard. The objective is that the shank portion should swell full up
the holes and a well bucked head is formed.

Precautions:

• Riveted joints should be used, where there is shearing load.

Generally the drilled hole is oversize by 0.1mm to accommodate the
expansion of shank during riveting process.
• The rivet holes should be free of burrs.
• Length of rivets is very important fact. Correct size is total thickness
of sheets to be riveted up + 1.5 times the diameter of rivet.
Riveting Techniques:

There are several common methods or techniques for performing

riveting operations. There is the standard hand riveting with a bucking bar or
a blind rivet. Three basic alternative methods of riveting are cold riveting,
hot riveting, and automated riveting. Each method is used to achieve
different characteristics.

In the standard riveting process and in cold or hot riveting a bucking

bar is used at the bottom end of the rivet to cause it to form a head when the
rivet is driven through the hole. Bucking bars are of different weights
depending on the size of the rivet being used. In the cold riveting process the
rivets are kept in a refrigerator until they are ready to be used. The rivet is
driven while it is still cold. While it is cold the rivet remains soft and is more
malleable. The rivet will cure at room temperature and become hardened.
This process is necessary for rivets produced from certain aluminum alloys.
The hot riveting process is done for the same reasons. The difference is the
rivet will be at room temperature before its use. When the rivet is needed it
will be heated and then driven while it is still hot. When it cools again it will
return to its hardened state. Automated riveting processes are cheaper, but
do to lengthy setup time they are usually limited to one rivet type.
Automated riveting can include the hot or cold riveting methods.

The most common types of riveting other than the standard methods
are cold riveting, hot riveting, and automated riveting. Each of the riveting
methods have advantages, whether it is strength, ease of production, or cost.

Countersinking of Rivets:

For external surfaces of aircrafts, protruding rounded rivets is not

used, rather CSK rivets are used to achieve aerodynamic efficiency.
Normally 100oCSK rivets are used for thick skins and 120o CSK is used for
thin skins. Correct depth is maintained by using proper tools ( Depth
control equipment ). Some times from the design point of view, both sides
would have to be countersunk. Counter sinking rivets over a concave or
convex surface causes a bird eye.

Advantages of Riveting:

Riveting has several advantages over other types of fasteners. Rivets

are relatively inexpensive, they offer several surface finishes, they are easy
to assemble, they may be used to join different materials with different
thickness, and they are strong. In the case of the aircraft industry rivets offer
other advantages. In the aircraft industry aluminum alloys are the most
common material used to produce rivets. This allows for lighter fasteners
and resistance to atmospheric and chemical corrosion.

Rivets are usually constructed with straight shanks. They are not
threaded like bolts or screws and are therefore easier and less expensive to
produce. Rivets can come with various head configurations which offer
different surface finishes. They can be produced such that the head of the
rivet is flush with the surface or some types can have the head ground to be
flush with the surface. Standard rivet types have a round smooth head which
can be polished or painted to match the surface of the fastened material.
Rivets can be assemble in a variety of methods. There are hand tools and
hand guns which are used for riveting and there are large machines that
perform riveting operations. The advantage of the hand-held rivet guns is
that they are very maneuverable. They can also be used on curved or
varying surface contours.

Rivets can be used to join different types of materials. A rivet can

join metal and plastic, whereas other fasteners may have to be specially
made to join metal and plastic. If the materials are of different thickness’,
rivets could still be used to join them. Depending on the type of rivet it may
be preferable to have the rivet head on one side or the other, but rivets could
fasten the materials together. The rivets which are used in the aircraft
industry are generally strong enough to meet the needs of the product
although they are usually weaker than a bolt. Aluminum alloy rivets offer
several advantages to the aircraft industries. They are lighter than bolts
which aides in the industries’ strive to make the lightest products possible.
Because many metals used in the aircraft industry are aluminum alloys, the
aluminum rivets protect against chemical corrosion which could be possible
if a steel or other metal bolt was used. Aluminum rivets also are protected
from ordinary atmospheric corrosion.
 Sheet metal works in Aircraft industry
Sheet-Metal Characteristics:

Sheet metals are generally characterized by a high ratio of surface

area to thickness. Forming of sheet metals is usually carried out by tensile
forces in the plane of the sheet; otherwise the application of compressive
forces could lead to buckling, folding, and wrinkling of the sheet. Unlike
bulk deformation processes, in most sheet-forming processes any thickness
change is caused by stretching of the sheet under tensile stresses (Poisson's
ratio). This decrease in thickness should be avoided in most cases since it
can lead to necking and failure. The major factors that significantly
influence the overall sheet-forming operation are,

Elongation:

A specimen subjected to tension first undergoes uniform elongation

that corresponds to the ultimate tensile strength. Then necking begins and
non-uniform elongation occurs until fracture takes place. The material is
being stretched in sheet forming, so high uniform elongation is desirable for
good formability.

Yield-point elongation:

Low-carbon steels exhibit this behavior, which indicates that after

the material yields, it stretches farther in certain regions in the specimen
with no increase in the lower yield point, while other regions have not yet
yielded. This behavior produces Lueders bands (or stretcher strain marks or
worms) on the sheet, making elongated depressions on the surface of the
sheet. To avoid this problem, the thickness of the sheet is reduced by 0.5 to
1.5% by cold rolling.

Anisotropy:

Anisotropy is the directionality of the sheet metal. It is acquired

during the thermo-mechanical processing history of the sheet. There are two
types of anisotropy: crystallographic anisotropy (from preferred grain
orientation) and mechanical fibering (from alignment of impurities,
inclusions, voids, and the like, throughout the thickness of the sheet during
processing). Anisotropy may be present in both the plane of the sheet and its
thickness direction.

Grain size:
 The grain size is important because it affects the mechanical
properties of the material and the surface appearance of the formed part. The
coarser the grain, the rougher the surface.

Residual stresses:

Residual stresses can be present in sheet metal parts because of the

non-uniform deformation of the sheet during forming. When disturbed, such
as by removing a portion of it, the part may distort. Tensile residual stresses
on surfaces can also lead to stress-corrosion cracking of sheet-metal parts
unless they are properly stress relieved.

Spring back:

Sheet-metal parts are generally thin and are subjected to relatively

small strains. Thus they are likely to experience considerable spring back,
particularly in bending and other sheet-forming operations where the bend
radius-to-thickness ratio is high.

Wrinkling:

Although the sheet metal is generally subjected to tensile stresses,

the method of forming may cause compressive stresses to develop in the
plane of the sheet, which cause wrinkling, buckling, folding, or collapsing of
the sheet. The tendency for wrinkling increases with the unsupported or
unconstrained length or surface area of the sheet, decreasing thickness, and
non uniformity of the thickness.

Coated sheet metal:

Sheet metals, especially steel, precoated with a variety of organic

coatings, films, and laminates are available and used primarily for
appearance and corrosion resistance. Coating are applied to the coil stock on
continuous lines, with thickness ranging from 0.0025 to 0.2 mm on flat
surfaces.

Sheet metal operations:

Shearing: The operation is carried out beyond the ultimate strength. E.g.
Blanking, piercing and perforating.

Bending: In this one half of the material in neutral axis is subjected to

tension and other half is subjected to compression. This operation is carried
beyond the elastic limits and below the ultimate strength.

Drawing: One shape is converted to another, by applying tensile load.

Stretching: The materials is prestretched to its yield point and formed
around a tool of definite shape by stretching beyond the elastic limit and
giving it a permanent set.

Squeezing: Metals are worked in compressive load. E.g. Drop stamping and
coining.

Details of individual operations are given below.

Blanking:

The operation of making different shapes out of sheet metal is called

as blanking. The raw material is called as blank. The tool contains a male
member called as punch and a female member called as die.

Piercing:

The operation of punching holes on sheet metal. The holes may be

circular or any other shape. It is also consists of a punch and die.

Blanking and piercing:

In this blanks and holes with smoother edges and closer tolerance are
made. High cost savings are obtained. tolerances to the extend of 0.025
mm is obtained in thin metals and 0.08 in thick metals. In conventional
blanking and piercing to attain the desired tolerance the parts have to be
reworked. The process is slower.

Perforation:

Piercing a number of identical holes in a single or continuous rows

on a sheet.

Notching:

It is a unbalanced or incomplete blanking operation, where only a

portion of the metal is sheared out.

Power Brake:

It is primarily used for straight bending of sheet to form flanges.

The forming pressure requires depending on material thickness, sharpness of
bend, type of die used etc.

Routing Machines:
 Routers are used to create blanks with contours. There are two types
of routing machines. They are

1. Radial arm router and

2. Fixed head router.

In radial arm router, the work piece is held stationery and cutter
moves around the work piece. But in case of fixed head router, the router
had is stationery and the work is moved around cutter. this is used for
smaller components. Routing time is usually few sections. In CNC routers,
all operations except loading and unloading of sheet metals can be
mechanized.

Stretch Wrap forming:

In this a sheet metal is stretched within elastic limits, the amount of

stretch is proportional to pull. On release, the metal regains its original
shape. However if the metal is stretched beyond the elastic limits it does not
regain its original shape, also the amount of stretch is not proportional to
pull. In this machine, the operation take place in the following stages.

Stage 1 : The material is held on the machine and stretched equally on both
sides upto the elastic limit of the material.

Stage 2 : Maintaining this same pressure the materials is wrapped around a

form block.

Stage 3 : If the material is unloaded, it has a tendency to spring back t

original shape. Hence it is stretched beyond the elastic limits to get a
permanent set.

Peen forming:

It is a dieless forming process, performed at room temperature. In

these machines, the surface of the work piece is impacted by small steel
shots. Every piece of shot acts like a tiny hammer. Thus stretching the
upper surface. This impact pressure causes local plastic deformation and
produces a residual compressive stress. This residual compressive stress
along with stretching causes a concave surface on the peened side.

The size, velocity and angle of impingement of shots as well as

distance between the nozzle and work piece, all these factors are controlled
by specially designed machines.

Stress peen forming:

 In this, the part to be machines is pre-stressed to an arc with 90 % of
elastic limit and peen formed as mentioned earlier. Pre-stressing increase
the effect of peen forming in one direction and decrease the effect in
opposite direction.

Nozzle type machines are used for peen forming. Compressed air is
used to properly steels hot. There are around 20 nozzles and each nozzle is
capable of delivering around 23 Kgs / Min. The nozzle direction is
adjustable. Centrifugal wheel machines are also used.

Spinning:

Metal with 3 dimensions are formed. The work piece is pressed by a

blunt tool against a rotating die, whose outer contour matches with the inner
contour of the finished part. Parts with hemispherical, conical, cylindrical
shapes are produced by this method.

Super plastic formation:

Materials that have unusually large strains ( > 500 % ) without

localized necking is called as super plastic. These materials can be formed
into more complex shapes with much lower loads.

Defects that can occur with Sheet Products:

• Stretching may give rise to a grainy surface (orange peel). This is

because the metals are polychristaline. Finer grain material reduces
the effect.
• Initial yielding in some materials may be very localized leading to
visible surface bands (Luders lines, stretcher - strain marks).
• Localised necking may occur, reducing load bearing capability.
Usually materials are chosen with properties that delay the onset of
necking. Once a neck has formed, further deformation occurs by local
thinning, until finally fracture occurs.

Formability of Sheet Metals:

Sheet-metal formability is defined as the ability of the metal to

undergo the desired shape changes without failures such as necking and
tearing. Three factors have a major influence on formability

• Properties of the sheet metal

• Lubrication at various interfaces between the sheet and dies and
tooling
• Characteristics of the equipment and tools and dies
 Several techniques have been developed to test the formability of
sheet metals, and the forming-limit diagram (FLD) is one of them. The
region above the curves is the failure zone; R is the normal anisotropy.
Sheet metal thickness affects the FLD also. The thicker the sheet, the higher
its formability curve. However, in actual operation, thick blank may not
bend as easily around small radii. The rate of deformation on FLD should
be assessed for each material as well. The FLD is used to compare different
metals. Strips of metal of different widths, covered with a grid of small
circles, typically 2.5 to 6 mm diameter, are tested with a very good lubricant
over a spherical punch. Sheet wide enough to be clamped on all edges
undergoes balanced biaxial tensile strain over the center of the punch. As the
width of the strip is decreased, the minor strain decreases. The minor strain
may be +ve or -ve. The major and minor strains from the circle nearest to
the tear can be considered to be a point on the boundary between safe and
unsafe zones of the FLD. A typical FLD is shown below.

Dent resistance of sheet-metal parts:

A dent is a small but permanent biaxial deformation. In certain

applications involving sheet-metal parts, such as automotive body panels,
appliances, and furniture, dent resistance is an important issue. Dent
resistance is determined by a combination of material and geometrical
parameters, and is defined as:

Dent resistance = ( alpha ) Y2t4/S,

Where:
Y = yield stress
t = thickness
S = panel stiffness = ( E )(t a)( shape)

The value of a ranges from 1 to 2 for most panels. As for the shape,
the smaller the curvature, the greater the dent resistance because of its
flexibility. Therefore dent resistance increases with increasing strength and
thickness and decreases with increasing elastic modulus, E, and stiffness and
decreasing curvature.