Lecture 5

Sinusoids (Harmonic) Functions

•  AC Quantities
•  Sample Circuit Problem involving time harmonic function
•  Complex Numbers and Phasors
•  Solving Circuit Problem using Phasors

Reading: M&L 3.1-3.6: AC signals in steady state

9/16/10 1
 What are typical AC circuits?
AC -“alternating current”
- voltages and currents vary in a periodic* manner with TIME

Used in all forms of electrical devices on a over a very broad range of

operating frequencies”
• Electrical power distribution – 50-Hz-60 Hz
• Submarine – 3-3000 Hz
• Conventional Radio AM: 500-1500 kHz FM radio: 80-103 Mhz
• Cable (7 Mhz 800MHz)
• Cellphones: 300-1800 Mhz (e.g. GSM 850: 850 Mhz)
• Wireless Routers: 2.4 GHz

Frequency bands are allocated by governments. In the US, it is the

FCC (Federal Communications Commission).

9/16/10 •  It is represented by sinusoidal function of the forms: 2

 Who
“owns”
those
frequencies?

3 kHz

300 kHz

3 MHz

30 MHz

300 MHz

3 GHz

30 GHz
www.ntia.doc.gov/osmhome/allochrt.pdf
9/16/10
9/16/10 3

Government auctions off these very variable “real estate”.

 Functions with sinusoidal function
of time
• AC quantities are represented by sinusoidal functions of the forms:

• Or equivalently, by complex numbers called ʻphasorsʼ.

jφ f jφ f
{
f (t) = Re Ae e jωt
} = Re{ Ae e jωt
}
9/16/10 More on “phasor representation later 4

€
Sinusoidal functions need only 3 parameters
v(t) = Vmcos (ωt +φv)
1.  Amplitude 2.Angular frequency* 3. Phase

v(t)=cos(t)
*period = T
Angular frequency ex: ω =1

ω = 2π
T T = 2π

9/16/10 5
 Emphasis: Description of 

AC Quantities involves 3 parameters

amplitude, angular frequency and phase.

For example: v(t) = Vmcos (ωt + φv)
If you are asked to solve for an AC quantity, you
need to specify all 3 quantities.

9/16/10
6
6
 Understanding amplitude and angular
frequency
v(t) = Vmcos (ωt + φv)
Variation in Amplitude
small Vm large Vm

Variation in Frequency

ω, low frequency ω, high frequency

9/16/10 DC (direct current) is a special case of AC with ω=0. 7

 Understanding Phase
v(t) = Vmcos (ωt + φv)
Varia%on
of
phase

ʻin-phaseʼ
φv = 0
Range of phases: +/- π/2

Common terms:
ʻphase is aheadʼ ʻquarter cycleʼ: φ=π/2;
ʻhalf cycleʼ: φ=π;
φv > 0 ʻfull cycleʼ: φ=2π

ʻphase is laggingʼ
φv < 0

9/16/10 8
 Useful
concepts
in
dealing
with
%me

varying
func%on


1.  RMS – root mean square time average of a

signal
2.  Decomposition of a periodic function in sine
and cosine components.

9/16/10 9
Define: “time-averaged” value of
a periodic wave: Root Mean
Square (RMS) of f(t)

Example:
v(t) = Vo cos(ωt)
T  T
1 2 1 sin( 2ωt) ω V
vRMS = Vo
T
∫ [ cos(ωt)] dt' = Vo 
T  4t
+
2
= o
 2
0 0

9/16/10
€ 10
 The Root Mean Square of f(t)
The Average (time) of an AC Quantity

V0 170V
v RMS = ± =±
2 2
= ±120VRMS

9/16/10 11
 Useful Theorem
Any
harmonic
func%on
of
the
frequency
ω can
be
uniquely
decomposed
into
the
sine

and
cosine
components.


K cos (ω t + φ) = Pcos (ω t)+ Q sin (ω t)

K P
Q

-K t -Q t
HOW: trigonometry -P
K cos(ωt + φ ) Example: Decompose 2cos(ωt+π/3)
= K cos(ωt)cos(φ ) − K sin(ωt)sin(φ )
2cos(ωt + π 3)
= P cos(ωt) + Qsin(ωt)
= 2cos(ωt)cos(π 3) − 2sin(ωt)sin(π 3)
PROVIDED:
1 3
P = K cos(φ ) and Q = −K sin(φ ) P = 2 = 1 Q = −2 =− 3
2 2
K 2 = P 2 + Q2 = cos(ωt) − 3 sin(ωt)

9/16/10 12

€
 Useful Theorems
Inverse:

Any
sum
of
sine
and
cosine
func%on
of
the
frequency
ω &
phase=0
be

uniquely
expressed
as
a
cosine
func%on
of
ω
and
φ.

K cos (ω t + φ) = Pcos (ω t)+ Q sin (ω t)
P Q
K
=
-K t -P -Q t

Example: what is cos(ωt)+sin(ωt)?

HOW:

9/16/10 13
 A Digression
Review of Elementary Trigonometry
π/2
cos(0) = cos(2π) = 1 cos(π/2)= 0
sin(0)= sin(2π) = 0 sin(π/2) = 1
cos(3π/2) = 0 θ 0,2π
cos(π) = -1 π
sin(π) = 0 sin(3π/2) = -1

Remember (memorize) trigonometric identities: 3π/2

sin (Α + Β) = sinA cosB + cosA sinB sin (Α - Β) = sinA cosB – cosA sinB

cos (Α + Β) = cosA cosB – sinA sinB cos (Α - Β) = cosA cosB + sinA sinB

Example:

9/16/10 14
 AC Circuits
Voltage and Current are expressed as cosine function of
angular frequency
ω
and phase,
(φv
,φI
)

i(t) v(t) = Vm cos (ω t + φV)
i(t) = Im cos (ωt + φI)
+
v(t) Z Z could be a resistor, inductor, capacitor,
_ or any combination of these elements

What do these terminal relations imply?

Resistor Capacitor Inductor

9/16/10 15
 Resistors
v(t) = i(t)R
i(t)

+ v(t) = Vo cos(ωt + φv) i(t) = Io cos (ωt + φI)

v(t) R Vocos(ω t + φv) = RIo cos (ω t + φI)
_
v(t)
i(t)
• For a resistor:Vm = R Im φv = φI
• Voltage and current are ʻin-
phaseʼ

• Absolute value of
impedance of resistor:
In this example, let φV=0.

9/16/10 16
 Capacitors
dv(t)
i(t) = C
i(t) dt
+ v(t) = Vo cos (ω t + φv) i(t) = Io cos (ω t + φI)
C I0 cos (ωt + φI) = - ωCVo sin(ωt + φv)
v(t) € = ωCV0cos (ωt + φv+ π/2)
_
By using identity: cos(θ + π/2) = - sin(θ)
• For a capacitor: Vo = Io /ωC
and φV = φI -π/2
• Current and voltage are NOT in-phase: v(t)
• Voltage lags the current by a i(t)
quarter cycle (π/2 or 90o).
• Absolute value of 1
ZC =
impedance of capacitor: ωC In this example, let φV=0.

9/16/10
17
17

€
 Inductors
di(t)
v(t) = L
i(t) dt
+ v(t) = Vo cos (ω t + φv) i(t) = Io cos (ω t + φI)
v(t) L Vo cos (ωt + φV) = - ωLIo sin(ωt + φI)
_ €
= ωLIo cos (ωt + φI+ π/2)

• For an inductor: Vm = ωLIm, φV = φI+π/2

• Current and voltage are NOT in-phase:

Voltage leads the current by a quarter
cycle
• Absolute value of impedance of
inductor:

9/16/10 18
 AC Circuit Analysis
An RC Example
R
iR
GOAL: To find i(t), vR(t), vC(t)
is vR iC
Need to solve for Im, φI
C vC
vs(t) in terms of Vo, R,C,ω (known).

Put into AC quantities:

vs(t) = V0 cos(ω t)
KCL: is = iR = iC = i
KVL: vR + vC - vs(t) = 0
TR: vR = R i, i = C d vC/dt
i(t) = Io cos (ω t + φI)
vR(t) = VRo cos (ω t + φRv)
vC(t) = VCo cos (ω t + φCv)

9/16/10 19
 R
AC Circuit Analysis
iR An RC Example
is First find vC(t), others follow
vR iC
KVL1+TR:
C vC v R + vC = v s (ωt)
vs(t)
iR R + vC = Vo cos(ωt)
dv
RC C + vC = Vo cos(ωt)
dt
vs(t) = V0 cos(ω t)
KCL: is = iR = iC = i Solve this differential equation
€
TR: vR = R i, i = C d vC/dt

9/16/10 20
 R
AC Circuit Analysis
iR An RC Example
is dvC
vR iC RC + vC = Vo cos(ωt)
dt
C vC Let : vC = Acos(ωt + φ )
vs(t)=Vocos(ωt) dvC
€ = −ωAsin(ωt + φ )
dt
−RCωAsin(ωt + φ ) + Acos(ωt + φ ) = V0 cos(ωt)
But recall: €
K cos (ω t + φ) = Pcos (ω t)+ Q sin (ω t)

Or similarly:
K cos (ω t) = Pcos (ω t+ φ)+ Q sin (ω t+ φ)

9/16/10 21
 AC Circuit Analysis: need to find A and
φ in terms of known V0, ω

Acos(ωt + φ ) − RCωAsin(ωt + φ ) = V0 cos(ωt)

But recall identity:
Pcos (ω t+ φ)+ Q sin (ω t+ φ) =Vo cos (ω t)
= P (cos(ωt)cos(φ ) − sin(ωt)sin(φ )) + Q(sin(ωt)cos(φ ) − sin(φ )cos(ωt))
∴V0 = P cos(φ ) − Qsin(φ ) and 0 = - P sin(φ ) + Qcos(φ )

2 2
 −Q 
−1
V0 = P + Q φ = tan  
 P
€
Therefore: V0 = A 2 + A 2 R 2C 2ω 2 And:
V0
€ →A= φ = tan−1 (−ωRC )
1+ R 2C 2ω€2
9/16/10 22

€ €
 The solution (i, v everywhere)
R
iR
Finally:
is vR iC V0
C vC (t) = cos(ωt + tan−1 (−ωRC ))
1+ R 2C 2ω 2

vs(t)=Vocos(ωt)
€
dvC (t) −ωCV0
iC (t) = C
dt
= 2 2 2
sin(ω t + tan−1
(−ωRC))
1+ R C ω
−ωRCV0
v R (t) = iC R = sin(ωt + tan−1 (−ωRC ))
1+ R 2C 2ω 2
€
9/16/10SEEMS LIKE A LOT OF WORK FOR A SIMPLE CIRCUIT. Easier way? 23

€
 AC Circuit Analysis
The RC Example using Phasors
R
A consequence of PHASOR is that we can define
a generalized “resistance for AC” aka “impedance Z”: ˆ
I ˆ
Zresistor=R V R
Vs= V0
Zcapacitor=1/jωC ˆ AC C
1 1+ jωRC ˆ
ZTotal = Z R + ZC = R + = VC
jωC jωRC
1
ZC jωC Vo V (1− jωCR)
vˆC = V0 = V0 = = o2 2 2
ZT R + 1 jωC jωCR + 1 ω C R + 1

V0
vC = cos(ωt + tan−1 (−ωRC ))
ω 2C 2 R 2 + 1
9/16/10 24
 How?

Reviewing 

Complex Numbers 

and Phasors

9/16/10 25
 Lecture 6
Introducing Phasors:
• How to reduce differential equations into systems of linear
equations
• Solving Circuit Problem using Phasors

9/16/10 26
Reading: M&L 3.1-3.6: AC signals in steady state
 Review: The Complex Number
Using Complex Numbers is the easiest method to
describe oscillatory motion.

A complex number is described by two numbers (a,b)

which are themselves real.

Notation: z = a +jb = - 1
Re(z) = a
Im(z) = b Real part Imaginary part

9/16/10 27
 The Complex Number in
Graphical Form
Complex numbers can be represented
graphically in ʻvectorʼ form:
y=Im(z) Length of ʻvectorʼ
|z|= a2+b2
b |z|2=z*z=(a-jb)(a+jb)
|z|

}
φ
x=Re(z) z*
a
complex conjugate
b Im(z)
tan(φ ) = =
a Re(z)

9/16/10 28
€
 The Complex Number Addition
and Multiplication
Addition of complex numbers Im(z)
5
4
3
2 z1
1
0 Re(z)
-1 z 2
-2 z1+z2
Example: z1=(3+j) z2=(1-2j) -3
-4
-5 -5-4-3-2-10 1 2 3 4 5
Real and imaginary
Parts do not mix.
Multiplication of complex numbers

9/16/10 29
 The Complex Number
Dividing Complex Numbers involves two steps:
a. Multiply top and bottom with the complex conjugate* of denominator to
make denominator real.
conjugating* Complex
Number simply involves
replacing j with –j.
b. Collect all terms in numerator into its real and imaginary parts.

z1 ( a + jb) (c − jd )
=
z2 (c + jd ) (c + jd ) *

z1 ac + bd + j (bc − ad )
=
z2 c2 + d2
€

9/16/10 30

€
 Absolute Value of a Compex
Number, Its Real and Imaginary
Parts
Absolute value of a complex number: |z|

a2+b2

If a complex number and itʼs conjugate are known, it is easy to find the
real and imaginary components.
a = Re{z} = (z + z*) / 2
b = Im{z}= (z - z*) / 2

9/16/10
31
31
 The Cartesian and Polar
Representation of Complex
Im(z) Numbers

(r,θ) z = a + jb
b
r z = r cos(φ ) + jr sin(φ )
φ
Re(z) z = re jφ r = a2 + b2
a
a = r cos(φ ) b Im(z)
tan(φ ) = =
b = r sin(φ ) a Re(z)
€
This is because of the famous EULERʼS Theorem:

jφ
€
e = cos(φ ) + j€sin(φ )
This is can be proven quite easily using series expansion.
Representing Complex Numbers in Polar Form makes them especially useful
9/16/10
in analyzing oscillating functions 32

€
 A Digression: Eulerʼs Thm Proof
Proving Euler’s Theorem

Recall binomial expansion of ex.

e x = 1 + x +1/2! x2 + 1/3! x3 +1/4! x4 ….
Let x=jθ.

QED

9/16/10 33
 Remember Eulerʼs Theorem!

We can convert from Cartesian to polar coordinates any time.

9/16/10 34
 Conversion Examples
Converting from Cartesian form 

to polar representation
3
2
z = 2+j
Say: z = 2+j a=2 b=1 1
θ = 31.3o
r= 22+12 = 5 -2 1 -1 1 2
θ =tan-1(1/2) = 31.3o -2

z = 2+j = 5 e j(31.3degs) 3 z = 1.5+2.6j

2
Converting from polar form
to Cartesian representation. 1 θ = 60o

a = 3cos(π/3) = 1.5 -2 1 -1 1 2
z = 1.5+2.6j b = 3 sin(π/3) = 2.6 -2

9/16/10 35
 Important Cases
For Imaginary Exponentials
y=Im(z):
imaginary part

1
z1
z2 z4 x=Re(z):
real part
z3

-1
-1 0 1
9/16/10 36
 Polar Form Multiplication is Easier

Multiplication of complex numbers in POLAR FORM:

z1 = a + jb = r1e jφ1
z1z2 = r1e jφ1 r2e jφ 2 = r1r2e j(φ1 +φ 2 )

Complex conjugate in POLAR FORM

€
€
z = a + jb = re jφ
z* = a − jb = re − jφ

− jφ jφ 2 j(φ −φ ) 2
z * z = re re = r e =r

€ €
€ 9/16/10 37
 Complex Notation for AC Circuits
AC signal at a given frequency
is characterized by its v(t) = Vm cos (ωt + φv)
amplitude and phase
Recall Eulerʼs Formula: v(t)

Let: θ = ωt φ
t
€
Therefore, know that
Re(ejωt)=cos(ωt) and Im(ejωt)=sin(ωt)
Now it therefore follows that if we add φv in the argument:
Re{ej(ωt+φv) }=cos(ωt+φv) & Im(ej(ωt+φv))=sin(ωt+φv)
9/16/10 38
 Complex Notation for AC Circuits
Using Phasors

v(t) = Vm cos (ωt + φv) Typical AC signal

Phasor : Vˆ ≡ Phasor is the complex

v(t) =Re{V ˆ e jω t } signal at t=0

The ʻphasorʼ is a complex number that contains the

value of the amplitude and the phase.
9/16/10 39
 Examples
Phasor

Phasor

phasor real signal

I = 5 e -jπ/6 i (t) = 5cos (ωt - π/6)

V=2+2j v(t) = 2.83 cos (ωt + π/4)

9/16/10 (convert first to polar: get amplitude and phase) 40

 Converting a Phasor to a Time-
Domain Signal
It is very straightforward.

Phasor

Time-domain

9/16/10 41
 Impedances and Phasors
For Resistors, Capacitors and Inductors

i(t)
+
v(t) Z (in general)
_
However, and

:
Define Impedance = complex number

= generalized ʻresistanceʼ for AC

9/16/10 42
 Resistors and Phasors
A Resistor’s impedance is Real

i(t) j φ
V ≡ Vm e v
ˆ
+
φ
v(t) ˆI ≡ I e I
m

_
Vm = RIm φv = φI

ZR = R A real number

9/16/10 43
 Resistors and Phasors

ˆ jωt
Complex Voltage: Ve
Complex
Current:
ˆ jωt
Ie

9/16/10 Resistor Voltage and Current are in Phase 44

 Inductors and Phasors
An Inductor’s Impedance is Positive Imaginary

(1)
+ i(t)
(2)
v(t) Using Terminal Relation:
_ (3)

Comparing (1) and (3):

Therefore the impedance of the inductor:

Z L = jωL
9/16/10 45
 Inductors and Phasors
An Inductor’s Voltage leads its Current by 90 degrees
Animation

ˆ jωt
Complex Voltage: Ve

Complex
Current:
ˆ jωt
Ie

9/16/10 46
 Capacitors and Phasors
An Capacitor’s Impedance is a negative imaginary number

(1)
+ i(t)
(2)
v(t) Using Terminal Relation:
_

Comparing (2) and (3):

Therefore the impedance of the capacitor:

1 j
VˆC Vm e jφV
π
1 −j2 ZC = =−
ZC =
IˆC
=
Im e jφ I
=
ωC
e jωC ωC
Negative imaginary number

9/16/10 47

€
 Capacitors and Phasors
A Capacitor’s Voltage lags its Current by 90 degrees

ˆ jωt
Complex Voltage: Ve

Complex
Current:
ˆ jωt
Ie

9/16/10 48
 To recap:
Impedances of Passive Elements

Resistor ZR = R
Inductor Z L = jωL

Capacitor 1 j
€
ZC = =−
jωC ωC
€
9/16/10 49

€
 Example
An Electric Motor, expressed as a 20mH inductor,
Is plugged into an AC socket. Will it blow a 10 Amp fuse?
frequency = 1/T = 60 Hz

}
angular frequency ω = 2π 60 s-1
=120π s-1 ∼ 377 s-1
vs(t) = 170 cos (377t) volts
power outlet ‘120 VAC’:
Vm = 1.41*120V = 170 VAC

Im =Vm/ωL = Im = 170/ (377 x 20x10-3) = 22.5 A !

Fuse will blow!

9/16/10 50
 Impedances in DC and High Frequencies

(Absolute value) DC HF
IMPEDANCE=Vm/Im ω = 0 ω -> infinity

Resistor: V m / Im = R No effect No effect

Open circuit Short circuit

Capacitor: Vm / Im = 1/ω C (no resistance)
(infinite resistance)

Short circuit Open circuit

Inductor: V m / Im = ω L (no resistance) (infinite resistance)

9/16/10 51
 Example
A 30 pF Capacitor is connected across an RF transmitter (voltage source)
operating at 100 MHz carrying an amplitude of 30 Volts. Find i(t).

vs(t) i(t)
C

 0.57  π
Iˆ = 570 mA and φ = tan -1 =
 0  2
π
→ i(t) = 570cos(6.28x10 8 t + ) mA
2
i(t) = −570sin(6.28x10 8 t ) mA

9/16/10
52
52

€
 Kirchhoffʼs Laws and Phasors
KCL: ∑i (t) = 0
k

i1(t) k
i2(t)

i5(t) i3(t)
i4(t)

Same way for KVL :

9/16/10 53
 Kirchhoffʼs Laws and Phasors

i1(t)
i2(t)
KCL
i5(t) i3(t)
i4(t)
v1(t)

vs(t) I v2(t) KVL

v6(t)

9/16/10 54
 Revisiting an Example
AC Circuit Analysis

R iR
is vR iC

vs(t) AC C vC

Given: vs(t) = V0 cos(ω t)

9/16/10 55
 Revisiting an Example
Converting to Phasors

R ˆIR
ˆIs ˆR ˆIC
V
ˆ s= V0
V C ˆC
V

vs(t) = V0 cos(ω t) =Re (V0 e jωt)

phasor

9/16/10 56
 Revisiting an Example
Working with Phasors

KCL:
 ˆIs = ˆIR = ˆIC = ˆI R ˆIR

ˆ R + Vˆ C = V
KVL: V ˆs ˆIs ˆIC
ˆR
V
ˆ s= V0
V C ˆC
V
Terminal Relations:

ˆ R = R Iˆ
V ˆ C = (1/jωC) Iˆ
V
We only have to work with algebra! Life is good.

9/16/10 57
 Revisiting an Example
Simple Algebra

9/16/10 58
 Revisiting the RC Circuit Example

VOωRC
Io = 2
1+ (ωRC )

−1b −1 1 
φ I = tan   = tan  
 a  ωRC 
€
π
= + tan−1 (−ωRC )
2
VoωRC  −1 1 
 VoωRC
i(t) =
2
cosωt + tan 


 ωRC 
= −
2
sin(ω t + tan−1
(ωRC))
1+ (ωRC ) 1+ (ωRC )
€
9/16/10 Same as we obtained in last lecture. 59