GORDON W.

ALLPORT: Psychology of the Individual

- More than any other personality theorists, Allport emphasized the uniqueness of the individual.
- He called the study of the individual morphogenic science; those that gather data on a single individual; whereas
nomothetic methods gather data on groups of people as used by most other psychologists.
- He also advocated on eclectic approach to theory building; accepting some of the theories/contributions of other
psychologists such as Freud, Maslow, Rogers, Eysenck, and Skinner.
- Allport also argued against particularism, or theories that emphasize a single aspect of personality. He cautioned other
theorists not to “forget what you have decided to neglect.” No theory is completely comprehensive and much of human
theory is not included in any single theory.

Allport’s Approach to Personality Theory

What is Personality?

- Allport defined personality as “the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychosocial systems that determine
his characteristic behavior and thought.
- The term dynamic organization implies an integration or interrelatedness of the various aspects of personality. But
personality is always subject to change, it is not static organization.
- The term psychosocial emphasizes the importance of both the psychological and physical aspects of personality.
- The word determine suggests that personality is not simply a behavior, it refers to the person behind the action.
- By characteristic is to imply “individual” or “unique”.
- Personality is both physical and psychological, both substance and change, both product and process, both structure and
growth.

Role of Conscious Motivation

- Healthy adults are generally aware of what they are doing and the reasons for doing it but he also recognized the
existence and importance of unconscious processes.

Characteristics of a Healthy Person

- Psychologically mature people are characterized by proactive behavior; they not only react to external stimuli, but they are capable
of consciously acting on their environment in new and innovative ways and causing their environment to react to them.

- Mature personalities are more likely than disturbed ones to be motivated by conscious processes that allow them to be more
flexible and autonomous.

Six Criteria for Mature Personality:

1) Extension of the sense of self. Mature people continually seek to identify with and participate in events outside
themselves.
2) Warm relating of self to others
3) Emotional security or Self-acceptance (emotional poise)
4) Realistic perception of their environment
5) Insight and Humor
6) Unifying philosophy of life

Structure of Personality

- This refers to its basic units or building blocks.

- Common traits are general characteristics held in common by many people. Common traits provide the means by which
people within a given culture can be compared to one another.
- For Allport, the most important structures are those that permit the description of the person in terms of individual
characteristics, he called the personal dispositions. Defined as “a generalized nueropsychic structure (peculiar to the
individual), with the capacity to render many stimuli functionally equivalent, and to initiate and guide consistent (equivalent)
forms of adaptive and stylistic behavior.

Levels of Personal Dispositions:

- Personal dispositions can be placed in a continuum form those that are most central to those that are of only peripheral
importance to a person.
o Cardinal Dispositions. An eminent characteristic or ruling passion, so outstanding that it dominates people’s
lives (narcissistic, sadistic). Only few people have cardinal dispositions.
o Central Dispositions. These are characteristics that are sufficiently strong to be detected around which a
person’s life focuses. Adler believed that people have 5 to 10 central dispositions.
o Secondary Dispositions. Less conspicuous but far greater in number than central dispositions. These are not
central to personality yet occur with some regularity.
Motivational and Stylistic Dispositions

o All personal dispositions are dynamic in a sense that they have motivational power.
o Motivational Dispositions. These are intensely experienced dispositions that receive their motivation from
basic needs and drives. Motivational dispositions initiate action. Similar to Maslow’s concept of coping behavior.
o Stylistic Dispositions. These are dispositions that are less intensely experienced even though this disposition
possesses some motivational power. Stylistic dispositions guide action. Similar to Maslow’s expressive
behavior.
- Allport saw no distinction between the two dispositions.

Proprium

- Allport used this term to refer to those behaviors and characteristics that people regard as warm, central, and important to
their lives.
- Some characteristics and behaviors exist on the periphery of personality. These nonpropriate behaviors are performed
automatically and are not crucial to the person’s sense of self.
- The proprium includes a person’s values and conscience that is personal (not generalized and shared) and consistent
with one’s adult belief systems.

Motivation

- Allport believed that most people are motivated by present drives rather than by past events and are aware of what they
are doing and why they are doing it.
- Peripheral Motives are those that reduce a need whereas propriate strivings seek to maintain tension and disequilibrium.
- Allport believed that a useful theory rests on the assumption that people not only react to their environment but also shape
their environment and cause it to react to them.
- Psychoanalysis and learning theories are basically homeostatic or reactive because they see people as being motivated
primarily by the needs to reduce tension and to return to state of equilibrium. Allport contended that an adequate theory of
personality must allow for proactive behavior. It must view people as consciously acting on their environment in a manner
that permits growth toward psychological health.

Functional Autonomy

- This concept represents Allport’s most distinctive and controversial postulate.

- This is Allport’s explanation for the myriad human motives that seemingly are not accounted for by hedonistic or drive-
reduction principles.
- The concept of functional autonomy holds that some, but not all, human motives are functionally independent from the
original motive responsible for the behavior. Human behavior is based on present interests and on conscious motivation.
- -This notion is in harmony with the commonsense belief of many people who hold that they do things simply because they
like to do them.

Requirements of An Adequate Theory of Motivation

1) It will acknowledge the contemporaneity of motives.

2) It will be a pluralistic theory – allowing for motives of many types.
3) It will ascribe dynamic force to cognitive processes (e.g. planning and intention).
4) It will allow for concrete uniqueness of motives.

Perseverative Functional Autonomy

- It is an elementary level of functional autonomy, borrowed from the term “perseveration,” which is the tendency of an
impression to leave an influence on subsequent experience.

Propriate Functional Autonomy

- This is the master system of motivation that confers unity on personality, which refers to those self-sustaining motives that
are related to the proprium not on the periphery of personality.

Processes That Are Not Functionally Autonomous

- Functional autonomy is not an explanation for all human motivation. Allport listed eight processes that are not functionally
autonomous:

(1) biological drives, such as eating, breathing, and sleeping;

(2) motives directly linked to the reduction of basic drives;
(3) reflex actions such as an eye blink;
 (4) constitutional equipment, namely physique, intelligence, and temperament;
(5) habits in the process of being formed;
(6) patterns of behavior that require primary reinforcement;
(7) sublimations that can be tied to childhood sexual desires; and (8) some neurotic or pathological symptoms.

The Study of the Individual

Morphogenic Science

- Allport distinguished a scientific approach which is peculiar to the single case, termed as idiographic. Allport later
abandoned the term because it was often misunderstood and misused and spoke of morphogenic procedures.
- Both “idiographic” and “morphogenic” pertain to the individual, but “idiographic” does not suggest structure or pattern. In
contrast, “morphogenic” refers to patterned properties of the whole organism and allows for intraperson comparisons.

Critique of Allport

- He based his theory of personality more on philosophical speculation and common sense than on scientific investigations.
- He has been careful in defining terms, in categorizing previous definitions, or in questioning what units should be
employed in his personality theory.
- Much of what is known about human personality cannot be easily integrated into Allport’s theory. Behaviors motivated by
unconscious forces as well as those that are stimulated by primary drives were not adequately explained.
- Adler used precise language rendering his theory both internally consistent and parsimonious.

- Allport basically had a basically optimistic view of human nature. He believed that our fates and traits are not determined
by unconscious motives originating in early childhood but by conscious choices we make in the present.
- Allport adopted a “limited freedom approach” Although free will exists; people however are not completely free.
- Allport’s view of humanity is more teleological than causal. Personality to some extent is influenced by past experiences,
but the behaviors that make us human are those that are motivated by our expectations of the future.
- Allport also placed only moderate emphasis on social factors. He recognized the importance of environmental influences
in helping to shape personality’ but how each of us reacts to it depends on our unique personality and our basic
motivation.
- People are motivated by a variety of motivations; most of which are within the realm of consciousness.
- Individual differences and uniqueness receive far greater emphasis in Allport’s psychology.
 HANS J. EYSENCK, ROBERT R. McCRAE, & PAUL T. COSTA, JR.: Trait and Factor Theories

The Pioneering Work of Raymond B. Catell

- Catell’s trait theory enhances the understanding of Eysenck’s three-factor theory.

o First, Catell used an inductive method; that is, he began with no preconceived bias concerning the number of
traits or types. Eysenck used a deductive method to identify three personality factors.
o Second, Catell used three different media of observations to examine people: These include a person’s life
record (L data) derived from observations made by other people, self-reports (Q data) obtained from
questionnaires and objective tests (T data). In contrast, Eysenck’s three-bipolar factors is limited to responses
on questioners.
o Third, Catell divided traits into common traits and unique traits. He also distinguished source traits from surface
traits (trait indicators). Catell further classified traits into temperament (how a person behaves), motivation (why
one behaves), and ability (how far or how fast one can perform).
o Fourth, Catell’s multifaceted approach yielded 35 primary or first-order traits which measure mostly the
temperament division. 23 of these characterize the normal population and 12 measure the pathological
dimension. The most frequently studied of the normal traits are the 16 personality found on Catell’s Sixteen
Personality Factor’s Questionnaire. Eysenck Personality Questionnaire yields score only on three factors.
o Fifth, while Cattell was measuring a large number to traits, Eysenck was concentrating on types, or superfactors
that make up several interrelated traits.

Basis of Factor Analysis

- A correlation coefficient is a mathematical procedure for expressing the degree of correspondence between two set of
scores.
- Factor analysis can account for a large number of variables within a smaller number of more basic dimensions, factors.
These more basic dimensions represent a cluster of closely related variables.
- After identifying the factors, the next step is to determine the extent to which each individual score contributes to the
various factors. Correlations of scores with factors are called factor loadings.
- Traits generated through factor analysis may be either unipolar or bipolar. Unipolar traits are scaled from zero to some
large amount (e.g., height, weight). Bipolar traits extend from one pole to an opposite pole, with zero representing a
midpoint (e.g., introversion vs. extraversion)
- In order for mathematically derived factors to have psychological meaning, the axes on which the scores are plotted are
usually turned on rotated into a specific mathematical relationship with each other. The rotation can either be orthogonal
or oblique.
- Orthogonally rotated axes are at right angles with each other. As scores on the x variable increase, scores on the y-axis
may have any value, that is, they are completely unrelated to scores on the x-axis. (favored by Eysenck)
- The oblique method, assumes some positive or negative correlation and refers to an angle of less than or more than 90°.
As scores on the x variable increase, scores on the y-axis have a tendency also to increase.

Eysenck’s Factor Theory

- The personality theory of Hans Eysenck has strong psychometric and biological components.

Criteria for Identifying Factors

1) Psychometric evidence for the factor’s existence must be established. A corollary to this criterion is that the factor must be
reliable and replicable.
2) Factor must also possess heritability and must fit an established genetic model. This criterion eliminates learned
characteristics.
3) The factor must make sense from a theoretical view. Eysenck employed the deductive method of investigation, beginning
with a theory and then gathering data that are logically consistent with that theory.
4) The factor must possess social relevance.

Hierarchy of Behavior Organization

1) Lowest level: specific acts or cognitions

2) Second level: habitual acts or cognitions
3) Third level: traits. Several related habitual responses form a trait defined by Eysenck as “important semi-permanent
personality dispositions”.
4) Fourth level: types or superfactors. A type is made up of several interrelated traits.

Dimensions of Personality

- Eysenck extracted only three general superfactors: The three personality dimensions are extraversion (E), neuroticism
(N), and pscyhoticism (P).
 - Eysenck regarded all three factors as part of normal personality structure. All three are bipolar, with extraversion on one
pole and introversion at the other, neuroticism/stability, and psychoticism/superego function.
- The bipolarity does not imply that most people are at one end or the other of the three main poles.. Each factor is
unimodally distributed.

Extraversion

- Extraverts are characterized primarily by sociability and impulsiveness but also by jocularity liveliness, quick-wittedness,
optimism, and other traits indicative of people who are rewarded for their association with others.
- Introverts are characterized by traits opposite to those of extraverts. They can be described as quiet, passive, unsociable,
careful, reserved, thoughtful, pessimistic, peaceful, sober, and controlled.
- The differences between extraverts and introverts are not behavioral, but rather biological and genetic in nature. One is
the cortical arousal level, a physiological condition that is largely inhibited rather than learned. Extraverts have a lower
level of cortical arousal than introverts, they have higher sensory thresholds, thus lesser reactions to sensory stimulation.
Introverts with their congenitally low sensory threshold, avoid situations that will cause too much excitement.

Neuroticism

- People who score high on neuroticism often have a tendency to overact emotionally and to have difficulty returning to
normal state after emotional arousal. They frequently complain of physical symptoms.
- Eysenck accepted the diathesis-stress model of psychiatric illness, which suggests that some people are vulnerable to
illness because they have either a genetic or an acquired weakness that predisposes them to an illness. This
predisposition (diathesis) may interact with stress to produce a neurotic disorder.
- The higher the neuroticism score, the lower level of stress necessary to precipitate a neurotic disorder.

Psychoticism

- Eysenck’s original theory of personality was based on only two personality dimensions – extraversion and neuroticism.
But after several years, psychoticism was elevated to a position equal to E and N.
- High psychoticism scores are often egocentric, cold, nonconforming, impulsive, hostile, aggressive, suspicious,
psychopathic, and antisocial. People low on psychoticism, in the direction of superego function, tend to be altruistic, highly
socialized, empathic, caring, cooperative, conforming, and conventional.
- P scorers are also genetically more vulnerable to stress than are low P scorers, having an increased chance of
developing a psychotic disorder.
- It is independent of both E and N.
- Eysenck’s view of personality, therefore, allows each person to be measured on three independent factors.

Measuring Personality

- Maudsley Personality Inventory (MPI) – assessed only neuroticism and extraversion.

- Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) – contains an additional lie (L) scale aside from E and N to detect faking.
- Sybil B.G. Eysenck extended EPI to children 7 to 16 years of age, called the Junior EPI.
- Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) – this included psychoticism, which has both an adult and junior version
- Eysenck Personality Questionnaire-Revised was developed due to subsequent criticisms

Biological Bases of Personality

- The three superfactors, according to Eysenck, all have powerful biological determinants. He estimated that three fourths
of the variance can be accounted for by heredity and about one fourth by environmental factors.
- Antecedents of the three superfactors are genetic determinants like DNA (distal) and biological such as limbic system
arousal (proximal).
- Consequences include such experimental variables as conditioning experiences, sensitivity, and memory (proximal) and
social behaviors such as criminality, creativity, psychopathology, and sexual behavior.

In Search of the Big Five

- Initially Costa and McCrae focused on the two main dimensions of neuroticism and extraversion. Almost immediately, they
found a third factor which they called openness to experience.
- Not until 1985 did they began to report work on the five factors of personality. This work culminated their five-factor
personality inventory: the NEO-PI. In the inventory, the last two dimensions were agreeableness and conscientiousness;
but were still the least well-developed scale, having no subscales.
- Throughout the 1980’s, they continued their work on factor analyzing most every other major personality inventory,
including the Myer-Briggs Type Indicator and the Eysenck Personality Inventory.

Description of the Five Factors

 - McCrae and Costa agreed with Eysenck that personality traits are bipolar, and that people score near middle of each trait,
with only few people scoring in the extremes.
- Neuroticism and extraversion are the two strongest and most ubiquitous personality traits.

High Scores Low Scores

affectionate reserved
joiner loner
Extraversion talkative quiet
fun loving sober
active passive
passionate unfeeling
High Scores Low Scores
anxious calm
temperamental even-tempered
Neuroticism self-pitying self-satisfied
self-conscious comfortable
emotional unemotional
vulnerable hardy
High Scores Low Scores
imaginative down-to-earth
creative uncreative
Openness original conventional
prefers variety prefers routine
curios uncurious
liberal conservative
High Scores Low Scores
softhearted ruthless
trusting suspicious
Agreeableness generous stingy
acquiescent antagonistic
lenient critical
good-natured irritable
High Scores Low Scores
conscientious negligent
hardworking lazy
Conscientious well-organized disorganized
punctual late
ambitious aimless
persevering quitting

- Originally the five-factor theory constituted noting more than a taxonomy, a classification of basic personality traits.

Units of the Five-Factor Theory

- In the personality theory of McCrae and Costa, behavior is predicted an understanding of three central or core
components and three peripheral ones.

Core Components of Personality

- Basic Tendencies are one of the central components of personality, defined as the universal raw material of personality
capacities and dispositions that are generally inferred rather than observed. They defined the individual’s potential and
direction (talent, intelligence, aptitude).
- The essence of basic tendencies is their basis in biology and their stability over time and situation.

Characteristic Adaptations are acquired personality structures that develop as people adapt to their environment.

- The principal difference between basic tendencies and characteristic adaptations is their flexibility. Whereas basic
tendencies are quite stable, characteristic adaptations can be influenced by external influences that result from the
interaction of individuals with their environment (acquired and specific skills). It also fluctuates, making them subject to
change over a person’s lifetime.
- Self-Concept is an important characteristic adaptation that consists of knowledge, views, and evaluations of the self
ranging from miscellaneous facts of personal history to the identity that gives a sense of purpose and coherence to life.
The beliefs, attitudes, and feelings one has toward oneself are characteristic adaptations in that they influence how one
behaves in a given circumstance.

Peripheral Components of Personality

 - Biological Bases. The Five-Factor Theory rests on a single causal influence on personality traits namely biology. This
should not suggest that merely that it has no direct influence on basic tendencies.
- Objective Biography is defined as everything the person does, thinks, or feels across the whole lifespan. Objective
biography emphasizes what has happened in people’s lives (objective) rather than their view or perceptions of their
experiences (subjective).
- External Influences is all about how respond to opportunities and demands in a particular physical or social situation that
has some influence on the personality system.
- Behavior is a function of the interaction between characteristic adaptations and external influences.

Basic Postulates- Postulates for Basic Tendencies

1. The individuality postulate stipulates that adults have a unique set of traits and that each person exhibits a unique
combination of trait patterns.
2. The origin postulate states that all personality traits are solely of endogenous (internal forces) such as genes, hormones,
and brain structures.
3. The development postulate assumes that traits develop and change through childhood, but in adolescence their
development slows, and by early to middle-adulthood, change in personality nearly stops together.
4. The structure postulate states that traits are organized hierarchically from narrow and specific to broad and general.

Postulates for Characteristic Adaptations

1. The postulate concerning characteristic adaptations states that, over time, people adapt to their environment “by acquiring
patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that are consistent with their personality traits and earlier adaptations.”
2. The second postulate – maladjustment – suggests that our responses are not always consistent with personal goals or
cultural values.
3. The plasticity postulate stipulates that basic traits may “change over time in response to biological maturation, changes in
the environment, or deliberate interventions.”

Critique of Trait and Factor Theories

- Trait and factor theories provide important taxonomies that organize personality into meaningful classifications.
- They are example of a strictly empirical approach to personality investigation.
- The comprehensiveness of Eysenck’s personality theory has generated significant amounts of research, most especially
empirical research.
- The approach of trait and factor theories is the essence of parsimony; the very purpose of factor analysis is to reduce a
large number of variables to as few as possible.
- Eysenck, as well as McCrae and Costa, placed heavy emphasis on genetic factors of personality.
- Trait factor lean toward individual differences. Factor analysis rests on the premise of differences among individuals and
thus variability in their scores.