THE CROSS PRODUCT

I. Introduction. Definition of Cross Product.

The cross product w = u × v of two vectors u and v in R3 is of the form

vector × vector = vector.

This product has a number of important properties; the most important of these is the fact that when
w = u × v 6= 0, w will be perpendicular to both u and v. (This is because it will turn out that
w · u = w · v = 0—see Property 1 below.) Thus, one of the main uses of this operation will be sim-
ply to find any vector that is perpendicular to two given vectors.1 I will focus on this property of the cross
product as I lead you to the definition of it.

Starting with two given vectors u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) and v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ), consider the equation
   
x y z x
 y z 
det  u1 u2 u3  =  u1 u2 u3  = 0. (1)
v1 v2 v3  v1 v2 v3 

This is an equation in three variables {x, y, z}, and clearly u = hu1 , u2 , u3 i and v = hv1 , v2 , v3 i are both
solutions, since substituting either u or v into row 1 of the matrix will make the determinant zero. (See
handout on Laplace expansion, property 7.) Now rewrite equation (1) by expanding this determinant across
the first row:      
 u2 u3 
 x −  u1 u3  y +  u1 u2  z = 0.
   

 v2 v3   v1 v3   v1 v2  (2)

Writing the equation this way suggests a dot product: we can rewrite equation (2) to read
     
 u2 u3   u1 u3   u1 u2 

 v2 , −  ,  · h x, y, z i = 0; (3)
v3   v1 v3   v1 v2 

that is, the solutions hx, y, zi to equation (3) are exactly vectors hx, y, zi that make a zero dot product with
the vector      
 u2 u3   u1 u3   u1 u2 
w =    , −
  ,   .
v2 v3  v1 v3   v1 v2 
Since u and v are among the solutions, w · u = w · v = 0. Thus we have in w (provided that w 6= 0) a
vector that is perpendicular to both u and v, as desired.
Therefore we define the cross product of u with v to be this vector w:
     
 u2 u3   u1 u3   u1 u2 
u × v :=    , −
  ,   .
v2 v3  v1 v3   v1 v2 
| {z }
w

1
This operation is defined only in R3 , because in R3 —and in no other dimension—there will generally
be exactly one direction perpendicular to both of two vectors u and v.

1
II. Algebraic Properties of the Cross Product.

Property 1. For all vectors u and v,

u × v · u = u × v · v = 0.

Proof . This is what motivated the definition; see above discussion.

Property 2. For any vectors u and v,

u×v =− v×u .
Proof . In the first coordinate, by Result 5 or 6 on the Laplace handout,
   
 u2 u3 
 = −  v2 v3  ;
 

 v2 v3   u2 u3 

similarly for the other two coordinates.

Property 3. For any vectors u and v and any scalar c,




cu × v = u × cv = c u × v .

Proof . In the first coordinate, by Result 3 on the Laplace handout,

     
 cu2 cu3   u2 u3 
 = c  u2 u3  ;
 
 =
 v2 v3   cv2 cv3   v2 v3 

similarly for the other two coordinates.

Property 4a. For any vectors r, u, and v,




r+u ×v = r×v + u×v .

Proof . Let r = hr1 , r2 , r3 i and u = hu1 , u2 , u3 i, so that

r + u = hr1 + u1 , r2 + u2 , r3 + u3 i.
 
 r + u 2 r3 + u 3 
The first coordinate of r + u × v is then  2


 . By Result 2 on the Laplace handout, this
v2 v3 
equals    
 r2 r3   u 2 u 3 
 v2 v3   v2 v3  ,
 + 

which is the first coordinate of r × v + u × v . The same argument shows that the second and third
coordinates also match.
Exercise. Use properties 2 and 4a to prove
Property 4b. For any vectors r, u, and v,




v× r+u = v×r + v×u .

2
Property 5. For any vectors u, v, and w,



u· v ×w = u×v ·w.
| {z } | {z }
(A) (B)

Proof .  
 u u2 u3 
v2   1
    
v v3  v v3  v
(A) = u1  2 − u2  1 + u3  1 = v v2 v3  ,
w2 w3  w1 w3  w1 w1   1
w1 w2 w3 
expanded across the first row. Similarly,
 
       u1 u2 u3 
u u3   u1 u3   u1 u2 
(B) =  2
 
w1 −  w2 +  w3 =  v1 v2 v3  ,
v2 v3   v1 v3   v1 v1  
 w1 w2 w3 

expanded across the third row.

I will discuss the geometric meaning of this determinant below.


Property 6, below, concerns u × v × w . (The parentheses are necessary, because the cross product is
NOT associative.) The way to understand what Property 6 says is this. Let u, v, and w be three nonzero
vectors in three
different directions—i.e., there is no plane that contains all three of these

vectors—and
let y = v × w . Then y will be perpendicular to both v and w, and so u × v × w = u × y will be
perpendicular to y. That means that u × y must be in the plane containing v and w. By linear algebra,
it can then be shown that there exist scalars c and d such that u × y = cv + dw. Property 6 tells exactly
what these scalars are.
Property 6. For any vectors u, v, and w,




u × v × w = u · w v − u · v w.

Proof . This property is the only one I will not prove in this handout; the proof is really nothing but a frantic
fit of algebra.2

III. The Magnitude of the Cross Product.

The vector u × v is perpendicular to u and v; this is the principal significance of the direction of this vector.
The magnitude of the cross product also turns out to be of considerable interest. I will establish two formulas
for ku × vk (Properties 7 and 8); the first of these is used mainly as a stepping-stone to the second one.
Property 7.
q
u × v = u 2 v 2 − u · v 2 .

Proof . h
i
u × v 2 = u × v · u × v



= u· v× u×v =
↑ ↑
Prop. 5 Prop. 6
h

i



2 2
2
u· v · v u − v · u v = v · v u · u − v · u v · u = u v − u · v .

Property 8. Let θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, be the size of the smaller angle between nonzero vectors u and v. Then

u × v = u v sin(θ).

2
I wish I could come up with a better proof, but I can’t. I don’t think anyone else can, either; I’ve never
seen one in print.

3
Proof .
 2
u × v 2
2 2
u v − u · v 2 = u 2 v 2 − kuk kvk cos(θ) =


=
↑
Prop. 7
2 2 h i
u v 1 − cos2 (θ) = u 2 v 2 sin2 (θ).

There are several interesting inferences to be drawn from Property 8.

[a]: The length of the cross product of two nonzero vectors u and v equals the area of the parallelogram
determined by u and v (or twice the area of the triangle they determine).
[b]: Two nonzero vectors u and v have cross product = 0 if and only if they are in the same or opposite
direction.


[c]: The absolute value of the number u · v × w (see Property 5) equals the volume of the parallopiped
determined by u, v, and w.
[d]: The distance from a point R to the line containing a segment PQ ~ is given by the for-
kPQ~ × PRk ~
mula .
~
kPQk
2
[e]: in
 R , the area of the parallelogram determined by u = hx1 , y1 i and v = hx2 , y2 i is given by


det x 1 y 1

.
 x2 y2 
I will discuss each of these consequences in class.

IV. The Vectors i, j, and k.

The so-called “standard basis vectors” are the vectors


 i = h1, 0, 0i
j = h0, 1, 0i ,
k = h0, 0, 1i


which are the vectors extending one unit in the positive direction along the x, y, and z axes respectively.
Since the cross product of any two of these must have length 1 (by property 8) and must be contained in
the third of the axes, we have, necessarily, that

i × j = ±k;





i × k = ±j;




j × k = ±i.

The question is: Which of these equations get the plus sign, and which the minus sign? An easy way to
remember is to arrange the three vectors i, j, and k in the diagram below:

i
% &
k ← j

Any product that moves around the diagram in the direction of the arrows takes a plus sign, and any product
that moves around the diagram in the other direction takes a minus sign.