ROCK CONTROL IN GEOMORPHOLOGY

Skeleton
920
Lake

I
4 6 8 10 12 14 km
MUSKOKA, ant, Canada
Contour interval 100 feet, elevations in feet above mean sea level
(Courtesy of the Department of Mines and Technical Surveys, Canada)
ROCK CONTROL IN GEOMORPHOLOGY

by

EIJU YATSU

SOZOSHA
8, 3-chome, Kandanishikicho, Chiyodaku, Tokyo

1966
Copyright 1966
Sozosha
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED PREFACE
This book or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any
form without the written permission of the publisher.
Geomorphologists too long have shied away from investigat-
ing . basic processes associated with landform origin and
development. Few have gone beyond regarding them in
amateurish or superficial ways. In doing so, they have delayed
unduly the time when their field becomes truly scientific and
useful to persons in allied disciplines. How many engineers,
geologists, mineralogists, pedologists, ecologists, foresters, chemists,
physicists, or agriculturists turn to geomorphological literature
for information that might aid them in solving problems related
to the earth's land surface? Should they do so, how often would
their efforts be rewarded by finding useful information? It is
a sad commentary, but in all probability their harvest would
reveal few grains of corn embedded in huge volumes of chaff.
This is a condition that Professor Yatsu hopes to correct.
The intent of this short book by no means is an attempt to
explain or catalogue a wide variety of examples where rock
control has produced or is reflected in scientific land forms.
Rather, it emphasizes the importance of physiochemical and
mechanical processes that affect rock properties, and hence,
secondarily, resulting land forms. It deals with fundamental,
but largely unsolved, problems in rock dynamics. A style that
at times is deliberately provocative is used in the hope that it
will stimulate open and youthful minds to develop a truly
scientific geomorphology. The fact that the text asks more
questions than it answers points up the need for more penetrat-
ing research than geomorphologists are likely to deem essential.
The hope is that a science hardly advanced beyond the swaddling
clothes stage will mature and on the basis of merit attain its
potential of being sound, respected, and useful. It should not
continue to follow degenerative paths toward becoming little
more than an aid in describing scenery. This viewpoint is
similar to one that I expressed in presidential addresses before
the Association of Americ:m Geographers and the Geological
Society of America. My concluding statement in the Hitchcock
Lectures at the University of California in 1965 repeated the
Printed in Japan hope.
 i
II
The effect of the influence of William Morris Davis, who is
usually considered as the father of American geomorphology,
was to divert students away from truly scientific research, such
as was rather characteristic of the nineteenth century, into super-
ficial inquiries centered on stages of development in cycles of
erosion, a scheme that Davis advocated for many decades with
much precise logic. Research was concerned with end products,
hypothetical forms of the surface, while the investigation of
datails of morphological processes lapsed into almost complete
somnolence.
Professor Yatsu specifically commends Filip Hjulstrom,
Sundborg, Strahler, Wolman and Miller, Leopold and Langbein,
Chorley, Glover, Dury, and Hack for their contributions toward
developing a more meaningful geomorphology. But the emphasis
in the book centers on the contributions of people such as H.
W. Anderson, P. F. Kerr, F. J. Turner, F. Birch, D. Griggs, T. V.
Karman, A. W. Skempton, L. Bjerrum, R. Grim, M. A. Melton,
E. Penner, D. J. Varnes, and Karl Terzaghi. In addition many
Japanese are cited, most of whom have published in English.
While some of these names will be recognized by' American
geomorphologists, probably few have intimate knowledge of
their contributions. It is high time that they do!
In progressing from superficial "explanatory descriptions,"
advocated by Davis, toward more meaningful studies of land
forms, many geomorphologists, indeed, have struck out in new
directions. Climatic geomorphology, currently in vogue in
Europe and to some extent in America, is regarded by Professor
Yatsu as but one interesting approach, rather than an end in
itself. Its practitioners are likely to be concerned with broad
features of landscapes and to regard rock types and structures
as interesting only because they influence forms of micro-relief.
Interpretations of aerial photographs, and we might add, other
forms of remote sensing, although useful, will never provide
the information needed to understand the origin of land forms.
Dependence on mathematical elegance offers little more than
the highly logical deductive approach of Davis, at least until
sufficient knowledge has accumulated concerning all processes
involved. This requires detailed observation and analysis, both
on the ground and in the laboratory, where it requires the use
of modern equipment.
To develop anything like an ultimate geomorphology it is
1I1
necessary to solve essential, fundamental problems underlying
the dynamics of rock deformation. This is something where
most progress to date has been made by specialists in other
fields, many of whom have been engaged in penetrating inquiries.
It is not enough to know the physics and chemistry of bedrock,
nor how rock behaves when subjected to mechanical tests.
Research must emphasize underlying causes, extending into the
physical chemistry of minerals on the scale of examining their
crystal lattices, and into changes related to time as well as to
local environments.
Rock alterability ordinarily depends on the fact that minerals
are stable in the environments where they originated, but are
altered readily when the environment is changed. In the case
of a metamorphic rock formed at considerable depth and later
brought to the surface, for example, it is necessary to realize
that such generalizations must be accepted with caution, because
numerous exceptions may be cited. While it is generally true
that sedimentary rocks of the orthoquartzite series are more
stable than those of the arkose-graywacke series in surface
environments, specific examples must be subjected to a variety
of inquiries and tests before one knows whether the rule is
being followed.
Professor Yatsu is by no means suggesting that geomorphol-
ogy must be developed by people in other disciplines. He notes
that while the main contributors of fundamental information to
date have been people such as chemists, geophysicists, pedologists,
and mechanical engineers, once the geomorphologists get down
to business and think in terms of fundamental processes, their
contributions will surpass in value those of allied specialists.
It is sincerely hoped that this text will be found on the
shelves of all institutions where geology, geomorphology, or
engineering are included in the curriculum. Its content should
be understood by all advanced students in geomorphology and
by civil or architectural engineers concerned with the design
of structures resting on the ground, the location of highways,
railways, tunnels, and dams, as well as mining engineers
involved in planning underground workings or open-pit
excavations. Its bibliography contains about seventeen pages
of useful references, and in itself is an excellent guide to the
acquisition of useful information.
While serving as a visiting professor in the Department of
IV
Geography of Louisiana State University, Professor Yatsu at no
time hesitated to exceed the "call of duty." His enthusiasm
inoculated students fortunate enough to participate in his
course on geomorphology, and on many occasions they requested
him to present extra-curricular lectures and discussions; requests
that he invariably accepted. I felt honored when he asked me
to contribute this preface to the revised edition of a manuscript
which originally was written for the purpose of presentation to
his students and faculty members in our department, as a token
of appreciation.
If the seed planted by Professor Yatsu results in serious
consideration of processes involved in rock alterability and bears
fruit, we may anticipate the development of a truly scientific
geomorphology, a goal that is both highly desirable and by no
means out of reach.
The book is not a compendium. Although it provides many
examples where rock control is evident as influencing landform
development, its aim is to suggest directions that investigators
may follow with profit. If it results in the realization of many
of Professor Yatsu's ideals, a compendium may be anticipated
at some future date; and in all probability the professor, with
his boundless energy and extreme enthusiasm, may be expected
to be a major contributor.
R. J. Russell
AUTHOR'S PREFACE
The purpose of the present book is to point out some of the
basic principles necessary for an exact understanding of rock
control problems in geomorphology. It is intended for use as a
supplementary reading. Some puzzling expressions and therefore
humorou~ narrations are used to encourage and stimulate young
students In geomorphological thinking.
The book has been developed from my lectures in geomor-
?h~logy . at the Louisiana State University where I was kindly
Invited In 1965. I wish to express my gratitude to the faculty
~:mbers for their kindness and generosity. In July 1966, I
JOIned the Department of Geography, University of Ottawa. In
this c.omfortable home-like atmosphere, I finished the manuscript
of thiS book by supplementing the temporary printing with some
explanations and figures. lowe a particular debt of gratitude
to the faculty here.
I am most grateful to Professor Richard J. Russell, director
0: the Coastal Studies Institute, Louisiana State University, who
kIndly honoured me by writing the preface to this book and
by enco~raging me to publish it. I would also like to express
my gratitude to the following persons: Mr. Kogi Yamaguchi,
former teacher of the Ibaraki Normal School, Dr. Yanosuke
O~~uka, .late Professor of the University of Tokyo, Professor
Filip HJulstrom, l)"niversity of Uppsala, Dr. Yokichi Mino
Emeritus Professor of the Tokyo University of Education Dr'
Fumio Tada, Emer~tus Professor of the University of T~kYo:
Professor Jean Tncart, University of Strasbourg, Professor
Arthur N. ~t~ahler, Columbia University, Professor Harley J.
W~lker,. LOUISiana. ~tate University, Professor J. Ross Mackay,
University of BntIsh Columbia, Professor Mark A. Melton
University of British Columbia, Professor Harishankar Prasad
Srivastava, University of Ottawa, and Professor Hiroshi Nakano
Chuo University, all of whom have exerted a great influenc~
on my work and life.
I wish to acknowledge the reasonable criticism by my
colleague, Dr. Takasuke Suzuki, Lecturer of Chuo University
concerning "The Rock Control Theory" Applied Geography:
VI
No.5, 1964. The present book is, so to speak, a collection of
vindication and apology for those papers. In this sense, he
prompted me to write it and kindly helped me in reading the
proof. I highly appreciate the valuable suggestions from
Professor David Erskine of the University of Ottawa in preparing
the manuscript. I am greatly indebted to many authors for
their data, tables, and figures that I have referred to, in this
book. Those, whose sources are not referred to have been
prepared by myself. Finally, I wish to acknowledge my debt
to Mr. Kazuyoshi Izawa, Sozosha Publishing Co., for his gener-
osity in taking charge of a pUblication that runs a risk of being
financially unprofitable and for his valuable help in correcting
the proof.
Department of Geography
University of Ottawa
July 28, 1966
EIJU YATSU
CONTENTS
Preface .................................. .................... ..... ...... ...... . i
Author's Preface ·· ···· ........... ... .... ... .. ... .. ...... ...... .. ..... . ...... V
I. SIGNIFICANCE OF ROCK CONTROL IN
GEOMORPHOLOGy··· ······ ·· ······ ·· ······ ···· ·· ·· ··· ·················· ..... .
1.1. Geomorphology and its Methods ··· ·········· ··········· ··· ······· ·· 1
1.1.1. Geomorphology··· ............ .. ............... ..... .. ... ........ .
1.1.2. Domains of Geomorphology and its Methods ........ .
1.2. Rock Control Problems .... .. ..... . ..... . . .. .. . . ... .. .... .. .. .. .. ...... 4
1.2.1. Rock Control Problems and its Former Researches 4
1.2.2. Air Photo Interpretation of Geological Structure .. ' 10
1.2.3. Rock Control in Relation to Processes ............ ······11
1.2.4. An Approach to the Rock Control Problems ·········12
II. EROSION AND SURFACE MATERIALS OF THE EARTH··· 15
2.1. Alterability of Rocks······ ·· ······ ·········· ······ ····· ·· ···· ···· ··· ·· ·· ·· 15
2.1.1. Alterability······································ ········ ·· ··· ·· ·· · '15
2.1.2. Methods of Studying Alterability·········· ·· ··· ····· · ······17
2.1.3. Some Problems on the Alteration···· ........ ... .. ..... . ····18
2.2. Erosibility······ .. . ........... ... ...................................... .. ..... '19
2.2.1. Soil Properties and Soil Erosion··· ·· · .................. .. .... 20
2.2.2. Landslips and Slope Rupture················· ····· ·· ·· ···· ·· · 23
2.2.3. Glacial Erosion and Erosibility of Rocks .............. . 34
2.2.4. Denudation and Erosibility of Rocks .... .. ............... 34
2.2.5. Wear of Rocks············· ··· ·· ····· ·······························35
III. MECHANICS OF SOLID ROCKS .... ..... ..... .......... .. ...... . .... .. 45
3.1. Strength of Solid Rocks .. .. ............................................ 45
3.1.1. Definition of Strength ... .... .. ....... .. ............ .. .......... 45
3.1.2. Classification of Disintegration .. ... .. .. ......... ... ......... 45
3.2. Failure of Rocks by Static Load·· ··· ········ ·········· ·· ···· ···· ··· 46
3.2.1. Rheological Behavior of Rocks .............................. 46
3.2.2. Theories of Fracture of Rocks ... .. ... .......... ............ 47
3.2.3. Time Dependance of Deformation and Fracture ·· ···· 47
3.2.4. Conditions which influence the Strength of Rocks··· 51
 Vill
3.3. Impulsive Fracture and Others··· ·········· ·· ····· ................... 51
3.4. Cohesion of Rocks .. ········· .. ·· .. ·· ··· ·· ·· ··· .. ·· ········ ···· ·· ... .. ..... 60
3.5. Plasticity of Rocks and Salt Domes ........ · ................. . ...... 61
3.5.1. Plasticity of Rocks· ...................................... · ........ 61
3.5.2. Salt Domes .................... ...... ..... .. ...... .. ... ... ... . ... ... 64
3.6. Wear ....... ......................................... .. ... ....... ... ............ 66
3.6.1. Friction and Wear · ............ .... .. · .. · .. · .. ...... .... .......... 66
3.6.2. Various Wear Mechanism ................. .. .. ............... 67
3.7. Rock Mechanics and Geology ................ · .. · ...... · ............ 70
IV. MECHANICS OF UNCONSOLIDATED AND FRACTURED
:1 ROCKS ..................... ... ....... ..... .. ...... .... ........... . ··· .. · .. · .. · ·· · ·· · 79
4.1. Mechanics of Weathered Bedrock and Systems of
Large Debris ........ ..... ..... ........................... .. ... .......... ... 79
4.1.1. Application of Soil Mechanics to Weathered
Bedrock and Systems of Large Debris ......... ... .... .. 79
4.1.2. Some Examples of Field Measurements .. · ............ · .. 81
4.1.3. Some Problems on Unconsolidated or Fractured
Rock ............ .... .. ...... ........................ ............... ··· 81
4.2. Mechanics of Fine Debris such as Soils ............. ........... 94
4.2.1. Physical Properties of Soils ................ .. .................. 94
4.2.2. Mechanical Experiments on Soils ............ · .............. 95
4.2.3. Properties of Some Erosible Sandy Soil I, Shirasu··· 96
4.2.4. Properties of Some Erosible Sandy Soil II, Masa ... 98
4.2.5. Stability of Slope ......... .................................. .. 102
4.3. Mechanics of Micronized Debris such as Clays .......... .. 104
4.3.1. Clayey Soils ........ ........................ ...................... 104
4.3.2. Mechanics of Clay .................................... ·........ 104
4.3.3. Thixotropy and Mudflows ................................. 106
4.3.4. Properties of Some Clayey Soil I, Kanto Loam ... 107
4.3.5. Properties of Some Clayey Soil II, Post-glacial
Marine Soils ........................... ..... .................... .. 111
V. CONCLUSION ...... .......... ..... .. ..... .... ........ .... ... .. ........ .. ... .
Author Index .............. .. .................................. .... ......
Subject Index ..... ... ............. ... ...... ... ... ...... .. ......... .. .....
SIGNIFICANCE OF ROCK CONTROL
IN GEOMORPHOLOGY
.,
1.1. Geomorphology and its Methods
1.1.1. Geomorphology. This natural science is concerned with
land forms, namely with the forms of land surfaces. It is very
difficult to define exactly the last two words of the preceding
sentence. The term "land surface" is thought of as the boundary
between the solid and the fluid such as the hydrosphere or the
atmosphere. In this case, the word "boundary" implies its mean-
ing not in the size of atoms or molecules but in macroscopic
size. Consider the soil covering the bedrock of the earth; it
is composed of soil particles, air and water. Water and air
exist between soil particles or on their surfaces. Also, in the
case of bedrock, air and water are included in cracks, joints
and cleavages. These contact surfaces between the solid and
air or water are not called the earth's surface. Therefore the
word "land surface" is the one which covers the uppermost
particles of soil or of bed rocks.
Exogenic processes occur intensively at or near such bound-
aries between the solids and fluids. One portion of consolidated
solids are separated; abstracted into fluids, namely liquids and
air; transported by them; and then deposited. On the other
hand, the fluids invade the solids and alter them. This is an
aspect of the weathering phenomena. Altered solids change
their kinetic characteristics and begin to deform themselves or
to slide and creep. The rupture and slip of the earth slope are
examples of such mass wasting phenomena.
Endogenic processes derived from the energy of the earth's
125 interior contribute much to the deformation and displacement
of the surface of the earth. Orogenic or epeirogenic movements
127 and volcanism play this role; they join in the deformation and
129 displacement of the earth's surface together with the exogenic
processes.
1.1.2. Domains of Geomorphology and its Methods. It is intend-
ed here neither to describe the history of the development of
2 SIGNIFICANCE OF ROCK CONTROL IN GEOMORPHOLOGY
geomorphology nor to treat in detail the methods of geomor-
phology. In this connection, several textbooks are very easily
accessible so that the author wishes to leave the trifling and
delicate details to them, and he intends only to summarize his
personal opinions about the problems. Such a brief epitome
might be necessary, preliminary to the following discussions of
section 1. 2.
Considering the development of geomorphology, it was a
topology of forms of land surface and had devoted itself to the
definitions and classifications of land forms, just as phytology,
which used to be taxonomy or plant morphology in its first stage.
It is a matter for congratulation that our geomorphology has
developed into comparative embryology as phytology has done
into embryology and then into physiology. But alas! Our
geomorphology has strayed into that fanciful theory of Davis.
What a deplorable thing this is for the appropriate development
of geomorphology!
The principal role of gemorphology is, of course, in studying
the evolution of land forms. The history of the development of
land forms is thought of as consisting of two forces-an endoge-
nic process or endogenic factor, for example, crustal movements
and intrusion of igneous body; and an exogenic process, such
as erosion, transportation and sedimentation. These two forces,
moreover, have changed their intensity in the course of the
development of the earth. Exogenic processes are especially
influenced by climatic environments which change as time passes.
It is true that there is a land form of fault. Everybody agrees
readily and without any hesitation that a shatter zone is weak
and likely to be erosible. Then, why is the shatter zone weak?
How is it eroded? On what does this weakness depend? Fur-
thermore, what is the mechanism of erosion? In answering these
questions, many geomorphologists cheat their students, flourish-
ing their abstract explanations or their own imaginations without
any intention of scrutinizing the true nature of the matter. Do
they not have any ability of understanding the true nature of
matters? Or do they have any eagerness to do so? Are they
not ashamed of themselves as scientists?
Professor Filip Hjulstrom (1935) should be worthy of our
greatest respect, for he has built up the school of Uppsala with
his lofty ideal for science and integrity, doing researches into
exogenic process and its application to geomorphology, especially
Geomorphology and its Methods 3
to fluvial geomorphology, while a crowd of geomorphologists
became apostles of Davis. So we look forward to the researches
by young students of this school (Sundborg, 1956). Recently a
group of American geomorphologists have intensively developed
analytical and dynamic researches in this science, and it seems
to be a resurgence of Gilbert's idea (1914) and the influence of
a late American engineer, Horton (1945). Their contribution in
two decades should be highly appreciated (Strahler, 1952 ;
Wolman and Miller, 1960; Leopold and Langbein, 1962; Chorley,
1962; Glover, 1964; Dury, 1964; Hack, 1965) .
It is true that climatic geomorphology, which has been quite
in vogue recently, has contributed greatly to the study of geo-
morphology. It is, of course, a very excellent approach to this
science. However, the writer wonders whether this method,
popular in recent times, is not merely a systematization of simple
observations, and he feels that there is some limitation to this
approach. In the domain of geomorphology, there are many
phenomena very difficult to observe or measure in a short while,
so it is natural that we should use the historical approach to the
study of geomorphology. Most of the researchers occupied with
this kind of historical approach, however, are sadly lacking in
the sense of modern science, and have no knowledge of 19th
century chemistry and do not even understand the Mechanics
of Newton. And how many of these researchers there are in
the world! Their theory is composed of mere deductions. They
fall into a chain reaction of empty imaginations, though trying
to shake themselves out of Davis' theory.
The writer contributed to the first number of Applied
Geography on how applied geomorphology should be, under the
title of "Les caracteres fondamentaux de la geomorphologie
appliquee" (Yatsu, 1959). At present, some researchers of
applied geomorphology seem very enthusiastic about drawing
maps of land form classification or geomorphological maps and
seeking the way of their expression. It might be very handy to
the users of those maps. But, if they were too much concerned
with the way of expression and too much fascinated with the
beauty of color in maps, they might be artists. It is as if they
were practicing flower arrangement(Ikebana) . Geomorphological
maps would be of little use unless they contained not only
classifications of land forms, but also dynamic and physical
characteristics of the matters that compose land forms. Those
 SIGNIFICANCE OF ROCK CONTROL IN GEOMORPHOLOGY
4
would be, as it were, maps needed for travelers or useless
guidebooks for those engineers who are to do some work with
them. It might be better for geomorphologists to be indulged
in fantasy with those maps on their laps, to make some guesses
at land forms looking at air photograph, to observe sometimes
outcrops in the fields, or to take a survey of the whole panora-
ma of land forms from the top of mountains. But be careful!
They need to be careful not to degrade into studying the
"Science of Scenery}'
It is necessary to introduce dynamics into geomorphology so
I
that this science may rank among modern sciences. It is
I.
"I natural, of course, that geomorphology cannot be explained in
il
every respect by dynamics, but at least, dynamics is essential
I to the explanation of processes of exogenic agents. Geomor-
phology should be much obliged to mathematicians and hydro-
dynamists for their participation in the study of it. In their
case, it is absolutely necessary that they should use their ma-
thematical approaches but only after they have understood the
full intrinsic 'phenomena of geomorphology. If not, their ap-
proaches would be a science of fantasy. The system of the study
of geomorphology has no need for smartness or elegance. It is
the fundamental nature of land forms that should be made
clear (Yatsu, 1964).
1.2. Rock Control Problems
1.2.1. Rock Control Problems and its Former Researches. In brief,
rock control theory is concerned with the influences of rock
properties on the formation of land forms. The problem of
rock control has been considered as a geomorphological concept
for a very long time, and the writer believes it began with the
start of geomorphology; therefore it is not a new concept.
However, according to many books and reports on this subject,
it is, strictly speaking, treated as structure control such as
distribution of strata, folds, faults, unconformities and so forth,
although the reports sometimes deal with the physical and chem-
ical properties of rocks which compose layers. Their treat-
ment of this difficult subject is considerably rough, and some of
those researchers, even while saying with a nonchalant air that
geological structure is a dominant control factor in the evolu-
tion of land forms and is reflected in them, have no intention
Rock Control Problems 5
of studying the properties of rocks. Some have declared that
the general features of land forms are determined by climatic
environments and have insisted that rock control is only import-
ant in micro-configuration.
Davis thought that structures, processes and stage are the
dominant factors in the formation of topography (Davis, 1899).
This concept was correct and adequate. His concept of the. term
stage, however, was of imaginary time in a fanciful cycle. He
deceived his followers, giving merely verbal descriptions to
various processes which were easily accepted. This trend was
an extremely regrettable digression and forced the advancement
of geomorphology to be enormously retarded compared with the
advancements of the other natural sciences.
Many books juggle to substitute the concept of structure
control for that of rock control, or consider the latter to be a
factor of lower degree than the former, although they distinguish
them from each other. Is it really adequate to depreciate
the problems of rock control in comparison with structural
control?
To this question the writer wishes to reply with this anta-
gonistic question. Imagine the thick deposition of completely
homogeneous and isotropic strata followed by diastrophisms
such as tilting, folding, faulting, etc. Consider that these strata
do not lose the characteristics of their homogeneity and isotropy
in spite of such crustal movements. Is any structure reflected
in the topography in this case?
It is common in nature that strata different in physico-chemi-
cal characteristics alternate, and that these strata are deformed
by diastrophism to produce folds, faults, cracks, joints, shatter
zones and so on, which give anisotropic parts to these strata.
Furthermore, two kinds of rocks or strata of different strength
are commonly in contact with each other unconformably. This
is the reason why structures are reflected in land forms. In
other words, it results from the anisotropy and non-homogeneity
of the materials forming land forms that the structures give the
important influences upon the topography. The existence of the
anisotropy and non-homogeneity, namely differences in rock
properties, enables us to acknowledge the structures. Is this
not a correct opinion? It is more general and more adequate
to state that the structures are reflected in land form because
of the differ~nce in strength or erosibility of rocks; therefore
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6 SIGNIFICANCE OF ROCK CONTROL IN GEOMORPHOLOGY
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20 30 40 50 55 km
Fig. 1-a. Longitudinal prof ile of Watarase River. 0 _8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 -8 -6 -4 - 2 0 2 - 8 - 6 -4 -2 0 2 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 - 8 - 6 -4 -2 0 2 ~
% 32.8 km 30. 8k m 28.8km 26.7 km 24.7km 22.7k m 18.8km 14.6km
100 I
~KAZAMI 80 I
r----+--~~--~ 200 M

~~ru".
fJJ f++#-f-t+H

40. H-fI-rt++t-H
I
20 Ii i
O'OOlm~~ ~
~
O.CIDl I-H-----+-----1 150
o.em; J<" o -6 -4 a a a2 o
+ __l---+__+-/-'/~km
0 2 - 6 -4 2 0 2 -4 -2 2 -2 2 02 ;
00004 ,., .o,·+
·'<J!"'
- -+--4__ :HOSHAKUZI
. ~ cfJl'l-1,,--e~+----t-----t--+----+_-l/ KINU- RIVER
~ S", Cl."i 90 ("
0.0002 r--cx'-=t--+-
1 --1--+ --1-+--+--+-/ /1' 100 %'
,::°r rlnOO,,9Tkm
T7T1
67. 5km 52.6km 45. 5 km 29.3km lLOkm
100
0.0001
o 10 20 30 40 50 60
7 0 / 80
t/,fJ'
KASUDA /
, ! , f fISHI U
80 H-t-bft-H-++-H

" I~ 60 H-fI-t+t-H-++-H
I I A ' ,,/ Highesl heigh ",Ier level of 5 \V
J ..l
KAWApHIMA ~
Ig Kalhleen Typhoon Sept 13 -16 1947",-
, -
40 1fH-t+t-H-++-H

i
~~
AMIZUMA ' " , Mean low 'waler level from 1928 10 ~
W-
MIZUKAIPO . ", , _-,-- ,-
,../
1937
~~~g;~nal prof ile of river G) 0
20

0 _6 - 4 - 2 0 2 4 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 -4 -2 0 2 4 -4 -2 a 2 4 a 2 4 a 2 4;
o 10 20 30 40 50 60. 70 80. 90 100 llOkm F ig. 1-d. Cumulative-frequency curves with class units in phi terms of the
Fig. I-b. Longitudinal profile of Kinu River. deposits of Watarase River and Kinu River. Y-axis expresses the
weight percentage. Sampling localities are indicated on each
graph by the distance.
 Rock Control Problems 9
8 SIGNIFICANCE OF ROCK CONTROL IN GEOMORPHOLOGY

% St IIMOTO St 2 ECHIGAWA St3 ECHIGAWA

100
LAKE- B/ WA
80 f-i+ffi4+l+++I

601-++f+.+I++I+++I

40J-.IIC++I++1+++I

201IHd-+I+ i-l-H-H
oti.lJ...l.J=J...]:,j,.ij
- 8 -6-4- 2024 - 6- 4- 2024 -2 0 2 4 6

Fig. 2-c. Cumulative-frequency curve of alluvial fan deposits.

Yatsu studied the fluvial deposits of many rivers in Japan and

found that the grain size distribution shows bimodality, the geomor-
phological significance of which is of great importance. He conclu-
ded that this characteristic of fluvial deposits must be reflected in
the discontinuity of the longitudinal profile of graded river which
is not expressed by one exponential curve but by two in the great
majority of cases. By and large, an abrupt change of slope is noticed
~ MOUNTAIN AREA
in fans at their margins, whether the alluvial fan be large or small.
ESCARPMENT LINE L In view of the existence of discontinuity in graded river profiles,
BOUNDARY OF GRAVEL discontinuous slope change at fan margins is easily understood. Of
SAMPLING STATION Y
SECTION LINE r course, the origin of such a phenomenon is bimodality of the grain
size distribution of fan deposits.
If the differentiation of land forms by ' the different quality of
Fig. 2-a. Topography of Echi River Fan and Inugami River Fan.
various rocks is rock control, then uniform features caused by homo-
geneity of their materials should also be rock controlled topography.
Is there any difficulty, if so, in thinking that general phenomena
in land forms which are due to universal characteristics of rocks
should be rock control itself? Therefore, the discontinuity of slopes
in graded rivers and at fan margins must be a kind of rock control
phenomena.
E -
----~
20 - the topography is controlled by rocks. Such a way of thinking
140 1 - - - - - + " < ; , : - - - - - - , - - -----,--- - - - - 1 changes the point of view about whether rocks or structures
'I , should be stressed. The conversion of a point of view some-
times makes a great advancement of science in general.
Without any correct understanding of the relation between
"r--.... -----_
100r------------+~~~--~------~--~~-~_----+-----------~
rock control and structure control, many morphologists use the
word "rock control" as a magic cloak, easily saying "that depends
---------
__~_-~
r------+---~-~- ~-=-=_~---------~-~-~--~-== ---. on the differences in rocks, this part remains not eroded because
of hardness, that part is hard because it remains protrusive as
Fig. 2-b. Radial profiles of Echi River Fan and Inugami River Fan.
you can see." They don't want to clarify the mechanism of
I 10 SIGNIFICANCE OF ROCK CONTROL IN GEOMORPHOLOGY
rock control. If they don't somehow inhibit this circular think-
I ing, they cannot expect the development of this science, and
the way of advancement still remains closed for geomorphologists.
Concerning rock control problems many text books of geo-
morphology take such instances as follows:
Cuesta
Structural bench
Some knick point and fall maker
Permeability of soils which influence the stream tex-
ture
Dike ridge
Mesa, Hogback
Inversion of topography
Structural plain
Karst topography, etc.
Concerning these items, is there any investigation that clarifies
the essential problems of rock control, going beyond naive
descriptions of simple observations and conjectures? Although
reports are often seen on the chemical analysis of limestone
cave water, there are very few which deal with the erosibility
and other physico-chemical, mechanical properties of rocks for
the purpose of geomorphological investigations. Recently some
papers have treated these properties of rocks, and someone
investigated the discontinuous frequency distribution of grain
size of fluvial sediments and explained the discontinuity of
slopes at fan margins (Yatsu, 1954, 1957), or tried to intro-
duce the methods of soil mechanics as an approach to dynamic
geomorphology (Yatsu, 1957).
1.2.2 Air Photo Interpretation of Geological Structure. In recent
times, air photographs have been .used in the study of the
geological structure, namely air photo interpretation has become
very popular. Numerous books and periodicals on air photo
interpretation are published in many countries.
How is it possible to guess the geological structures from
air photographs? These are taken from high altitudes above the
ground, and on such pictures the topography, vegetation and
other objects of the surface of the area concerned are developed.
Many kinds of properties of the earth's surface appear in light
and dark. Deduction processes of geological structure interpre-
tations are mainly in such a way as follows:
Rock Control Problems 11
air photograph
interpretation of
topography
prediction of
geological structure
This scheme is very fundamental. The possibility of this think-
ing process simply depends on the fact that the topography is
controlled by the situation of distribution and arrangements of
physico-chemical, mechanical properties of rocks or its assembl-
age. In this connection, an intensive study of these properties
should be indispensable. If there should be anyone who thinks
that air photographs and geological maps provide enough infor-
mation for studying the problems of rock control, he should be
guilty of the above-mentioned circular reasoning. The interpre-
tation of geological structure will result from the exact and
abundant information concerning the mechanism of rock control.
Some statistical conclusions obtained from the juxtaposition of
air photographs and geological maps are merely prospective
hypotheses, absolutely apparent and sometimes deceptive. The
problem is to examine these hypotheses and fundamentally re-
solve the problems of mechanism and processes of rock control.
1.2.3. Rock Control in Relation to Processes. As to strength of
rocks, it is important to elucidate how different types of rock
strength control and condition the features of the land surface.
Moreover the strength value of the same rocks differs accord-
ing to processes. Even if the processes and rocks are same,
the strength is not the same if the rate of processes differs.
Therefore the problems of rock control should be understood in
relation to geomorphological processes. The latter remarkably
depends on the condition of circumstances. In this meaning,
climatic geomorphology should be thought of as an approach to
geomorphology.
Even the same rock changes its erosibility with different
types of processes, as in the case of limestones, a well-known
example. The same materials will naturally have different
 12 SIGNIFICANCE OF ROCK CONTROL IN GEOMORPHOLOGY
forms due to the kind and magnitude of forces, velocity and
duration of their application. It is, therefore, very ridiculous and
meaningless that the properties of the materials that constitute
land forms should be treated independently of the agents acting
on them.
1.2.4. An Approach to the Rock Control Problems. We must return
to the subject of rock control. Indeed, the study of exogenic
processes is remarkably advanced, but the writer doubts if
surface materials of the earth affected by processes are taken
up dynamically and physico-chemically in the light of modern
science. Such an approach might be very difficult, of course.
When even the same rocks are affected by different forces,
their resistance and strength become different according to the
kind or quantity of forces as mentioned above. The study of
rocks like elastic bodies or visco-elastic bodies has been made
by many researchers. Dynamics takes up and studies the stress
and strain of rocks as isotropic and sometimes orthotropic ma-
terials. Rocks .behave as elastic bodies with a rapid application
of forces, but when they are affected by gradual forces, they
undergo plastic deformation. The former case results in fault-
ing, whereas the latter case results in folding. How do surface
materials of the earth behave themselves toward the exogenic
forces? What about soil? What about clay? In what categories
of British Rheologist's Club can we put them? The writer,
however, cannot be quite satisfied with rheology itself unless
I it has a close connection with molecular theory. In general,
I'
dynamics takes up a small portion of mass, calculates the
equilibrium in that small portion, estimates the deformation,
and solves the differential equations of this small portion as a
continuous body. Thus it presupposes the continuity of materials,
but it is a macro-view or a simple statistical method. It is true
that in hydrodynamics we might not need to take into consid-
eration behaviors of a water molecule one by one. But in the
case of mechanics of rupture, creep and sloppy mud, a macro-
view cannot solve various problems. Soil mechanics and rock
mechanics are now both deadlocked. Is there anyone who
wants to struggle in order to find some key to these difficult
problems?
It is essential for geomorphologists, especially for those who
deal with problems of rock control, to be acquainted with the
REFERENCES 13
mechanical characteristics of rocks, soil, clay and so forth. It
may be a good idea to perform ordinary mechanical experiments.
That is the first step in our research anyway, although we
should not remain satisfied with these experiments. We must
solve the fundamental and essential problems that underlie
apparent mechanical characters, the problems of mechanism of
rupture of solids, of cohesion and repulsion, of electrical double
layer structure in the colloidal state, of · adsorption, etc. Based
upon physics of solid state, surface chemistry and the quantum
theory of matter, we must study the surface materials of the
earth to solve the above-mentioned problems. This approach
will not only develop the rock control theory, but also will
offer accurate information about surface materials of the earth,
which is needed by engineers. This is the rock control theory
in its real sense.
A doodle: Geomorphologists have been trying to answer the what,
where, and when of things, but they have seldom tried to ask how.
And they have never asked why. It is a great mystery why they
have never asked why.
REFERENCES
CHORLEY, RI., 1962, Geomorphology and general systems theory, U.S.G.S.
Prof. Paper, 500B, p.10.
DAVIS, W.M., 1899, The geographical cycle, Geogr. Jour., vol. 14, pp. 481-
SOL
DURY, G.H., 1964, Principles of underfit streams, U.S.G.S. Prof. Paper, 452
A, p.67.
GILBERT, G.K., 1914, The transportation of debris by running water, U.S.
G.S. Prof. Paper, 86, p. 363.
GLOVER, RE., 1964, Dispersion of dissolved or suspended materials in
flowing streams, U.S.G.s. Prof. Paper, 433B, p. 32.
HACK, I.T., 1965, Geomorphology of Shenandoah Valley Virginia and
Origin of the residual ore deposits, U. S. G. S. Prof. Paper,
484, p.84.
HJULSTRiiM, F., 1935, Studies of the morphological activity of rivers as
illustrated by the River Fyris, Bull. Geol. Inst. Uppsala, vol.
25, pp. 321-532.
HORTON, RE., 1945, Erosional development of streams and their drainage
basins ; hydrophysical approach to quantitaive morphology,
 14 SIGNIFICANCE OF ROCK CONTROL IN GEOMORPHOLOGY
Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 56, pp. 275-370.
HOWARD, A.D., 1965, Geomorphological systems-equilibrium and dynamics,
Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 263, pp. 302-312.
LEOPOLD, L.B., and LANGBEIN, W.B., 1962, The concept of entropy in
landscape evolution, U.S.G.S. Prof. Paper, 500A, p.20.
;, i MELTON, M.A., 1958, Geometric properties of mature drainage systems and
their representation in an E4 phase space, Jour. Geol., vol.
66, pp. 35-54.
MELTON,M.A, 1958, Correlation structure of morphometric properties of
drainage systems and their controlling agents, Jour. Geol..
(
vol. 66, pp. 442-460.
SCHUMM, S.A, and LICHTY, R.W., 1965. Time, space, and ::ausality in
" I
I'
I'! geomorphology, Am. Jour. Sci .• vol. 263, pp.110-119.
STRAHLER, AN., 1952, Dynamic basis of geomorphology, Geol. Soc. Am.
Bul!., vol. 63, pp. 923-938.
SUNDBORG, A., 1956, The River Klaralven, a study of fluvial processes,
Geografiska Annaler, vol. 38, pp. 127-316.
TANNER, W.F., 1959, Examples of departure from the gaussian in geomor-
phic analysis, Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 257, pp.458-460.
WOLMAN, M.G., and MILLER, J .P., 1960, Magnitude and frequency of
forces in geomorphic processes, Jour. Geo!., vol. 68, pp.54-74.
YATSU, E., 1955, On the longitudinal profile of the graded river, Am.
Geophy. Union, Trans., vol. 36, pp.655-663.
YATSU, E ., 1957, On the discontinuity of grain-size frequency distribution
of fluvial deposits and its geomorphological significance, Proc.
of 1GU Regional Conference in Japan, 1957, pp.224-237.
YATSU, E., 1957, On the application of the method of soil mechanics to
the investigation on the erosibility of the bare mountain
area in Japan, an approach to the dynamic geomorphology,
Miscellaneous Rept. Res. 1nst. Nat. Resources, Tokyo, no.
45, pp. 1-8.
YATSU, E., 1959, Les caracteres fondarr.entaux de la georr.orphologie appli-
quee, Applied Geography, no. '1, pp.13-28.
YATSU, E., 1964, An approach to the rock control theory, Applied Geog-
raphy, no. 5, pp. 3-6.
I
I,
II EROSION OF SURFACE MATERIALS
OF THE EARTH
Concerning . depositional topography, there are probably
many problems of rock control such as the occurrence of slope
discontinuity at fan margins due to the bimodality in grain
size frequency of the fluvial sediments, as noted in the first
chapter. However, problems of rock control on the depositional
land forms have not been discussed frequently. In this chapter
the main subject is the erosibiIity of the surface materials of
the earth, which is the fundamental problem of rock control on
erosional land forms. Surface materials in this case imply the
materials at and near the earth's surface.
2.1. Altere bility of Rocks
2.1.1. Altere bility. By the action of weathering, solid rocks
change in chemical composition and become debris of various
particle size. Namely, the weathering processes cause the
decomposition and fragmentation of bedrock, and, generally
speaking, these processes provide the preparation for erosion by
previously weakening the bedrock. For instance, there is no
erosion of rocky coasts by mere wave erosion; weathering
processes always participate in and aid the processes of marine
denudation. Valleys are not, of course, merely the products of
deepening and lateral erosion by stream processes. Valley walls
suffer from weathering processes, and the detritus produced by
weathering is transferred to the valley bottom by mass wasting
such as landslips and rupture of slopes (c/. 4. 2. 5) and is
then transported by rivers. The main role of river processes (
is considered to be transportation rather than erosion. There-
fore, the erosibility of rocks in any region depends primarily on
the problem of whether or not the rocks in the region are
easily weathered and are ready to . undergo fragmentation and
lose the force of coagulation as massive rocks. Consequently,
rock control makes its appearance through the medium of
weathering processes.
Weathering is generally defined as the disintegration or
 16 EROSION OF SURFACE MATERIALS OF THE EARTH
decomposition of rock in place by external forces. In view of
the fact that the materials become more easily eroded, the
changes in the properties of rocks by endogenic agents such
as hydrothermal alteration and diastrophism, which causes the
fragmentation of rocks, are as much worthy of attention as the
fragmentation and wearing resulting from movements ih the
flowing media. Therefore, whether changes occur in place
or during transportation, or whether by exogenic or endogenic
forces, we must study all of the phenomena of these changes
in the chemical and mechanical properties of rocks and debris;
that is, all transitions from materials difficult to be eroded into
Ii:I I
the highly erosible ones. Such a transition is called alteration,
and the ease of this transition might be designated "alterability."
The writer does not like to coin a new word, because so many
geomorphologists are patients of definition-mania that a serious
confusion of technical terms occurs . in geomorphology. Davis
was the most grave case. We must control the issuance of
licenses for technical jargon and discard them.
Most textbooks on geomorphology divide the geomorphological
processes in two parts, exogenic and endogenic, and consider
the processes of weathering, erosion, transportation and deposition
as the former, and crustal movements (epeirogenic and orogenic)
and volcanism as the latter. The above usage has overlooked
the decomposition and fragmentation by hydrothermal reaction
and diastrophism, since geomorphologists are not so much
interested in the actual materials which form the · topography.
Is this not a great mistake of geomorphologists, who pretend to
be much interested in facts of rock control by verbal expressions,
but who will not try to really recognize the rock control itself?
Alteration naturally includes such processes as:
1. Weathering,
2. Wear, disintegration by impaction and decomposition,
3. Production of mylonite, breccia, gouge, and formation of
fissures and joints by various stresses,
4. Alteration of minerals by hydrothermal reactions and
formation of clay minerals with a resulting decrease in
the strength of rocks.
When minerals and rocks undergo these processes, their attitudes
depend not only upon their species but upon the function of
the kind, intensity, duration, and circumstance of action. Wheth-
er the processes are continuous or intermittent assumes great
A:lterability of Rocks 17
importance. For example, repeating stresses may introduce
fatigue failure. The problems are complicated but interesting.
There are few articles which discuss the resistance of rocks
to shattering action. It is possible to compare their relative
resistance in areas where various kinds of rocks are exposed
near each other and where they are broken by the same faulting
action. Mudstone, shale, and limestone easily undergo plastic
deformation and are usually not shattered. On the other hand,
such hard but brittle rocks as slate, granite, and diorite are
conspicuously shattered. Rock mechanics will offer experimental
data about these problems.
Although extensive precise studies are often revealed in
the mineralogical literature, they always concern merely the
problems of successive changes of minerals. Very few articles
(Takahashi et at., 1963) discuss the strength changes as the
rocks undergo hydrothermal alterations. This problem is also
very interesting to geomorphologists who must be well
acquainted with mechanical and engineering methods to
investigate it.
2.1.2. Methods of Studying Alterability. In order to study the
degree of alteration, the following characteristics are very useful
and effective:
1. Changes of chemical composition and optical properties,
2. Degree of fragmentation,
3. Elasticity or velocity of dilatational waves in fresh
bedrock compared with those of their weathered parts.
Weathering of minerals is also investigated by X-ray analysis
and electron diffraction by electron microscope, all of which
reveal changes in the crystal lattice.
In the processes of alteration, unstable minerals disappear
very early, whereas the resistant minerals remain until a later
stage. Sedimentary rocks are C(jlmposed of resistant allogenic
and authigenic minerals. The latter is thought of as stable
during diagenesis, although generally unstable during the
processes of weathering.
It is very difficult to measure the velocity of weathering
in natural conditions. Geomorphology always depends upon
very questionable velocity values in respect to this point. The
investigations of old buildings, walls and monuments of various
kinds of rocks, the date of inauguration of which are known
 ' ;<
18 EROSION OF SURFACE MATERIALS OF THE EARTH
exactly, will give the data for this question to some degree.
Some 80 years ago Geikie (1880) already made a survey of
dated tombstones in Edinburgh. Volcanic rocks, ashes and
recent moraines are good materials to investigate to measure
the velocity of weathering processes. Soil scientists seem to
have been more interested in this problem and to have made
more researches than geomorphologists (Jenny, 1940).
2.1.3. Some Problems on the Alteration. Concerning the problems
of hydrothermal alteration, some papers have discussed those
in Hawaii, U. S. A. and Japan. The clay derived from this
reaction sometimes is given attention from the engineering
point of view because of its swelling properties. Clays such
as montmorillonite or mixed layer minerals of montmorillonite
and illite or others in the Hakone volcanic region give rise to
the rupture· of tunnel linings and to the occurrence of landslides.
Turner explained in detail the structure of metamorphic
tectonite and his book is very useful for geomorphologists in
understanding the formation of tectonite by the stresses of
shearing, compression and tension (Turner and Weiss, 1963).
Keller (1955) summarized many papers on chemical weathering.
Some selected references, which the students have to scan
will be given at the end of this chapter. Solubility of rock
forming minerals depends on their components. Monovalent
ions are leached out more quickly than divalent ones; the latter
I more quickly than trivalent ones, and Al and Si remain to form
clay minerals. The hydrogen ion concentration of environments,
II however, has great importance in this case. The larger the
surface per unit mass and the higher the temperature, the
quicker the chemical reaction is in general. A unit of mass
will acquire a larger surface if it is crushed into finer particles.
Chemical reaction occurs on the surface of the material, thus
the finer materials pulverized by processes of mechanical
weathering undergo various chemical reactions very easily.
The platy voids in the solid whose surfaces are parallel to
crystal lattice planes are called cleavage. If the voids in the
solid have linear or irregular forms, this solid is referred to as
porous. If water contained in the voids is frozen, the solids
are extremely disintegrated. The BET method is the most
convenient and exact one for determining the specific surface
(Brunauer et at., 1938).
Erosibility 19
The stability of minerals will be mentioned briefly. In case
of the weathering processes of igneous rocks, olivines most
easily undergo chemical alteration, followed in increasing order·
of stability by pyroxenes, hornblendes and biotites among mafic
minerals. This order is thought to be the same as the crystal
differentiation series. Concerning feldspar, calcic plagioclases
are more easily affected by chemical weathering than alkali
feldspars such as albites and orthoclases, and microclines are
also considered stable. Quartz and muscovite are conspicuously
durable to weathering processes. Silicate minerals formed at
low temperature are relatively stable, whereas those formed at
high pressure and temperature are, to the contrary, unstable in
the circumstance of the ordinary temperature and pressure at
or near the earth's surface.
However, it is not correct to consider these series as adequate
under every condition. For instance, calcite is very easily
dissolved in humid regions that are rich in vegetation and
water, whereas calcite plays the role of a resistant mineral in
dry regions without vegetation. Among the clay minerals
produced by weathering processes as stable residuals, kaolinites
are stable in acid environments, while montmorillonites remain
unchanged in alkali condition. These two clay minerals, how-
ever, are unstable during diagenesis under sea water and are
gradually converted into illites or chlorites.
Authigenic minerals such as gypsum, apatite, glauconite,
zeolite, chlorite, albite, etc. are stable during diagenesis, whereas
they are unstable during weathering as mentioned above.
Throughout the processes of weathering, transportation,
deposition, and diagenesis, the stable minerals are clay minerals,
quartz, chert, muscovite, tourmaline, zircon, brookite, and anatase,
which occur either as allogenic or as authigenic minerals in the
sediments.
2.2. Erosibility
In the preceding section, the alterability or its antonym,
stability of rock forming minerals were discussed. This section
will deal with the susceptibility to erosion, namely erosibility of
the mass of disintegrated particles pulverized and decomposed
from fresh rocks. Moreover, the behavior of solid rocks to
various agents will be illustrated by some examples.
 (
:A ~ )!. i
20 EROSION OF SURFACE MATERIALS OF THE EARTH
2.2.1. Soil Properties and Soil Erosion. Human activities often
accelerate geological erosion of the surface materials of the
earth. This accelerated erosion is called soil erosion. There
are several types of soil erosion such as rain wash erosion,
gully erosion, and wind deflation. Soil scientists have contributed
much more to this problem than geomorphologists.
As Baver (1956) has stated, soil erosion of the first type is
due to dispersive action and transporting power of rain wash
water which is affected by rainfall characteristics, slope and
area of the land, vegetation cover, and soil properties. From
this relationship, we obtain the partial derivative with respect
to soil properties as the subject of this section. When rainfall
intensity exceeds infiltration capacity (Horton, 1933), runoff
occurs. Many geomorphologists stress the relationship between
infiltration capacity and drainage texture. According to Baver,
the effect of soil factors on erosion may be summarized as
follows:
E=K~D­
APp
where K: proportionality constant
D: an index of the ease of dispersion
A: an expression of the infiltration 'capacity of the
soil surface
P: permeability of the soil profile
p: size of soil particles
Musgrave (1947) has stressed the difficulty of expressing the
erosibility of soils by single numerals. Woodburn and Kozachyn
(1956) studied Mississippi gully soils and stated as follows: it
appears that soils vary widely in their resistance to erosion as
determined by any method· .. loose sandy material from different
geologic sources had about the same erosion potential regardless
of the method of evaluation. In general splash erosion increased
with an increase in sand content of the soil. Aggregate stability
decreased with increasing sand content.
Anderson (1951) expressed the erosibility of soils by using
Middleton's dispersion ratio and erosion ratio. A correct concept
is very important in researches, although it seems to be
extremely rudimentary and simple at first. What is Middleton's
idea? Middleton (1930) determined the silt plus clay in the soil
in the absence of chemical or mechanical dispersion, called the
suspension percent, and the silt plus clay after standard
Erosibility 21
dispersion, called the ultimate silt plus clay. Also, he measured
the colloid percent by the water vapor absorption method and
moisture equivalent. These physical measurements · were ex-
pressed as a percentage of the dry weight of the soil fraction,
less than 2 mm in diameter. His dispersion ratio and erosion
ratio are as follows:
suspension percent
Dispersion ratio ultimate silt plus clay
·
E rOSIOn t' dispersion ratio
ra IO = ratIo
. 0 f co ll'd
01 percent to mOis. t ure eqUlva
. Ient
Anderson studied 14 watersheds of the Coast Range in southern
California, and he expressed the relationship between erosibility
and physical characteristics of soils as in Table 1. The physical
measurements suggested by Middleton, he noticed, could be
recommended as a good index of soil erosibility. He illustrated
the aptness of his equation by comparing the calculated erosion
to measured erosion for some watersheds as in Fig. 3.
Table 1. Equations relating physical characteristics of soils and
cover density to erosion (after Anderson, 1951).
Equation Correlation
No. Equation 1 coefficient
1. Log Es=3. 073-2. 430 log C+3. 427 log DR .888
2. Log Es=4. 786-2. 486 log C+2. 473 log ER .878
3. Log Es=l1. 461-2. 524 log C+2.189Iog S-3. 288Iog(si+cl) .849
Coll
4. Log Es=2. 127-2. 341 logC+3.861 logDR+1. 353 Iog ME .890
5. Log Es = 10.279 -1. 788 log C+ 1. 151 log S-3. 164 log Coll .854
lEs=Average suspended sediment content of stream flow in ppm; C=
average cover density on watershed, per cent; DR=Dispersion Ratio, ER=
Erosion Ratio; S=Suspension; si+cl= Ultimate Silt plus Clay; Coll = Colloid,
ME=Moisture Equivalent; and log= logarithms to base 10.
Anderson (1954) defined the surface-aggregation ratio as
follows: surface area on soil particles of sand and coarser size
( >0.05 mm in diameter) divided by the aggregated silt plus
clay; surface area is obtained by considering the particles as
spheres and assigning mean diameters of 7. 5, 3. 5 and O. 9 mm
to greater than 5. 0, 2. 0 to 5. 0, and O. 05 to 2. 0 mm particle-size
classes respectively; aggregated silt plus clay is the ultimate
silt plus clay minus the suspension percent. He applied the
same method to the investigation of soil erosion in . western
Oregon and northern California (1961) and concluded that the
soil erosibility index is significantly related to soil-geologic rock
 22 EROSION OF SURFACE MATERIALS OF THE EARTH Erosibility 23

400 type and that the surface-aggregation ratio is also related to

vegetation and geographic zones in these regions (1961).
~200 Although his studies of course succeeded very much in clari-
w
o
z
~100
§' SO
1/ \ fying the erosibility of soil, there remain still many problems.
What determines the value of aggregated silt plus clay,
>- 60
suspension percent, ultimate silt plus clay, etc? What kind of
0
0
0 Vo clay minerals exist in this soil? How much is the cation
0 1/
0
exchange capacity of that soil? How about the absorbed ions?
0

0
1
;/ What is the aggregation? It seems to be indispensable for
studying soil erosibility to solve the clay-mineralogical and
B
6 / 1
physico-chemical problems on erosibility itself. If not, the
erosion ratio is merely a simple, apparent, and statistical thing.
1/ Note: - There is much qualitative and indirect evidence that high
m
~~~~I\~~et vai~~~e a1.j tlo-
V fe rtility does reduce soil erosion losses. It is, as Peterson (1961)
2~ pointed out, partly because fertile soils can grow excellent
11 2 4 6810 20 406080100
11111 200
vegetation cover that reduces erosion, and on the other hand,
@MEASURED SUSPENDED SEDI MENT-IN THOUSANDS ppm because highly fertile soils generally have better tillage than
Fig. 3. Relation of calculated erosion to measured erosion for some their depleted counterparts. Higher fertility moreover will
south coastal watersheds in California (after Anderson, 1951). reduce soil erosion through more organic residues, more active
Table 2. Soil-geologic sequences of physical soil characteristics soil flora and fauna, and higher soil organic matter contents.
and erosibility for major soil-geologic types: Santa Maria Regarding wind erosion of soils, three major factors are
and Santa Ynez Basin, California (after Anderson, 1951) . involved; wind velocity, nature of the surface, and soil properties.
Geology' jSuspen- Ultimate Silt
sion plus Clay
Moisture Dispersion Erosion Relative
Colloid equivalent Ratio Ratio erosibility2
Among the last two, the most important factors are the
Percent Percent Percent Percent aggregation of soils which undergoes soil erosion and the
Miocene
Continental 19.5 39.3 11. 3 11. 9 49.6 52.2 100 conditions of the state of soils, especially soil water content,
(sandstones)
Quaternary because erosion by wind only occurs in dry regions. Aggregation
terrace deposits 16.1 37.9 19.5 14.5 42.5 31. 6 59
(limestone) of soils depends upon the content of clay and organic materials,
Upper Cretac·
eous sediments 22.4 61. 3 27.5 26.5 36.6 35 . 2 35 clay mineral species, and physico-chemical properties of soils.
(shale)
Middle Mio· We will skip their considerations.
~:dfm~nat~ine 15. 1 66.1 36.0 25.8 '23.2 16.8 7.4'
(shales and
sandstone) 2.2.2. Landslips and Slope Rupture. Both terms indicate different
Upper Eocene
marine sedi- 15.2 94. 1 39.0 23.4 16.1 9.6 2.12
types of slope failure. Civil engineers commonly combine them
ments (shale) into one term, landslide, whose meaning is different from Sharpe's
Lower Cretac-
:~drm~:{;ne 5.1 36.2 31.4 16.3 14.1 7.3 1.34 concept (1938). The word "landslip" is almost the same as
(shale) "earth flow" in Sharpe's classification of mass wasting. In
'From Geologic Map of California, Jenkins, 1938. Parenthetical section 4. 2. 5., the reason why the writer challenges the use
expressions were from field observations at th~ particular places where
of Sharpe's terminology will be demonstrated. Landslips imply
soil samples were taken.
'From Equation 1, Table 1, with Miocene Continental geology taken plastic deformation and flow of the mass wastes that compose
as 100. the slopes of the protuberant parts of the earth. Even landslips
'The standard deviation of the Dispersion Ratios of this soil·geo- with much aspect of flow are extremely different from the
logic type, with five replications, was 2. 1, that is about 9 percent of
behavior of volcanic mud flows or mud flows in arid zones..
the mean, indicating little variation within the geologic type.
 (

24 EROSION OF SURFACE MATERIALS OF THE EARTH Erosibility 25

A slope rupture looks like the failure of brittle materials :i

fl
overpassing their elastic limits, while a landslip is similar to ><'"
the plastic deformation and creep failure of ductile materials. ~
Koide (1955) has classified the landslips in Japan into three »
.D
groups: -0
OJ
(1) Landslips in tertiary regions, ;.c;
B
(2) Landslips in shatter zones, en
en
(3) Landslips in thermal spring areas. :~
His conventional classification is very convenient for practical ~
u
use, and so agricultural or forestry engineers have voluntarily ...9
-0
applied it to their work. In his classification, however, the C

overlapping conceptions induce terrible confusion and requires

co '"
a traffic cop to control its usage, as the writer recently
. ",

.5 '"
bJJ

a.E
indicated (Yatsu, 1965 a).
In the phenomenon of landslips, day minerals seem to play 'en"
'+<
0
important and fundamental roles of rock control. Clay minerals en
neither occur nor participate in slope failures of the rupture type. :~
Slip planes or slip surfaces sometimes exist very distinctly,
irrespective of the forms they may assume, and along these
'...9"
u

-0
C
planes occur clayey materials which some call landslip clay. ~
OJ
en
The writer is rather inclined to name this "slip surface clay" .0 \':
3u
and reserve "landslip clay" for the clay minerals in the land- OJ
..c
mass or waste of landslips and in the bedrocks, including II)

the slip surface clay. When it is realized that from the '"c
mineralogical point of view, there is no difference between the -5'"
clay minerals of slip surfaces and those in the waste or in ~
OJ

bedrock, it becomes evident that it is probably more convenient ~

2
to lump them together and call them landslip clays rather than w
.2-
to restrict this term to the clays occurring at the landslip -;;;
-0
surface. The appearance of slip surface clay indeed has a real 2
C

aspect of plastic materials so apprehensible that geomorphologists, '-

0
geologists and civil engineers have grown accustomed to paying c
.9
attention exclusively and short-sightedly to these clays and not :;
.D
to understanding that they have nothing but some clayey '5en
aspects because of their being kneaded at the shear planes is
called landslip surfaces. Although geological conditions are
acknowledged to be a predisposition to landslips, there are ""M
~
more important aspects than overly comprehensive and ~
superficial concepts such as geologic conditions. What type ,0
of rocks in general form those landslip areas? Why? How
are those rocks decomposed? What kind of surface-chemical
Table 3. Rocks and clay minerals in landslip areas in Japan. ~
Q')

( 1) Clay minerals of landslip areas which consist of shales and tuffs

Locality Mixed layer Other clay Primary

No. 14;\ -Minerals
minerals minerals minerals
tTl
;.;
I. Tenguyama, Rumoi-gun, Hokkaido M. "ChI. - - L H. Q. orn
2. Tappu, Rumoi-gun, Hokkaido M. - - *L H. Q. (3
Z
3. Kirinai, Kitaakita-gun, Akita-ken M. - - - - - - o'<j
4. Oami, Higashida-gun, Yamagata-ken M. -- -- Q.
5. Sugishita, Higashimurayama-gun, Yamagata-ken M. - - *Z *Cr ~
;.;
'<j
6. Shiroishi, Shiroishi-shi, M iyagi-ken M. *Chl. - - L*H. Q. *Cr. *F. :»
()
- - 0:1
7. Ojiya, Ojiya-shi, Niigata-ken M. *Chl. *L H. Q.
~
S. Kotaki, Himi-shi, Toyama-ken M. - - - - Q. :»
>-l
9. Kakefuda, Himi-shi, Toyama-ken M. -- *L *H. Q. 0:1
;.;
10. Chausuyama, Shinonoi-shi, Nagano-ken M. -- *H. -- ;;
r
rn
II. Shimojuni, Kama-gun, Gumma-ken M. M.~L L *H. Q.
o
12. Gohachi, Nishiyashiro-gun, Yamanashi-ken M. M . ~L L *H. Q. '<j

>-l
13. Iwama, Nishiyashiro-gun, Yamanashi-ken M. - - L Q. ::<:
0:1
14. Shimogawara, Minamikoma-gun, Yamanashi-ken M. - - H. Q.
15. Yui, Ihara-gun, Shizuoka-ken sw. ChI. Chl.~L L Q.
~
~
>-l
16. Honden, Kanaya, Shizuoka-ken M. M.~L L K. Q. ::<:
17. Mae, Onsenmachi, Hyogo-ken M. sw. ChI. M.+L L Q. *F
IS. Imafuku, Matsuura-shi, Nagasaki-ken M. M.~L L H. Q.
19. Akedo, Hirato-shi, Nagasaki-ken M. I. Q.

Table 3.. Continued.

( 2 ) Clay minerals of landslip areas in metamorphosed crystalline rocks.
Mixed layer Other clay Primary
No. Locality l4;\-Minerals minerals minerals
minerals
I
Kanezaki, Chichibu-gun, Saitama-ken ChI. M. -- *H. T
20.
sw. l4k ChI. *25;\ I. --
2I. Okunoi, Higashiiyayama, Tokushima-ken
Mugiudo, Higashiiyayama, Tokushima-ken *M? ChI. sw. ChI *25;\ I. --
22.
23. Takano, Higashiiyayama, Tokushima-ken *M? ChI. sw. ChI *25;\ I. - -

(3) Clay minerals of landslip areas which consist of serpentines.

Kamogawa, Awa-gun, Chiba-ken M. - - Chr. -- gJ

24. oen
Soro, Awa-gun, Chiba-ken *M? ChI. - - Chr. --
25. [
Chl.~L - -
26. Akamatsu, Shimada-shi Shizuoka-ken sw. 14k ChI. - -
Chl.+sw. 14;\ ~
( 4) Clay minerals of landslip areas suffered from hydrothermal reaction.

Kindaichi, Ninohe, Iwate-ken M. - - *Z *Cr

27.
2S. Sounzan, Hakone, Kanagawa-ken M. - - -- *AI

29. Kirishima, Aira-gun, Kagoshima-ken M. *24~2S;\ H. F. *Cr

(5) Clay minerals of landslip areas in other rocks.

30. Yoshino, Mihara-gun, Hyogo-ken I ChI. sw. 14A I *25;\ IL I Q.

Legend Al : Alunite ChI : Chlorite Chr: Chrysot ile Cr: Cristobalite F: Feldspar H .. Halloysite
I : Illite K: Kaolinite M: Montmorillonite Q: Quartz T: Talc Z : Zeolite
+ : Regular mixed layer minerals ~: Irregular mixed layer minerals ~
Goth ic: Principal component *: Minor component --J
28 EROSION OF SURFACE MATERIALS OF THE EARTH Erosibility 29

and mechanical behaviors are debris exhibiting? These are

really fundamental characteristics of geological predispositions.
A mere 10 percent clay content in soils may completely
change their mechanical behavior (Mori, 1964). They depend
upon the content value and species of clay minerals, absorbed
ions, and surface-chemical characteristics of the boundary between
clays and water. If this is realized, there is no doubt for the
necessity of mineralogical, physico-chemical and mechanical
researches on landslip clays.
Yatsu (1965 b) described the landslip clay minerals in Japan
as follows:
(1) Clay minerals of landslip areas which consist of shales
and tuffs;
dominant minerals are montmorillonites, of which 001
diffraction is reduced up to some 12.5 A by NH 4NO a,
swell by water or ethylene glycol up to 20-18 A,
subordinate minerals are halloysites and primary
minerals, very often occur the mixed layer minerals Fig. 5-a. Landslip area of the upper part of the Queyras River in the
of montmorillonites and illites, and sometimes swelling French Alps.
chlorite appears.
(2) Clay minerals of landslip areas in metamorphosed
crystalline rocks;
dominant minerals are illites or chlorites, subordinate
minerals are mixed layer minerals with basal
diffraction of 25 A, swelling chlorites and mont-
morillonites with basal diffraction of 14 A, the clay
minerals of landslip areas in the mesozoic Izumi
sandstone are very similar to those of crystalline
rocks because the former were derived from the
latter.
(3) Clay minerals of landslip areas of other rocks;
in the landslip clays of serpentine regions, chryso-
tiles, chlorites, illites, mixed layer minerals, mont-
morillonites or swelling chlorites are observed.
In the landslip clays derived from volcanic rocks
subjected to hydrothermal reactions, dominant minerals
are montmorillonites; subordinate minerals are zeolites,
halloysites, cristobalites and alunites.
We will consider the clay minerals of landslips in the world.
In the landslip area of the upper part of the Queyras River in Fig. 5-b. Structure of landslip debris of Fig. 5-a.
the French Alps, sericite, chlorite, and swelling chlorite were
 30 EROSION OF SURFACE MATERIALS OF THE EARTH

r,
M
<.D
en
,....,

'"
"'5
H
<1)

f-<
H

l!
oJ
'-'
oJ
;.0
0
..c
E
oJ
U
+0
0
C
..c: Fig. 7-a . Regular mixed layer clay minerals of illite and intermediate clay
f-<
..!<: mineral of (V-M) . These are the clay minerals that presented great
<1)

~ difficulties in the construction of the earth dam at Prek Thnot

(after Teruta, 1963)
"8"'
<1)
c
§
>. )
oJ
U
b.O
:.§
OJ
:;:
00

.....0
00
<1)
u
!l
H
2:i
<1)

E Dried in ai r
.8u
oJ
H
:::::
;.0
>.
oJ
';<
:x:
<.D
t>D
ii: Swelled with H 2 0

28
o 5 10
LI__~__~__L-~_ _-LI__~__~~__~__~I Ka
o
Fig. 7-b. X-ray diffractometer traces of swelling clay minerals, Prek Thnot
(after Teruta, 1963)

J ---~-- ------~------------------------------------------------------------~--
32 EROSION OF SURFACE MATERIALS OF THE EARTH Erosibil ity 33

"N0 " detected by Yatsu (1965 b). He also examined the glacial tills
S' ..,. I"
O N

~.... ~ ...... ...... ......

......
0
0
'-../
......
......
......
......
...... "00 0
'-../
"0.--< .0
0
N
'-../'-../
"0..,. near Solleftea in central Sweden and observed chlorites as
S'
<l!
<l!--o
:;S
r.,
:;S
0
~ r.,
.--<
'-../
~
.--<
'-../ ------
....
.--<
'-../ dominant minerals and illites as subordinate ones by X-ray
5 "~
0
5 t --0'"~ ·u~
C C
~ '-../
~ ~ diffraction. According to Kerr (1963) , clay minerals in glacial
~c ....

--
~
bD
<l!
>
I
'-../ ~
bD
<l!
.~
......
0oj
I
;:,:: > '-../
J
'-../ 0
oj
~
0
'"
;:,::
'" OJ 0;
0'" Ll.. U
tills are illites, montmorillonites, chlorites and kaolinites.
g "0..,. Glacial tills are very different from each other in mineral
"..,.
.--<
U
0 Q '-../
en
C/
<.0
'..../
.--<
composition, even in adjacent areas. Leda clay near Ottawa
0 '-../
0
en --0-
N
""cri N
consists mainly of illites ; · clay minerals of landslip areas in
cri
-- x x x "'" Manitoba consists of illites and montmorillonites (Warkentin,
"<.0
.--< "<.0
N
"..,.
N "NN "..,. """
"" ..,. 1961) . Leda clay is said to be a marine deposit saturated
U
0 Q ..,.
'-../ '-../ '-../ '-../
00
'-../
<.0
'-../
.--< with calcium and magnesium ions. Mechanical experiments
""cD
'-../ L()
0 0 0 N N M N
0
--0- 0.--< cri with quick clays indicate a very low value of interval friction
'" cri cri
t"-
X X
- - angle (Bjerrum, 1961). However, it seems more reasonable to
g "0 "..,. "
<.0 "NN "en
t"- "..,. "Nen
U
0 Q ..,.
C/ ""
'-../
<.0
'-../
.--<
'..../ '-../ '-../
<.0
'-../ '-../ classify the flowslide of post-glacial clays in terms of mudflows
t"- t"- .--<
""en <.0
'-../ L() L()
0 en N N L() N 0 (4. 2. 5., 4. 3. 5.) .
0
--o- cr> cri cri ""cri cri cri
'"
L()

<'-.
"'" In general, swelling clay minerals are more or less contained
g "0
L()
"M
.--< "..,.
t"- "
oo
.--<
"t"- "<.0 "..,.
00
L() "<.0 L() in the landslip clays. Even though its value is small it is
U Q C/ '-../ '-../ '-../ '-../
""en
'-../ '-../ '-../ '-../
anticipated that this one should change the mechanical charac-
~<-~-I
0 L() 00 L() t- .--<
'-../ <.0 L()
0 N en N N N 0
""cri
L()
0
00 .,;- o : r-: cri cri cri cri teristics of clays. Clays typical in Israel show a seasonal
- -
X .--< X
"'" "'" swelling, and their liquid limit is 81 and the plastic index is
"..,. "en
L()
L() g "<.0 "..,. L()
"00 ".--<
L()
<.0 "0..,. "00 "00 "t"- L()
54. These clays consist mainly of montmorillonite, thus the
U
0 Q '-../ '-../ C/ 00
'-../ '-../ '-../ '-../
t-
<.0
'-../
en
'-../ '-../
""
'-../

0
0
'-../
0
00
t"- '"<.0 <.0 .--<
00
00 I .--<
0 N L()
L()

'"
L()
.--<
L()
0 foundation of these areas is very unstable (Geitlen and Komornik,
N --0- <.0 N 0.--< r-: cD cri cri cri cri
1961). The badland areas that supply large amounts of debris
--
N
"'"
rl rl
"'"
"en
N
g "en "..,. "..,.en
00 .--< "<.0
.--< "m..,. ".--<
<.0
"00 C) "<.0
t"-
to the Jordan River (Shattner, 1960) probably have the same
U
o Q '-../
..,. 0 '-'
C/ ..,. '-../ '-../
..,.
'-' '-' '-../ '.../ '.../
type of clay minerals and are a probable area of landslips.
S
'-../
0 N 0 C
.--<
00 I 0 I L()
L()
L()

'"
0
N
L()
0
The swelling clay minerals in the Transvaal region of South
.-< .,;- <.0 cD cri 0.--< r-: cD cri cri cri cri
N .--< rl

-- Africa and clay consisting mainly of montmorillonites in the

"en ".--< "N00 "Nen " " "
~
..,.<.0
0 L() NN
L()
L() Black Cotton soil area of India cause difficult problems from
Q '-../ '.../ '-../ '-../ '-../ '.../ '-../
Z
i
Z
'.../

.,;-
0
,....;
N
..,.
L()

N
rl
~ <--I r-: L()
N I <.0
0
cD
I eno
L()L()

MM '"
cri
<.0

x x
the civil engineering point of view. The Prek Thnot earth
dam encountered very difficult problems of swelling soils (The
- -
"<.0 ,.,.--...., r--.,r---- r--.
"M.--< "00
t-
------
" "..,. "0 Prek Thnot Investigation Team, 1962), and a part of the
G:~~~
L()

U Q '"
'.../ '--..-/'-../'-.-/'-../ '-../ '-../
'"en '" '"
'-../ '-../ '-../ construction method had to be changed. Teruta (1963)
:r: '-../
C)
Cf)OO~t-
C'\l~-.::r~
<.0
.--<
L()
N I I I L()
L()
M
.--<
N
investigated this clay which was derived from Triassic arkose
--0- cri m-.:::i~~ 0.--< r-: cri cri cri
--
N
~~ X sandstone. The yellow clays of this area are covered by lateritic
"..,. g "" "00 "t"- "oo
<.0 N<.o
.--<
"en ""'00
..,. "
00 S'
<.0
surface soils. She concluded that the clayey soil is composed
cj Q '-../ C/ L()""
'-../'-../ '-../
'"t- ..,.
'-../ '-../ '-../ '.../'-../
en
'-../
mainly of montmorillonites (speaking in detail, intermediate
'-../
<.0
t"-
<.0
NO
t"- 00
<.0
.--<
'"r-: <.0cD I t"-
N L()""
N L()
00 I I
~ --O- r-: .--<
r-: ~M 0 ..,; M er) cD clay minerals between montmorillonites and vermiculites, namely
.-<
~
N
--
"'" g " " "en "M "00
------
"en " " "M
<j )
with both characteristics of the two kinds of clay minerals) and
.s 00
L()<.o
L()L() N
L()
M N
<.0
M
N
N
mixed layer minerals of the above-mentioned montmorillonites
Q '-../
..,.
C/ '-../ '-../
en .--<
'-../ '-../
..,.
'-../

I
'-../ '-../ '-../ '-../
""0.::::
·c
<l! ro
'-../
0 N
' " 00
<.0
.--<
.--<
M 0 I t"-
L()
L()
M
0
N
L()
0 and illites, and these minerals are considered to be responsible
Q
.,;- <.0 cD MN* 0 r-: cD cri cri cri cri
N .--<
~
.--< for the swelling characteristics of this soil. The utilization of
34 EROSION OF SURFACE MATERIALS OF THE EARTH
this soil as material for an earth dike will carry a great risk
of slumping.
Most clay mineralogists have no interest in the mechanical
behaviors of clays, while civil engineers are occupied with
mechanical experiments of heavy soil and making blueprints.
Chemists investigate clay minerals from the viewpoint of surface
chemistry or ceramics. The problems of landslips will remain
unsolved without the collaboration of geologists, geomorphologists,
chemists, and civil engineers in order to investigate the boundary
regions of their sciences.
Fig. 4 and Table 3 give the distribution of landslip areas in
Japan and the general concept concerning their clay minerals
(Yatsu, 1964).
Slope rupture cannot be attributed to some special component
of debris such as montmorillonites in the case of landslips. It
happens everywhere, if the following conditions are satisfied:
accumulation of debris, increase in weight of masses by
infiltrating water, decrease of shear strength by infiltrating
water, degree of slope, etc.
Conditions of rocks are reflected in the formation of debris
and in the characteristics of the debris itself, for example,
permeability and strength of debris. Rupture of slopes occurs
especially in the regions of unconsolidated and fresh volcanic
sand (Shirasu in Japanese, 4.2.3.), strata of gravels and sands,
and decomposed debris derived from granitoides (M asa in
Japanese, 4.2.4.). In the Tama River drainage area near
Tokyo, granite regions are more susceptible to this type of
erosion than the regions of sandstones or slates.
2.2.3. Glacial Erosion and Erosibility of Rocks. Many geomor-
phologists, impressed by large scale erosion and deposition of
glacial processes, pay little attention to the lithological effects
on glacial topography. At least, it is reasonably anticipated
that differences of strength, hardness, amount of cracks, porosity,
etc. influence glacial topography (c/. Frontispiece).
2.2.4. Denudation and Erosibility of Rocks. Erosional forces of
waves and offshore currents as well as the weathering processes
along coasts play important roles in coastal geomorphological
processes. Waves act in many modes of destructive effects such
as compression, fatigue by reciprocating stress, cavitation and
Erosibility 35
wear called abrasion.
Amounts of cracks are important. Sandstone (extremely
consolidated) and crystalline rocks are more resistant than
shales, tuffaceous rocks and other sedimentary layers in general.
Chalk is very soft and is easily eroded by waves. Yamanouchi
(1964) evaluated the erosibility of rocks to wave erosion by
the dropping hammer test. The Schmidt hammer test perhaps
supplies good data. The comparison of penetration depth or
carved volume by nail gun test probably might be appropriate
for the field survey. Many strength tests such as compression,
tension and percussion as well as the measurement of hardness
and weathering tests should be performed for a discussion of
this problem in detail.
2.2.5. Wear of rocks. Processes of wear are important during
the transportation of debris by flowing water (Russell, 1938)
and by wind in arid regions or in the case of wave erosion.
Regarding the grain size of fluvial sediments, Sternberg (1875)
proposed the following formula:
Y=Y o e- lX
where Y =diameter of debris
x =distance which debris traveled
Yo=Y at x=O
and A be designated as the coefficient of abrasion.
Morris and Fan (1962) applied an experimental abrasion test
to arkose sands. Mixtures of quartz and potash feldspar grains,
varying in size, were placed in a group of oscillating tubes for
a maximum of 30 hours. The samples were analyzed at 10-
hour intervals and weight loss computed for each component.
Potash feldspars of course are more susceptive to wear than
quartz. Observing their data in detail, weight seems to decrease
in exponential curve of time t,
W=W o e- pt
where W =weight
t =duration of experiment
Wo=W at t=O
and fl corresponds to A in Sternberg's formula. The greater
the hardness, especially scratching hardness, the smaller the
coefficients of abrasion)' and fl. Quartzites, siliceous sandstones
and hornfels are more resistant to abrasive effects while slates,
shales and limestones are easily worn. The modes of wear at
 EROSION OF SURFACE MATERIALS OF THE EARTH
36
beaches are somewhat different from those in streams (Naka-
yama, 1965; Aramaki and Suzuki, 1962). Gravels on beaches
become flatter and more smooth than those in rivers because
in the latter case gravels are rolled during transportation more
than in the former.
What is wear? What is the mechanism of wear? This
problem is very difficult. Explanations will be given in the )
next chapter. The decrease in grain size of fluvial sediments
during their transportation is not attributed entirely to wear in
the rivers but also to disintegration by impaction. It probably
might be adequate to say that the impaction effect is greater
than attrition. Sternberg's formula involved these two processes,
I I but neither explained the mechanism of wear nor gave its
I
physical meaning. When we analyze the fluvial deposits
comprising gravel, sand and silt, we can easily observe very
often the binominal distribution on the grain size frequency
curve and one minimum frequency always rests at the
grain size of 4-2 mm. Yatsu (1955) thought that these deposits
consist of two populations of gravel and sand, and they are
lacking in the grains of granules. Thus he inferred that granule
size particles are unstable and susceptible to disintegration.
The strata mainly consisting of this size indeed seem to be
rare in many series of sedimentation.
In tests of aggregates of concretes, testing machines of
Deval or Los Angeles type are ordinarily used to measure the
rate of wear. Such test methods can be applied to determine
the erosibility of rocks to some degree.
The topography associated with faults and structures has
been very frequently described partly because of the spectacular
nature of some scarps and ridges, and also because of the ease
of apprehension. It is necessary to keep in mind that geological
structure consists of stratified rocks that vary in susceptibility
to erosion. If geomorphologists. however, will not study the
problems of rock control itself, they leave many things shrouded
in doubt. When it is realized how scientists of the other fields
have striven to investigate the properties of materials, it
becomes evident that this phase of geomorphological studies
has been neglected, even though geomorphologists have
emphasized the importance of rock effects.
REFERENCES 37
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Eng., No. 51, pp. 34-40.
IWASAKI, I., HIRAYAMA, M., KATSURA, T., OZAWA, T., OSAKA, 1., KAMADA,
M., and MATSUMOTO, H., 1964, Alteration of rock by volcanic
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JENNY, H., 1940, Factors of soil formation, A system of quantitative
pedology, p. 281, McGraw-Hill.
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Jura Mountain (Ain), France, Jour. Geol., vol. 57, pp. 137-
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KELLER, W. D., and FREDERICKSON, A. F., 1952, Role of plants and col-
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KELLER, W. D., 1955, The Principles of chemical weathering, .p. 88, Lucas
Brother Publishers, Columbia, Missouri.
KELLY, W. C., and ZUMBERGE, J. H. , 1961, Weathering of a quartz diorite
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69,pp. 433-446.
 'y
40 EROSION OF SURFACE MATERIALS OF THE EARTH
KERR, P. F ., KULP, J. L. , PATTERSON, C. M., and WRIGHT, R J., 1950,
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Special Paper 62, pp. 525- 543.
KERR, P. F ., 1964, Quick clay, Scientific American, pp. 132-141.
KIELY, P. V., and JACKSON, M . L. , 1964, Selective dissolutions of mIcas
from potassium feldspars by sodium pyrosulfate fusion of
soils and sediments, Amer. Mineralogist, vol. 49, pp. 1648-1659.
KOIDE, H., 1955, Landslips in Japan ( in Japanese), Toyo-keizai-shimpo-sha,
Tokyo.
Kopp, O. c., HARRIS, L. A. , and CLARK, G. W ., 1961, The hydrothermal
conversion of Muscovite to kalsilite and an iron-rich mica,
Amer. Mineralogist, vol. 46, pp. 719-727.
LAUDlSE, R A., and KOLB, E. D., 1963, The solubility of zincite m basic
hydrothermal solvents, Amer. Mineralogist, vol. 48, pp. 642-
648.
LEGRAND, H. E., 1952, Solution depressions in diorite in North Carolina,
Am. Jour. Sci., vo\. 250, pp. 566-585.
LEONARD, R J., 1927, The hydrothermal alteration of certain silicate mine-
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LEROY, P. G., 1954, Correlation of copper mineralization with hydrothermal
alteration in the Santa Rita porphyry copper deposit, New
Mexico, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. 65, pp. 739-768.
LOUGHMAN, F. C. L., 1962, Some considerations in the weathering of the
silicate minerals, Jour. Sed. Pet., vo\. 32, pp. 284-290.
MACDONALD, G. A., 1944, Solfataric alteration of rocks at K ilauea Volcano,
Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 242, pp. 496-505.
MASON, B., 1947, Oxidation and reduction in geochemistry, Jour. Geol., vol.
57, pp. 62- 72-
MCINTYRE, D. S., 1958, Soil splash and the formation of surface crust by
raindrop impact, Soil Sci., vol. 85, pp. 261- 266.
MERRITT, R S., and MULLER, E. H ., 1959, Depth of leaching in relation
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MOREY, G. W ., and FOURNIER, R 0., The decomposition of microcline,
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MORI, R, 1964, Some problems on the chemical stability of soils, Committee
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MORRIS, W. J., and FAN, P. F ., 1962, Abrasion effects on arkose mixtures,
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MURAKAMI, K, 1956, Landslips in Volcano Akagi, Gumma Prefecture,
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MUSGRAVE, G. W., 1947, The quantitative evaluation of factors in water
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erosion, a first approximation, Jour. Soil and Water Conser-
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NAKAYAMA, M., and MIURA, T ., 1962, Roundness of pebbles in the course
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NAKAYAMA, M., 1965, Analyses of the size, roundness, and flatness of beach
pebbles, Geogr. Rev. Japan, vol. 38, pp. 103-120.
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PAYNE, J. H., and MAU, K T. , 1946, A Study of the chemical alteration
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PETERSON, J . B., 1964, The relation of soil fertility to soil erosion, Jour.
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 III MECHANICS OF SOLID ROCKS

Rocks undergo various kinds of geomorphological processes.

Resistances to such destructive forces are called the strength of
rocks. In this chapter, strength, failure and wear phenomena
of solid rocks will be discussed. This knowledge is indispensable
not only for researchers of earth science such as geomorpholo-
gists and geologists but also for mining, architectural, and civil
engineers.

3.1. Strength of Solid Rocks

3.1.1. Definition of Strength. Strength of rocks is their prop-
erty of resistance and durability to the forces applied on them.
Here the discussions are restricted to mechanical problems and
exclude chemical processes. As many rocks commonly manifest
themselves as anisotropic bodies, irrespective of their being
igneous, metamorphic or sedimentary rocks, the problems be-
come very intricate.

3.1.2. Classification of Disintegration. What types of disintegra-

tion are happening in geomorphological processes? What kinds
of processes attribute to a given type of disintegration of rocks?
To such problems Thornbury (1954) and Strahler (1952) gave
their excellent answers. Table 5 shows the agents and their
destructions:
Table 5. Agents involved and their destruction
[Agents] [Type of Destruction]
Running water ······ ······(l)Wear
(2)Impaction failure
Waves and currents····· ·(l)Wear
(2)Impaction failure
(3)Compression and tension failure
(4)Fatigue failure
Wind ·········:··············(l)Wear
(2)Impaction failure
Glacier ·····················(l)Wear
(2)Compression failure
Endogenic agents······ ···(l)Compression failure
(2)Tension failure
(3)Shear failure
46 MECHANICS OF SOLID ROCKS
Therefore, discussions are unequivocally requisite on the relation
between failure and . stresses such as compression, tension and
shear, and on the problems of fatigue failure and wear in detail.
3.2. Failure of Rocks by Static Load
3.2.1. Rheological Behavior of Rocks. An external force exert-
ed on a body is called load from the engineering point of view.
Loads are classified as static loads and dynamic loads due to
speed of loading. The latter comprises repeated loads, alternate
loads, moving loads, impact or impulsive loads, etc. Imagine the
state in which an impulsive load is applied to one end of a bar.
In this situation, the bar does not exert the resistant force as a
whole, but the stress exerted by impulsive force is transmitted
from one end where impulsive force is applied to the other one.
It is an impulsive load that gives rise to such a state. On the
other hand, a load might be called high speed static load if the
equilibrium between the load and the stress in this bar can be
imagined from the point of view of statics, even though the
static load is commonly defined as the load which applies very
slowly.
In general, three kinds of behavior of materials will be
observed when uniaxial tests are applied to solid bodies. In
the domain of minor strains, they behave as elastic bodies and
the relation between stresses and strains is reversible. Some
bodies break down when strains overstep their elastic limits;
others show a gradual transition from the elastic to the plastic
stage, manifest many times of strains in the elastic stage and
at last undergo failure. If a body experiences three phases
when subject to a sufficient load, this body is called ductile.
If a body does not have a plastic stage and collapses at the point
of its elastic limit, this body is named brittle. Without remark-
able necking, brittle materials fall into failure very suddenly.
In general, rocks are classified. as brittle materials. However,
such classification as ductile and brittle materials is not adequate
for all states of the same materials. It is more accurate to say
that so-and-so material is in a brittle or plastic state.
Karman (1911) applied tri-axial compression tests to columnar
test pieces of limestone with various rates of lateral pressure,
and proved that the behaviors of test pieces depend upon the
mechanical state of stress. That is to say, test pieces, upon
Failure of Rocks by Static Load 47
application of uniaxial compression without lateral compression
behave as a typical brittle material and collapse at their elastic
limits. Proportionately with an increase of lateral pressure,
elastic strain slightly decreases, the domain of deformations
such as those perceptible in ductile materials increases, and at
last the failure occurs. The more the increase of lateral
pressure, the larger the domain of plastic or flow strain. In
hydrostatic pressure where the pressure is equal in any direction
( 171=172=173), plastic deformation does not occur.
3.2.2. Theories of Fracture of Rocks. The theories of fracture
are classified into three categories:
a. Stress theory,
b. Strain theory,
c. Energy theory,
We can enumerate many theories of fracture as follows:
a. Maximum stress theory,
b. Maximum strain theory,
c. Maximum shear theory,
d. Maximum octahedral stress theory,
e. Maximum energy theory,
f. Maximum energy of distortion theory,
g. Mohr's general theory of failure.
Among of them, maximum octahedral shear theory seems to
have a superiority over others in order to explain the fracture
of brittle materials. Mohr's theory is the most fascinating one
for engineers, except that this theory ignored the intermediate
principle stress. According to this theory, the limiting state of
failure is expressed by the equation: r = f (a), and this equa-
tion is the envelope of stress circles of Mohr, determined by
experiments. Many researchers have performed a great number
of experiments on various rocks, some of which are listed in
references of this chapter.
3.2.3. Time Dependence of Deformation and Fracture. It is well
established that the result of experiments on rock strength
depends upon the speed and duration of loading. In 1939 and
1940, Griggs reported the creep of rocks. In 1959, Hardy reported
the recent advancements of rock mechanics in Canada, under
the title of "Time Dependent Deformation and Failure of Geo-
logical Materials."
48 MECHANICS OF SOLID ROCKS Failure of Rocks by Static Load

1 I I
S=p Cl +l + l (1 - e- tl ')
E. 1J. E
where ~=-'l
S: Strain
E
P : applied stress
t : time after the application of the stress
~ : retardation time
E. and E : elastic element
1J. and 1J: viscous element

ELEMENT Elastic Viscouc, Inert ial

@ DEFINING
, EQUATION SE =E
P . P
Sv = Tj
"
SI =m
P

basic rh~ological element @

Fig. 8.
+
Maxwell Unit
Basic rheological element and unit.
Voigt Unit

1
Griggs experimented using the Solenhofen limestone and
drew the time-strain curves. He thought of them as elastico- E' (l)----T---
viscous and consisting of two parts:
Maxwell unit
a. pseudoviscous flow or deformation of definite velocity,
expressed by Ct, 'I. (2)

b. elastic flow or deformation decreasing logarithmically

in time, expressed by B log t. P3 =ES
Thus the total strain S is expressed as following equation: P4 ='lS
S = A + B log t + Ct P = ES + 1JS
E
in which, t = time, A,B,C are respectively constant S,lP, t) = t(l-e-t/ l), where ~=t
due to each rock,
and the recovery curve after unloading is expressed as follows :
S' = A' - B log t.
Many papers recently appeared which explained the mecha- Fig. 9. Burgers' rheological model.
nical behaviors of rock phenomenologically by using the rheo-
logical models such as shown in Fig. 8. Combination of
elements gives units such as the Maxwell unit and the Voigt
 50 MECHANICS OF SOLID ROCKS Impulsive Fracture and Others 51

unit (Kelvin unit) . Those papers want to explain the mechani-

cal behaviors as the combination of these elements and units.
Fig. 9 shows Burgers' rheological model and its mathematical
kg/em'
-<= 2500 expression. In this case, the behavior of rocks is considered as
QQ
c
2:' 2400 0 Serpentine, Tase Dam.
viscoelastic, and is better represented by a model consisting of
(/) four elements. The total deformation of rocks consists of an
2300 • Weathered se rpentine , Iwanebashi .
instantaneous elastic deformation, delayed or retarded elastic
2200 0 III Serpentine, near Tase Dam.
deformation, and a viscous deformation. The first two defor-
o Shale, Kodomari.
2100 mations are recoverable on the removal of the load, and the
kg/em '
2000 • Shale, Sengan Tunne l. third one results in a permanent strain in the rock. According
@ Shale, Sankebetsu. to Hardy (1959), under a low value of applied stress (where
1900
.. Shale, Kamihaboro .
the strain does not exceed 10- 3 in/ in), Burgers' viscoelastic
1800 0 b Mylonite, Sengan Tunnel.
model is assumed to hold to a first approximation, whereas at
1700 • Mylonite, Shinkoshirazu. a higher value of applied stress, it is postulated that the visco-
1600 A My lonite, Maebar a Pa ss.
elastic behavior is retained to some extent but microfractures
x Tuff, Shirakawa.
1500 begin to develop and propagate. As the applied stress increases
+
1400 • Tuff, Kodomari ,
the fracture system develops to such an extent that complete
1B Slate, near Tase Dam,
failure of the specimen occurs.
1300
III
1200
•• 3.2.4. Conditions which influence the Strength of Rocks. Water
1100 •
0
content of rocks has a great influence upon the strength of
1000 rocks. Dry rock is much stronger than wet rock. In consider-
900 ing their strength with the greatest safety, the experiments
800
should be done in conditions of maximum water content. It
has been well known for a long time that the strength of rocks
700
depends upon the velocity of loading. According to Horibe and
Kobayashi (1964), the ratio of high-speed compressive strength
(3. o~ 12 x 105 kg. cm- 2 sec-I ) to the low-speed one (9. 5~ 10 x 10- 2
400 kg. cm- 2 sec-I) is about 1. 6 for sandstone, 1.9 for marble, and
300 1. 5 for cement mortar, and the Poisson's number for each rock
+ decreases with an increase in the cOlDpressive load, but this
200 + + number on the same compressive stress has a tendency to
100 • ®., .,l' . o increase as the loading-rate increases.
t\~ " •©Q) I
o 5 10 15 20 25%
- Water Content 3.3. Impulsive Fracture and Others

The mechanism of impulsive or fatigue fracture is quite

Fig. 10. Strength of various rocks and their water content.
different from those described in the preceding sections. Liv-
ingston's energy transfer theory (1956) may be useful to under-
stand the mechanism of impUlsive fracture. According to this
theory, when the solid no longer is capable of transferring
52 MECHANICS OF SOLID ROCKS Impulsive Fracture and Others 53

·energy in excess of that liberated by the critical weight of "

if>
""5
0.
·explosive from the explosion cavity into the mass of the solid, u
impulsive fracture occurs. s '2
~ .~ 0
if>
Impulsive waves transmit, refract and reflect strain energy. c
on
~
If the impulsive waves refracted or reflected meet with succeed- ""5
ing waves, they are composed. Thus the resultant strain energy ) -E"
surpasses the elastic energy of this solid, and then fracture b.O
C
·occurs. This is the strain energy theory. Rinehart (1959) ~

.g
.;:
::>
explained the role of stress waves in comminution. u ""! if>
oj
~ - "
There exist very little information regarding the fatigue ro E
'"cw .....0
failure of rocks. Rock fracture by insolation must be a good w

·example of this phenomenon. A thermal stress due to temper- '6 E

eb.O
ature gradient occurs in rocks, and it is repeated reciprocally .51
"0
by heating and cooling. It may be the most mechanical expla- ..><: .;
u
nation that such a repeated load is attributed to the occurrence -'"
~
0 >-
·of fatigue failure of rocks, which is commonly called insolation
§- ..>-
~ ..... OS '~"
w
fracture. ..0
~ ......I
......
biJ
Fig. l1·a and Fig. 11-b show one method of measuring the dyna- ~
mic elastic modulus Ed of rocks, which is obtained as follows:
Ed V'p(1 + 11) (1- 211) "
P..
(1 - 11) E
oj

where p =dens ity of the material in question, V =L/t, x

11 = Poisson's ratio of this material, L = length of rod,
"c
and t = transit time_ "
"0
C
It will be also interesting and instructive to state briefly the an- oj

isotropic properties of rocks. Fig. 12-a and Fig. 12-b show the stress-
"
strain curves of Shimizu slate. The commonest, and in most cases
best, method of measuring the strain employs electric resistance-strain
-
..0
::>
>.
oj
'-<
gauges. In case of Shimizu slate, the loading direction does not
greatly affect Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio; however, the ""
"0
0
..0
~
U
if>
resid ual strains in the hysteresis loops are remarkably different from U
:::t.
each other. The compress ive load parallel with the bedding plane,
cause larger residual strains in slate than that perpendicular to the
-E" .<:'
c
0 b.O
bedding plane. In the latter case, the specimen recovers elastically C
§ .;:
without residual strains after the removal of stress, while in the former ::>
case, it is presumable that the basal plane of clays in slate easily -2 if>
oj

separate and in such tiny flaws, the edges of the clay minerals are ">- "E
sq ueezed. The clay minerals usually are less res istant to the tens ion is" .....0
in the direction of c-axis than to the compression in that direction. <Ii
I
This phenomenon of res idual strain must be creep or fatigue failure ......
......
of a very slight quantity. In this connection, a more elaborate biJ
investigation is needed. ~
 54 MECHANICS OF SOLID ROCKS Impulsive Fracture and Others 55

(lIT t9J ) 1 ¥ISI '"

N
if)
OJ
(ZOl) D'(IJ.lJ) 148 YSSI o
<.0
0.
E
'"
Cf)

(ZOl) D'(9)Z '£EI) 148 ¥L9 '!

(Zll ) DYZ81 o
<D

(em ) 1 'tOOZ ""

(OOZ ) D' (~£I 'ZOl ) 1 ym

(ZOI) D ¥6ZZ

(alI) 0 '(lEI '~Ol ) 1ywz

Stress-strain loops. The loading direction perpendicular to the (IEI tre ) 1' (ZOl ) 148 yasZ
Fig. 12-a. lS

bedding plane (1), Shimizu Permian slate.

o
r<)
c ckg/ cm :
2000

1500 (IOl ) .J 1'9017

(III) 1'(00I) 0 \/6Z 17 -
- (01 ('OZO ) 1 VES17 o
N
(OZO '£(Xl ) 148 ~17L17 .....
(ZOO ) 1 YEOS '

1000

(ZOO ) 14J ym ~===-~

- Ax ial
..... Dia gona l
(100 ) 1 yglOl --..· ~==-~
~ L at eral

(100 ) 14J yavvl'

0. 05 0.10 0. 15 0.20 0.25 «%) 0.30

Fig. 12-b. Stress-strain loops. The loading direction is parallel with the
bedding plane (2), Shimizu Permian slate.
Fig. 14-a. Shimizu Permian slate, parallel with bedding plane. Fig. 14-b. Shimizu Permian slate, perpendicular to bedding plane.
Fig. IS.,.a. Takakurayama Permian or Triassic slate, parallel with bedding plane. Fig. IS-b. Takakurayama Permian or Triassic slate, perpendicular to bedding plane.
60 MECHANICS OF SOLID ROCKS Plasticity of Rocks and Salt Domes 61

As mentioned above, most rocks except some igneous rocks display boundaries of minerals or in minerals themselves. In the latter
anisotropic characteristics to such a marked degree that the impor- case, the fracture usually occurs along the cleavage of minerals.
tance of their micro-structure, which seems to be the origin of an iso- It is evidently natural that the fractures occur along the grain
tropy, cannot be overemphasized. boundaries and in grains if the intergranular bond is equal to
It is easily expected that in slate, clay minerals should have paral-
the cohesion of grains. In a well solidified concrete specimen,
lel orientation if the compression was great enough during the dia-
the fracture surfaces always truncate the hard gravels of aggre-
genesis stage. Such stratification must be very clearly examined by
gates, whereas in poorly cast concrete, sometimes aggregates
recourse to X-rays. If the stratification be perfect, only the (001)
reflection will be observed in the X-ray diffractometer traces, when are not cut. Specimens of concrete will give a good model for
X-rays are applied to the surface parallel with the bedding plane, the fracture of rocks.
while X-rays incident upon the surface perpendicular to the bedding
plane will cause only the (hkO) reflection. If the stratification of
3.5. Plasticity of Rocks and Salt Domes
clay minerals is not perfect, the (hkO) reflection will be not iced
in X-ray diffractometer traces, even though X-rays are applied to 3.5.1. Plasticity of Rocks. Rocks display the plastic properties
the surface parallel with the bedding plane. Fig. 13 discloses the
perfect parallelism of clay minerals in Shimizu slate and the imperfect
one in Takakurayama slate.
Photographs taken by electron microscope (Fig. 14-15) w ill g reatly
assist in understanding the deg ree of stratification of the clay min-
erals in slates.

3.4. Cohesion of Rocks

The cohesion of rock as a polycrystal body is attributed to

the bond of chemical reaction, consolidation by crystal growth,
mutual inclusion of crystals, intermolecular force, adhesion due
to adsorption, etc. The cohesion of single crystals has been
calculated by physicists. The data resulting from experiments
on the real single crystals are far smaller than the values
theoretically estimated, so that Griffith (1924) proposed his
theory that there exist minor cracks in crystals and that they
grow by stresses to form fractures. Such assumed cracks in
homogeneous brittle solid are named Griffith flaw.
Evidence that the observed yield stress causing slip in crys-
tals is much lower than the theoretical estimate of the shear
cohesion as mentioned above introduced the dislocation theory,
which has become a star player in the explanation of this I I I I I I I
0 3000 6000 900J 12000 15000 18000 Feet
discrepancy. Every crystal contains imperfections from which
0 2 3 4 5
slip can start at a low stress. These imperfections may be due I I I I I Kilomet~tr s

to vacant lattice sites, interstitial atoms, dislocations, gross 20 foot contour, LOUISIANA DEROUEN QUADRANGLE
defects and so forth. Fig. 16. Weeks Island Salt Dome.
Fractures in polycrystal rocks occur either along the grain
 SALT STRUCTURE-WEEKS ISLAND SALT DOME, LOUISIANA
MORTON SALT COMPANY MINE-758FOOT LEVEL*
:-------
II
-
'\
'po 2?O 390 .po ~?O Feet
\ < I
Donald H Kupfer
\\ 0 I " 1962 EXPLANATION .3
\~ v/0'/ ~" ~ S~L T LAYERING tTHIC~.LAYER
·1
TREND OF WORKINGS

.~::\:~:N> ·:t--- rhf~~

I '</ ------ 5
! 1- { 6

~ 2
i
10
0;,"0" J
~
Fo;", 0""" ~ G'Od'~"d I Wo" ~ Sholl

/7
'T

~.
Strike and dip of loyering ......89 Plunoe of rold

t~ f'i'~"l'
\..
I! --fs Strike and dip of axial pion. , Verticol p1uft'llt rs-

",,/
A c L
r"
82
'
po
"'lo •
t ~ 87

"'. 1
.4 Strike and dip at axial
plone of cross fold

Trace of o"iol plone

8
of ClOSS fold

9
4\'..
8889
Axiol pion. ond
of fold

- ;[c\.~~CUlot'd
Plun" /~

ottltud' l-t--

10

..
F

*_ Mop Is of elevation of ceiling

660'feet below seo level
A

Fig. 17. Salt st ruct ure, Weeks Island Salt Dome, Loui siana, Morton Salt Company M ine, 758-foot level (Kupfer, 1962).
64 MECHANICS OF SOLID ROCKS

under confined condition as mentioned above. Folding of strata

is a pertinent evidence of this phenomenon. Limestone has
been especially known as a plastic material and very intensively
studied by many researchers. Rock salt is also quite famous
for its plastic behavior which is the principal cause of the
formation of salt domes.

3.5.2. Salt Domes. They are small domal structures produced

by intrusion of masses of salt into rock strata, and have been
known in many areas, especially in the Gulf Coast Plain of
Louisiana and Texas in the United States. The description of
salt dome topography will be relegated to the text books of
geomorphology and one example of their internal structure will
be presented.
Kupfer (1962) thoroughly investigated the salt dome of
Weeks Island, Iberia Parish, Louisiana. The geologic structures
of ceiling at 660 feet below sea level were shown on the map
as reproduced in Fig. 17. He recognized that all axes are
essentially vertical (81°-90° plunge), therefore walls show ver-
tical bands and ceilings show intricate fold patterns. As pos-
sible origin of such structures, he considered the intrusion of
plastic salt into a restricted opening, which caused the lineation
parallel to the direction of flow.
Formations of rock salt may not have definite values of the
plastic limit K p , as their plasticity increases with increase of
the triaxial compression. In addition to instantaneous yielding
deformation, rock salt is also subject to pseudoviscous flow
which is defined as gradual creep deformation when constant
pressure is applied below the elastic limit Ke. For a long du-
ration of loading, such a viscous deformation in rock salt can
attain to a considerable value. Serata and Gloyna (1960) applied
the theory of plasticity to the evaluation of stress and strain
conditions of the salt cavity.
The whole question of the deformation of evaporites has
recently been dealt with at considerable length by Borchert and Slip lines and lineation of radiation damages. Specimen: KCl single crystal (Harshaw).
Muir (1964). According to them, the ease of deformation in The photograph is parallel with the loading direction. Radiation : 3.6 X 10' roentgen of
response to tectonic stress increases in the following order: r·ray. Compressive strain: 8 %.
limestone / dolomite<marl<dry saliferous c1ay< anhydritic sedi-
ments<kieseritic rock<halite<sylvite<carnallite<bischofite.
Just as in case of other rocks, strengh of evaporites depends
upon the velocity of loading, i. e. the more slowly the pressure
66 MECHANICS OF SOLID ROCKS
is applied, the greater is the deformation produced. If the
temperature increases slightly, halite and sylvite remarkably
increase their mobility which is very important in accounting
for the formation of a salt dome.
Under quasistatic loading at room temperature, pressure of
only 150-200kgj cm 2 suffices to produce the flowage deformation
of rock salts.
In passing, it is very interesting that in general the purer
the crystal, the lower the yielding stress, and impurity and
crystal defects such as radiation damage increase the strength
of the crystal. In this direction, countless works are reported
in periodicals such as the Journal of Applied Physics, Philoso-
phical Magazine and so on. Akimoto (1963) reported that single
crystals of sylvite produced by the Harshaw Co. undergo flow-
age deformation under a stress less than 100kgj cm2. However,
in case of sylvite rock salts, the stress sufficient to produce the
flowage deformation is considered by Dreyer (1955) to be about
250kgj cm2.
The discrepancy between the very high calculated strength
of a crystal and that one experimentally measured, is fully
solved by the dislocation theory, concerning which it is particu-
larly deisrable to consult books on solid state physics (3.4.) .
3.6. Wear
3.6.1. Friction and Wear. Geomorphologists as well as sed i-
mentologists have an interest in the phenomenon of wear, but
it seems that they do not investigate this phenomenon itself.
The problems of friction and wear of materials, especially me-
tals, are so very important that researchers of engineering
materials are fully occupied in clarifying such phenomena.
Though it might be thought very commonly that the greater
the friction, the more extensive the wear, this is not always
correct. We have to completely separate the two terms. Wear
usually implies several phenomena as follows:
a. Wear due to sliding between two contact bodies,
adhesive or galling wear,
abrasive and cutting wear,
b. Wear due to surface fatigue,
pitting (flaking) ,
c. Cavitation, etc.
Wear 67
Wear due to solid particles in moving liquid is abrasive wear
as observed in rivers and shores. We will skip the explanation
of cavitation in the next section.
3.6.2. Various Wear Mechanism. Mechanical engineers usually
consider corrosion as corrosion wear, whereas geologists and
geomorphologists exclude it from wear phenomena.
a. Adhesive wear. Formerly, friction was attributed to
the gearing of ruggedness of two contact surface and its value
was thought to be determined by the value of work to lift up
to the height of protuberance. Recently the theory of adhesion
has become popular. According to this theory, some parts of
contact surfaces approach each other by the distance of a mole-
cule, thus adhesive forces occur. Friction is attributed to the
force which shears the adhesive parts.
In the case of metals, the following explanation is given for
the mechanism of adhesive wear. On the actual surface loaded
with value of W, plastic deformation occurs around the contact
points, thus the contact surface increases to the extent in which
the load W becomes in equilibrium with the product of the
increased contact surface A times the yield stress of materials
P, then we can obtain the next equation,
A=Y'L
P
where P is considered as micro-Vickers hardness H (kgj mm 2) .
Therefore,
A=Y'L
H
The value of adhesive wear V is proportional to this A and
the distance of slide L, then
V=k AL
=k Y'LL=k' WL
H
If both sides of this equation are divided by apparent contact
area Ao, average depth of wear h is as follows,
- V -k' W L
h -A
o- Ao
=k' PoL
where Po= W
Ao ' Po is named design pressure, and k' coefficient
of adhesive wear. Fig. 19 shows the mechanism of adhesive
 Wear 69
68 MECHANICS OF SOLID ROCKS

Fig. 19. Mechanism of adhesive wear. limit of"Blauumschlag" {

Two materials M, and M, are in contact with each other. Consider

the shear strength of M, to be greater than that of M, and the
hatched area , ABCD to undergo work hardening.
(1) If the shear strength of the adhesive part AB IS smaller than
both those of M, and M" the part AB will be sheared. Fig. 20-a. Contours of bulk hardness in sectioned indentation in rock
(2) If its ' value is greater than that of milder material M" M, will salt. Normal hardness is 17kgjmm' (after Brace, 1960).
be sheared along the surface CD in M,. The work necessary for
this shear is equal to the friction and the part ABCD is the
adhesive wear.

wear.
Concerning the work hardening of rocks, experiments on
the indentation pressure or hardness by Brace (1960) must be
referred to here. He reasonably concluded as follows:
200

l~;::'''~
Rock salt deforms predominantly by gliding and becomes
harder with increased deformation, and the hardening charac-
terizes both individual grains and polycrystalline aggregate.
Anhydrite, limestone and marble deform by combination of
E
~
bD
-'"
150 --I71-
c
"
1 ~I~Marble r GRAIN
V)-
fracture and gliding; the bulk hardness decreased from the V)
Q)
c:
100 a r-Anhydrite BULK ~
normal value outside the deformation zone to a small fraction 1 ~
ro
of this just under the indentation) however, the hardness of :r: / 0_ (a)

b~:;;;~
individual grains, for the marble at least, increased toward the 50
center of the deformation zone.
The writer does not know whether work hardening occurs 0
0.5 1.0
so often in rocks. Wear of rocks and minerals may result 2. Distance below surface, cm
mainly from the processes described in the following section.
b. Abrasive and cutting wear. This wear is mechanical Bulk and grain hardness in the deformed region of anhydrite
Fig. 20-b.
cutting in which one of two surfaces in contact is rougher and and marble (after Brace, 1960) .
harder than the other, and the former directly cuts the latter.
The material which undergoes this type of wear least is the
one with great hardness and a small Young's modulus. It is
usually admitted that the greater the elastic limit of strain E e,

70 MECHANICS OF SOLID ROCKS
the less the abrasive and cutting wear. Ee is equal to the
quotient of elastic limit of stress fIe divided by Young's modulus
E, and fIe is considered to be in proportion with the hardness
of material H, therefore,
E -~ ex: H
e- E E Jour. Geophys. Research, vol. 70, pp. 3447-3452.
and elastic energy per unit volume E g ,
1 fIe2 H2
Eg=Z - E- ex: E
thus we can conclude that the greater the value of E g , the
less the abrasive and cutting wear.
c. Wear due to surface fatigue. This type of wear
occurs when boulders roll down onto bedrock. If the contact
pressure exceeds some critical limit and repeating contact occurs
more often than some critical frequency, large numbers of
small pits occur on the bedrocks, and the value of wear
increases rapidly. This type of wear is known as pitting or
flaking. It is due to a kind of fatigue by repeating contact,
but the quantitative relation of this wear remains unknown.
3.7. Rock Mechanics and Geology
Even geomorphologists, especially those interested in erosion,
might not be forced to be occupied with the investigation on
the mechanism of occurrence of cracks, cleavages, etc. and on
their systematic distribution itself, because geomorphologists can
start their work considering the fractures of rocks and minerals
as a given condition. Many geologists have engaged in the
research of rock mechanics to clarify the mechanisms of struc-
tural movements such as folding and faulting, and the occurrence
of cleavages and tectonites. Geophysicists, mining engineers
and civil engineers might be more acquainted with rock me-
chanics than geomorphologists in general. Some of their works
are listed in references which will be useful to the students of
geomorphology.
REFERENCES
AKIMOTO, K, 1963, Hardening of potassium chloride single crystal by
REFERENCES 71
quenching and irradiation, Jour. Appl. Phys., vol. 34, pp.
1767-1770.
AKIMOTO, K, and YATSU, E., 1965, Electron microscopic observation of
radiation damage in KCI and NaCI single crystals, Eightieth
Anniversary Bulletin of Chuo University, pp. 55-66.
BERG, c.A., 1965, Deformation of fine cracks under high pressure and shear,
BIRCH, F., and Dow, R.B., 1936, Compressibility of rocks and glasses at
high temperature and pressures: seismological application,
Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 47, pp. 1235-1255.
BIRCH, F ., and BANCROFT, D., 1939, The elasticity of certain rocks and
massive minerals, Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 237, pp. 1-6.
BIRCH, F., and BANCROFT, D., 1942, The elasticity of glass at high tem-
perature, and the vitreous basaltic substratum, Am. Jour. Sci.,
vol. 240, pp. 457-490.
BIRCH, F., 1943, Elasticity of igneous rocks at high temperatures and
pressures, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 54, pp. 263-286.
BIRCH, F., 1960, The velocity of compressional waves in rock to 10 Kilobars,
part 1, Jour. Geophys. Research, vol. 65, pp. 1083-110l.
BLANCHET, P.H., 1957, Development of fracture analysis as exploration
method, Bull. Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geol., vol. 41, pp. 1748-
1759.
BLOSS, F .D., 1957, Anisotropy of fracture in quartz, Am. Jour. Sci., vol.
255, pp. 214- 225.
BLOSS, F.D., and GIBBS, G.V., 1963, Cleavage in quartz, Amer. Mineralo-
gist, vol. 48, pp. 821-838.
BOOZER, G.D., HILLER, KH., and SERDENGECTI, S., 1962, Effects of pore
fluids on the deformation behavior of rock subjected to
triaxial compression, Rock Mechanics edited by C. Faircrust,
Pergamon Press, pp. 579-625.
BORCHERT, H., and MUIR, R., 1964, Salt deposits, p. 338, D. Van Nost-
rand Co., London.
BRACE, W.F., 1955, Quartzite pebble deformation in central Vermont, Am.
Jour. Sci., vol. 253, pp. 129-145.
BRACE, W.F., 1960, Behavior of rock salt, limestone, and anhydrite during
indentation, Jour. Geophys. Res., vol. 65, pp. 1773-1788.
BRACE, W.F., 1960, An extension of the Griffith Theory of Fracture to
rocks, Jour. Geophys. Rerearch, vol. 65, pp. 3477-3480.
BRACE, W.F., 1965, Some new measurements of linear compressibility of
rocks, Jour. Geophys. Research, vol. 70, pp. 391-398.
BRACE, W.F., 1965, Relation of elastic properties of rocks to fabrics, Jour.
Geophys. Research, vol. 70, pp. 5657-5667.
BROUGHTON, J.G., 1946, An example of the development of cleavage, Jour.
Geol., vol. 54, pp. 1-18.
BURGERS, J.M., and others, 1935, First report on viscosity and plasticity,
 REFERENCES 73
72 MECHANICS OF SOLID ROCKS
GRIGGS, D., TURNER, FJ., BORG, 1., and SOSOKA, J.. 1951, Deformation of
Amsterdam, Academy of Science.
Yule Marble, part IV -effects at 150°C., Bull. Geol. Soc.
CHAMPBELL, J.D., 1951, Some aspects of rock folding by shearing defor-
Am., vol. 62, pp. 1385-1406.
mation, Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 249, pp. 625-639.
GRIGGS, D., and MILLER, W.B., 1951, Deformation of Yule Marble: part I,
CHRISTIE, J.M., 1958, Dynamic interpretation of the fabrics of a dolomite
compression and extension experiments on dry Yule Marble
from the Moine Thrust-Zone in north-west Scotland, Am.
at 1000 atmospheres confining pressure, room temerature,
J our. Sci., vol. 256, pp. 159-170.
Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 62, pp. 853-862.
COHEN, M., ed., 1954, Dislocation in metals, Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., p.
HAMMOND, M.L., and RAVITZ, S.F., 1963, Influence of environment on
200.
brittle fracture of silicate, Jour. Am. Cer. Soc., vol. 46, pp.
COOK, M.A. , PACK, D.H., and MCEWAN, W .S., 1960, Promotion of shock
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HANDlN, J ., and HAGER, R.V., 1957, Experimental deformation on sedi-
Soc., vol. 56, pp. 1028-1038.
mentary rocks under confining pressure : test at room tem-
COTTREL, A.H., 1953, Dislocation and plastic flow in crystals, Oxford
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Clarendon Press, p. 223.
41, pp. 1-50.
DREYER, W ., 1955, Uber das Festigkeitsverhalten sehr verschiedenartigen
HANDlN, J. , 1960, Flow, fracture and strength of rocks in laboratory, Trans.
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A.G.u.. vol. 41, pp. 162-165.
DVORAK, A., and Doz, P.P., 1961, Field test on soils and rocks, Proc. 5 th
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1.C.S.M.F.E., Paris, vol. 1, pp. 453-460.
perimental deformation of sedimentary rocks under confining
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Geol., vol. 47, pp. 717-755.
EVERETT, D.H., and WHITTON, W.1., 1952, A general approach to h ys-
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materials, Quart. Jour. Colorado Sch. Mines, vol. 54, no. 3,
EVERETT, D.H. , and SMITH, F .W ., 1954, A general approach to hysteresis,
pp. 135-175.
part 2, development of the domain theory, Trans. Faraday
HARRIS, J.F., TAYLOR, G.L., and WALPER, J.L., 1960, Relation of defor-
Soc., vol. 50, 1954, pp. 187-197.
mational fractures in sedimentary rocks to regional and local
EVERETT, D.H., 1954, A general approach to hysteresis, part 3, a formal
structure, Bull. Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geol., vol. 44, pp.
treatment of the independent domain model of hysteresis,
1853-1873.
Trans. Faraday Soc., vol. 50, pp. 1077-1096.
HODGSON, R.A., 1961, Classification of structures on joint surfaces, Am.
EVISON, F.F., 1956, The seismic determination of Young's modulus and
Poisson's ratio for rocks in situ, Geotechnique, vol. 6, pp. Jour. Sci., vol. 259, pp. 493-502.
HORIBE, T., and KOBAYASHI, R., 1964, On mechanical behaviors of rocks
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GORUM, A.E ., PARKER, E .R., and PASK, J.A., 1958, Effect of surface
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Jour. Am. Cer. Soc., vol. 41, pp. 161-164.
verwittertem gestein, Bautechnik, 10, z. 259-362.
GREGORY, A.R., 1962, Shear wave velocity measurements of sedimentary
rock sample under compression, Rock Mechanics edited by HUGHES, D.S., and JONES, HJ., 1950, Variation of elastic moduli of igne-
ous rocks with pressure and temperature, Bull. Geol. Soc.
C. Faircrust, Pergamon Press, pp. 439-471.
GRIFFITH, A.A., 1921, The phenomena of rupture and flow in solids, Phil. Am., vol. 61, pp. 843-856.
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tion of materials exhibiting viscoelastic behaviors, Trans.
GRIGGS, D.T., 1936, Deformation of rocks under high confining pressures,
1. experiment at room temperature, Jour. Geol., vol. 44, pp. Japan Soc. Civil Eng., no. 117, pp. 35-51.
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GRIGGS, D., 1939, Creep of rocks, Jour. Geol. , vol. 47, pp. 225-251.
KANEKO. S., 1955, Geological structure of the Tertiary deposits in the
GRIGGS, D., 1940, Experimental flow of rocks under conditions favouring
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1022.
74 MECHANICS OF SOLID ROCKS
KAPOLYI, L., 1963, Die Ahnlichkeitsbedingung der gesteinsmechanischen
optischen Spannungsuntersuchung, Berichte der Internation-
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KOBAYASHI, y., IIZUKA, A, and KUMAGAI, K., 1965, Shear srength of
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KUPFER, D.H., 1961, Structure of salt in Gulf Coast domes, 1st Symposium
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KUPFER, D.H., 1962, Structure of Morten Salt Company Mine, Weeks
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REFERENCES 75
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SAKUMA, S., 1953, Elastic and viscous properties of volcanic rocks at ele-
vated temperature, part 2, 3, Bull. Earthquake Research Inst.
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76 MECHANICS OF SOLID ROCKS REFERENCES 77

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 IV MECHANICS OF UNCONSOLIDATED
AND FRACTURED ROCKS

Soils as treated in soil mechanics, aggregates of boulders,

gravel, sand, silt, and clay are all considered rocks, that is
unconsolidated or fracture<;t rocks, in geology. This chapter is
concerned with the mechanics and mechanical properties of
large sized debris in talus, bedrock with abundant fractures,
weathered or unconsolidated strata, soils, and aggregates of
clays. However, space restricts us to phenomena that are
especially related to geomorphology.

4.1. Mechanics of Weathered Bedrock and Systems of Large Debris

4.1.1. Application of Soil Mechanics to Weathered Bedrock and

Systems of Large Debris. Some attempts have been made to deal
with this subject (Wilson, 1959; Muller, 1959). For example, the
approach of soil mechanics was applied to problems of slope
stability in open-pit mining. The mechanics of this system
would be most important for geomorphologists. Theories of
elasticity and plasticity have been applied to solid bedrock and
these approaches have succeeded to some extent.
Soil mechanics was founded by Terzaghi and brilliant pro-
gress has been made by the efforts of his followers. However,
large sized debris is not included in their experiments in soil
mechanics. Consequently, it is not quite adequate to apply soil
and rock mechanics without any _modification to systems of
large-sized debris and weathered bedrock. The method of
mechanical approach in this domain is extremely retarded irre-
spective of its great importance, due to the difficulty of experi-
mentation and calculation.
Experimental methods concerning systems of large sized
debris should be modified and improved in order to fit these
systems. For example, the sample size of various experiments
in soil mechanics is too small, moreover N-values in penetration
tests and consistencies could not be determined. And so field
experiments using large size test pieces should be developed.
 MECHANICS OF UNCONSOLIDATED AND FRACTURED ROCKS Mechanics of W eathered Bedrock and Systems of Large Debr is 81
80
4.1.2. Some Examples of Field Measurements. The following
methods are used to estimate the mechanical properties of
partially weathered bedrock with many joints, and systems of
large debris:
a. The ratio of the length of the solid boring core ob-
tained, to the entire length of the borehole,
b. Measurements of elastic modulus, comparison of ve-
'I
locities of elastic waves in unweathered samples and
1l in bedrock with fractures or in weathered rock,
"'""~
if> c. Measurements of elastic modulus by the methods of
water chamber or jack method (or perhaps more pro-
..:.:
u per to say, measurement of deformation coefficient) ,
8
:;;
d. Shearing test by large size testing machine in field ,
.S e. Loading test,
.gf
0 f. Comparison of drilling velocities by rock drills,
<1)
.<:: g. Comparison of volume of explosives (converted to the
b explosion power of standard explosive) necessary for
vi
if> excavation of unit volume of rocks, etc.
"
Po< In this domain, new methods should be developed because
e the theoretical system has not been completely evolved.
"
.D<1)

:::i\" 4 . 1.3. Some Problems on Unconsolidated or Fractured Rock. The

.~
c
swelling of bedrock with many fractures or soft rocks such as
0
>-. mudstone and shale is a very interesting phenomenon from the
E point of view of construction engineering as well as geomorphol-
'-H
0 ogy and applied geology (Yatsu, 1964). Numerous papers have
:::: described the difficulties that occurred with rock swelling in the
:l
u:l course of construction projects ; for example, tunnel excavation
....
ci5 in mountains consisting of montmorillonitic shales, and con-
.-< struction work in the regions containing solfataric clay ( Onsen-
N
Yodo ) and serpentine. Bedrock of cataclasite or mylonite also
'2Jl
manifest swelling phenomena.
"" Mylonites which increase in clay content as the degree of
cataclastic action increase, present some of the most difficult
problems to resolve, and are especially formidable in dam sites
and tunnel projects. The writer's investigation of the notorious
Malpasset Dam failure in France showed that the collapsed
dam was constructed on a zone of mylonite. This mylonite
was derived from gneiss and still contains the original gneiss
in Augen. Besides quartz as the primary mineral, this mylonite
contains illite as a dominant component, chlorite, and mixed
 1
,

Mechanics of Weathered Bedrock and Systems of Large Debris 83

82 MECHANICS OF UNCONSOLIDATED AND FRACTURED ROCKS

6
Q'"
.; t)
;:; if>
if>

0. '"0-
::> -;
k
::;;;
.~ 4-<
.... 0
.:; ~
'"
E .,'"
..0

Q'" -5
~
., ~

if>
if> '"
~
'0-"
-; .0:
0
::;;; >.
'+<
0
E
.,~ .s
.,
> ]
.,c:
N ->:
N
.:d
b.O U3
~
c0
N

b.O
~
 (Xl

""
>-rj
r!'i' :;:
tv t'l
()

"" ~
:»
8:'9 ~
()
'"
... ::>
;:r'aq
Ul
o
'" '"'"0 ~
D
aq
>-\
~ .....,
:r:
~o :=- ~ 7.13A
"l

C
Z
::> :>< ()
'0
o ' o
...
>-\ '<
'"
>-\
zUl
o·
::> p..
_•
~
o
'" t-<
....
:::::
::> 8
>-\

3 ~
:»
o-l
'< 0 t'l
t:)
03
::>
~. '" ro -~
4.27 A :»
zt:)
'" >-\
'"
... ...
OJ >-rj
... 0
~
;:r'''' :»()
'"0":;;:'" o-l
''"" ...-. '" . c::
'" ;:r' '" ':l :1'::; 1\
~
tt:I
o <: t:)
.....,'"
:;: B' iO
o()
'-'"
'0 " " '"
'" ~
'" ... WO
Dc
Ul

'"'" '"'"
'" >-\ <D
D "q
D '"q
D
G)

;~ '"
~
q
o
;~i
o o
~ ~
'" ::> ~
~
=r =r
p "r; =r =r
~

= •.•• ~--.-~

Table 6. Clay minerals in mylonite at the base of Malpasset Dam. Changes of X-ray diffraction with various
treatments. Oriented specimens were used.
H 2O E.G. HCI ! NH4 N0 3 ! Dri:fr in /200 o C. 1 h !400°C. 1 h /500 0 C. 1 h /700°C. 1 h !900°C. 1 h ! Mineral (Index)
! !
d , (intensity) d, (intensity) d, (intensity) d, (intensity) d, (intensity)ld , ( intensity) d, (intensity) d, (intensity) ld , ( intensity) d, (intensity)
0 0
29.42A Regular mixed layer minerals
24. OOA( 5) of swelling Chlorite and Illite
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
14.24 14. 24A(15) 14. 24A( 3) 14. 24A(13) 14.47 (12) 14. 24A(I1) 14. 24A(I1) 14. 24A(1O) 13. 58A(13) X Chlorite (001)
1-. 11. 18 (11) 11. 18 (11) x AI-vermiculite
10.16 (38) 10.04 (13) 10.04 (29) 10.04 (28) 10.04 (24) 10.04 (28) 10.04 (25) 10.04 (16) 10.04 (20) Illite (002)
7.13 (56) 7. 13 (13) 7. 13 (59) 7. 13 (57) 7. 13 (51) 7.13 (52) 7. 13 (38) x Chlorite (002)
5.03 (20) 5.06 (8 ) 5.00 (21) 5.03 (19) 5.00 (21 ) 5.00 (19) 5. 03 (15) 5.06 (14) x Illite (004)
4.74 (26) 4. 72 (7 ) 4.72 (21) 4.74 (19) 4.72 (25) 4. 71 (19) 4. 74 (15) x Chlorite (003)
4.50 (11) 4.50 (15) 4.53 (18) 4.50 (20) Illite (020, 110)
4.27 (41) 4.27 (26) 4.27 (28) 4.27 (33) 4.27 (36) 4.27 (38) 4.27 (26) 4. 27 (32) 4.25 (33) Quartz (100)
3.78 (13) 3. 78 (33) 3. 78 (21) 3. 78 (17) 3. 78 (16) 3. 78 (16) 3.70 (22) Illite (023)
3.56 (40) 3. 54 (14) 3.53 (35) 3.56 (36) 3. 53 (41) 3.53 (37) 3.54 (26) x Chlorite (004)
3. 35 (100) 3. 35 (100) 3. 35 (100) 3. 35 (100) 3. 35 (100) 3. 35 (100) 3. 35 (100) 3. 35 (100) 3.34 (100) Quartz (101)
3.25 (30) 3.25 (16) 3.23 (34) 3.23 (27) 3.23 (25) 3.24 (23) 3. 23 (18) 3.23 (17) 3.23 (28) Feldspar (040)
3. 14 (35) 3.19 (27) 3. 19 (58) 3. 18 (37) 3.20 (37) 3.20 (31) 3.20 (32) 3.20 (32) 3. 20 (27) Illite (114)
86 MECHANICS OF UNCONSOLIDATED AND FRACTURED ROCKS Mechanics cf Weathered Bedrock and Systems of Large Debris 87
layer minerals of swelling chlorite and illite as a minor com-
ponent (Fig. 6, Table 5) . The French engineering geologist
Talobre (1964) misidentified the mylonite at the base of this
fatal dam. At first glance the mylonite looks very hard, but
it becomes flaky upon swelling. The origin of failure in this
dam should be attributed to the swelling of mixed layer miner-
als and adsorption of water on the surface of the clay minerals,
both of which decreased the strength of the bedrock. Swelling
of solfataric clays may cause problems in tunnel constructions
such as in the New Tanna Tunnel of the New Tokaido Line
(Takahashi et at., 1963) . This tunnel passes very close to
Hakone Volcano, which is frequently subject to landslips.
Our investigations showed that this tunnel clay consists of
montmorillonite, illite, metahalloysite, and mixed layer minerals
of montmorillonite and illite and is derived from the Yugashima
group by hydrothermal reactions; whereas in the landslip area,
the clay minerals are mostly montmorillonite, with halloysite
and alunite as minor components, and are derived from andesites
in the same way (Nakano et at., 1961) .
It is well known that shale and tuffaceous shale containing
montmorillonite adsorb water and expand, and that the swelling
of these strata give rise to landslips (2. 2. 2.) and many other
difficulties in tunnel excavation. At times, troubles due to
swelling chlorite have been reported, such as the Yui Tunnel
of the New Tokaido Line and the Yui Landslip in Japan. In
the western part of the United States, more and more attention
is being given to the unique foundation conditions associated
with the expansion and shrinkage of clays and clayey bedrock
materials (Holz, 1959).
Serpentines with abundant fractures will not cause as much
trouble for construction works if they do not contain weathered
clay minerals. Antigorite and chrysotile are not swelling clay
minerals. However, at times, in the clay minerals derived from
serpentine rock, montmorillonites or mixed layer minerals of
antigorite and montmorillonite which swell a great deal do
occur. The Kamogawa and Soro Landslips in Japan are related
to montmorillonite in serpentine clay minerals.
In some crystalline schist areas, swelling chlorites occur and
cause landslips. Swelling chlorites in crystalline schists were
first discovered in the Alps and the landslips near the upper
end of the Queyras River were caused by such minerals, as
88 MECHANICS OF UNCONSOLIDATED AND FRACTURED ROCKS Mechanics of Weathered Bedrock and Systems of Large Debris 89

3.0

(%)

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

o 5 10 50 100 500 1000 5000 10000

- - - - - T ime (min.)

Fig. 27. Free swelling, e-t curve (1).

3. Shale, Kodomari, 5 x 5 x 5cm'
3/1. Shale, Kodomari, 7 x 7 x 7cm'
4. Mylonite, Shinkoshirazu Tunnel, 5 x 5 x 5cm'
4'. Mylonite, Shinkoshirazu Tunnel, 7 x 7 x 7cm'
4/1. Mylonite, Shinkoshirazu Tunnel, 3 x 3 x 3cm'
6. Tuff, Kodomari, 5 x 5 x 5cm'
6'. Tuff, Kodomari, 3 x 3 x 3cm'
7'. Shale, Sankebetsu, 3 x 3 x 3cm'
8. Shale, Sengan Tunnel, 5 x 5 x 5cm'
8'. Shale, Sengan Tunnel, 3 x 3 x 3cm'
9. Weathered serpentine, Iwanebashi, 5 x 5 x 5cm'
9'. Weathered serpentine, Iwanebashi, 3 x 3 X 3cm'
10'. Mylonite, Sengan Tunnel, 3 x 3 x 3cm'
11. Mylonite, Maebara Pass, 5 x 5 x 5cm'
Fig. 26. Apparatus for measurement of swelling pressure. 11'. Mylonite, Maebara Pass, 3 x 3 x 3cm'
12'. Slate, Maebara Pass, 3 x 3 x 3cm'
15'. Slate, a little shattered, Sasago Tunnel, 3 x 3 x 3cm'
 Mechanics of Weathered Bedrock and Systems of Large Debris 91
90 MECHANICS OF UNCONSOLIDATED AND FRACTURED ROCKS

13.0 300

12.0

11.0 250
p
10.0 (g r/cm 2 )

·0
9.0 200
(%)

8.0

150
7.0

6.0

100
5.0

4.0

50
3.0

2.0

1.0 o 500 1000 5000 10000

-----;.- Time (m in. )
Fig. 29. Pressure increase by swelling with time under confined
0 50 500 1000 5000 10000 condition.
---~S_ Time (min.)
3. Shale, Kodomari
Fig. 28. Free swelling, e-t curve (2). 4. Mylonite, Shinkoshirazu Tunnel
3'. Shale, Kodomari, 3 x 3 x 3cm' 6. Tuff, Kodomari
5. Shale, Kamihaboro, 5 x 5 x 5cm' 7. Shale, Sengan Tunnel
8. Shale, Sengan Tunnel
5'. Shale, Kamihaboro, 3 x 3 x 3cm'
9. Weathered serpentine, Iwanebashi
7. Shale, Sankebetsu, 5 x 5 x 5cm'
10. Mylonite, Maebara Pass
11. Mylonite, Maebara Pass
 MECHANICS OF UNCONSOLIDATED AND FRACTURED ROCKS Mechanics of Fine Debris such as Soils 93
92

3.00

700

600 2.00

500 1 : Shale, Sankebetsu Tunnel

p Po= 250.0 gr Icm 2
1.00 k= 155 x 10- 4
(gr Icm 2 )
2 : Mylonite, Sengan Tunnel
Po- 42.6 gr Icm 2
k= 1.6 X 10- 3
400

500 1000 1500 2000

300 - Time(mi n. )

Fig. 31. Relation between swelling pressure and time.

were those in Shikoku Island, Japan. Swelling clay minerals

seem to be an inherent factor in landslips, from many obser-
200
vations in Japan, whereas shattered zone or bedrock without
any swelling clay minerals are more likely to undergo the mass
wasting characteristic of the slope rupture type.
An apparatus as shown in Fig. 26 is convenient to measure
100
swelling pressures. Some example of swelling-time curves are
shown in Fig. 27~31. Volume increase of free swelling and
swelling pressure in confined volume are functions of time.
They may be expressed by the equation of first-order reaction
o 5 10 50 velocity, in which P is swelling pressure, Po the limiting pres-
---~.- Time (min.) sure of swelling, thus
Pressure increase by swelling with time under confined condition. P=Po (1 -e- kt ) ,
Fig 30.
where t is time in minutes, and k is a coefficient. Po and k
5. Shale, Kamihahoro Tunnel
depend on the kind and contents of clays in the samples. In
general, rocks decrease in strength if they adsorb water to some
degree.
Now we will go into the reason for swelling pressure. The
adsorption of water by the surface of solids or powders of solids,
is called the phenomenon of wetting of boundary surfaces. This
 Mechanics of Fine Debris such as Soils 95
94 MECHANICS OF UNCONSOLIDATED AND FRACTURED ROCKS
ency in the properties of soils when water and soil particles
phenomenon is caused by a decrease in the surface energy of
are coexisting. Liquid limit, plastic limit, plasticity index, and
solids. The type of adsorption described above is immersional
shrinkage limits are determined by measuring the water con-
wetting, which occurs at the boundary surface of the powders
tents of soils under certain critical conditions. If soils contain
of solids, or in porous systems. A good illustration is the case
more water than their liquid limits, they may be considered
of wetting on the inner wall of a glass tube by water. The
as liquid, and as they lose their water content, they become
free energy decrease, Wi, in the case of immersional wetting of
plastic, solid bodies. When they attain the conditions of shrink-
solids in liquid is as follows:
age limit, they are considered to be in a perfect solid state.
Wi=aS-al
Solidification of soils by drying is attributed to the adhesive
where as is free energy on the boundary surface of air-solid,
force of very few molecule layers of water absorbed on the
and al is free energy on the boundary surface of solid-liquid.
surface of soil particles, as well as under the driest conditions
This value of Wi is the origin of swelling phenomenon. Such
to the cohesion of soil aggregates due to the crystallization of
values of energy as 50 to 100 ergs divided by the thickness of
ions formerly dissolved in the soil water, and to intermolecular
one molecule layer 2.5 x lO-scm, is necessary to remove the one
forces, mainly Van der Waal's force. As the water content
molecule layer x 1cm2 of water, from the surface up to the
increases, soil particles become dispersed in water and interpar-
distance of its thickness. This value reaches 4000kg/cm 2 • When
ticle cohesion is weakened. It is Atterberg's contention that
2 molecules are adsorbed at the wall, such energy decreases
the mechanical behavior of soils, such as elastic, plastic, and
remarkably. Swelling by adsorption of more than 4 molecules
liquid states should be attributed to the water content.
of water is caused by the repulsion of electric double layers.
Thus, the swelling of rock is due to the excess of adsorption
4.2.2. Mechanical Experiments on Soils. In measuring the
and repulsion forces compared with the cohesion of rocks.
n:echanical properties of soils, various methods such as compres-
Montmorillonites undergo interlayer adsorption and so they
SlOn tests and shearing tests are applied. The results of
have a tremendously large surface of adsorption. This is the
experiments on the same soil differ from each other depending
reason why rocks containing montmorillonites are likely to flake
upon the methods of testing, static or dynamic loading, and the
down in water.
soil specimen, moulded or undisturbed. The undisturbed soil
specimen has the original structure of natural soil, while the
4.2. Mechanics of Fine Debris such as Soils moulded one has lost it. Dynamic loading tests accompanied
by vibration furnish results that are not predicted by static
4.2.1. Physical Properties of Soils. The methods of soil mechan-
loading tests.
ics are available and are very useful for geomorphologists
The tremendous boiling condition of the sandy soils which
investigating related problems. Yatsu (1957) attempted to clarify
was caused by the Niigata Earthquake in 1964 severely dam-
the causes of the unvegetated waste regions in Japan by apply-
aged structures built . on the silty alluvial lowland in Niigata.
ing the methods of soil mechanics to his research. His results
This was due to a great mistake on the part of construction
do not seem to have been fully successful. However, this does
engineers who in designing earthquake-proof buildings did not
not imply that such methods are not appropriate for geomor-
adequately consider the foundation on which the building rested.
phological studies. For instance, Chorley (1959))nvestigated the
Though they might have studied the foundation material by
physical properties of Oxford soils and estimated the relative
experiments of static loading and accounted for the bearing
resistance of each soil type.
capacity of foundations, they dismissed the acceleration of
Physical properties of soils, such as soil density, moisture
earthquakes, which destroyed the structure of bearing strata.
content, permeability, soil consistency and so forth can be meas-
ured experimentally. Especially important among them are
permeability, which is associated with soil erosion, and consist-
96 MECHANICS OF UNCONSOLIDATED AND FRACTURED ROCKS Mechanics of Fine Debris such as Soils 97
% 11
100
90
.-1-
10
.80
V
70 9
,/
60 ! o e~ 1.132
, II
50 I / 8 o Yd ~ 1.099g/cm 3
o
I / o
40 7
30
I V 0 o
Eu
...
-
6 o
20 I 6

••-...............e.
........
10 J:f 5
o ., o 5 •
- --
lJ1W"O'JOl O o
~

8
N
'" LOlD"COO'lrl
o N l"1.q-lCli,O"a)O'l ......
d
N (I') ¢ 0 00
o I
d

Fig. 32.
d
Particle size in mm
Grain size distribution of shirasu (after Matsuo et ai, 1953).
I
",-
4

--
oo _ -
4 --;;,
'"
........

0.--
3 3~
The
4.2.3. Properties of Some Erosible Sandy Soil I, Shirasu. 2 _
2
word Shirasu means volcanic sandy soils which cover very 0-
,,.p.
6
1-
broadly the southern part of Kyushu, Japan. Their mechanical • 12 '"'" 5
Ol~~~~~~~~~~~~~
<l
properties are so extremely unfavorable that this region is X
4 8 10 '"
0
subject every year to serious damage from rupture of slopes, ~
6
'1 (%)
"' . 14 16
'"
4 S
X
gully erosion, and so on. 8 3 t:. '" 3
6 ~
This soil is very sandy and about 90% of it belongs to the X 6

~t~
2 I
range of sand grain size as shown in Fig. 32. Matsuo et at. ",« '"
xX x"
(1953) studied this soil and summarized the results of physical )<

experiments on shirasu at Yunomata in Kagoshima Prefecture. ~

10 12 14 16
0
Table 7. Results of physical experiments on shirasu (after (%)
Matsuo et ai, 1953).

Specific gravity 2.38 6.0

Liquid limit 44
5.0
Plasticity index o
Dispersion ratio 62% Nri 4.0
........
Natural angle of repose 32°46' !! 3.0
... 2.0
Some remarkable characteristics are the high value of the
dispersion ratio and the extremely low value of the plasticity
index which indicate high susceptibility to erosion by rain
wash and running waters. However, in the shirasu region,
almost vertical cliffs several tens of meters in height exist
very commonly. Fujimoto (1965) carried out triaxial tests Fig. 33. Triaxial tests on shirasu (after Fujimoto, 1965).
and concluded that the apparent cohesion Cu is caused by the a. Difference of normal stresses (dl-da), ratio of normal stre.
interlocking of volcanic sand and ashes, and by the dilatancy sses ((d l/d3) - 1), volume change (t:.v/vo) and difference
of void ratio (e-em).
during shear tests. This special interlocking in shirasu seems
b. Mohr stress circle at failure conditions of shirasu, undrained
to be the factor that plays an important role in slope stability. t est.
98 MECHANICS OF UNCONSOLIDATED AND FRACTURED ROCKS
Mechanics of Fine Debris such as Soils 99
Sand or
4.2.4. Properties of Some Erosible Sandy Soil II, Masa. 1.5,----r--------,----------,--------,
sandy soils of decomposed granitic rocks are designated Masa 1 10.28
in Japanese. They have an apparent texture just like granite, ]f
even though biotites are decomposed and altered into chloritic ~

0;,
clay minerals, and feldspars into kaolinite. The shirasu above- ~ 1.0r------r-------------+---------7~~~~~------~
mentioned is restricted to volcanic regions of acidic rocks where
broad areas are covered by acidic siliceous volcanic ashes, while
masa seems to be very common in the world. This simple
word masa will be used from now on for decomposed granitic
sandy soils in order to save space and time. In Japan, masa
has a deep profile of twenty or thirty meters in some places.
It has not been decided whether masa is formed under present
climatic conditions or a dissimilar one during some stage of 0~-_7ry_----_7~----~~----~
1.7 1.8 1.9 20
the Pleistocene. SOme masa are observed to be covered by ~ 1J Dry density (g/cm 3 )
Pleistocene deposits.
If the vegetation cover is lost, deep profiles of masa will
y Dry density - unconfined compression strength curves (3-1ayer)

completely undergo devastation by erosion, and a scenery of

badlands and bare mountains like that of a granite dome will 2 . 0,--------~~~-~----_,----__,
be observed.
From the point of view of soil conservation and geomor-
phology, adequate measurement of properties of masa and good
judgment in the interpretation are prime requisites that deserve ~E
u
1.9
much more consideration than is often given to them. Yatsu 'Ol)
-
(1957) studied the masa region in Setouchi and inferred that to
>,
the extremely low value of the plastic index (almost always
<f)

0) more than to any other cause, must be attributed the high C

Q)
1.8
erosibility of masa. Tanaka (1957) carried on the geomorpho- 1\ "U
>,

logical investigations and measurements on the mechanical prop- 0

erties of masa. In these studies, carried out at the same time

and in about the same area, it was clearly realized that masa
1.7
shows a higher internal friction angle and a lower cohesion
value than soils derived from Palaeozoic sedimentary rocks. The
low value of the internal friction angle of sandy soil derived 6
from quartz porphyry seems to the writer to be caused by the lP Water content (%)
existence of clay minerals, into which quartz porphyry is more
easily decomposed than granitic rocks. Tanaka concluded that
S;) Compaction curves (3-1ayer)

the infiltration capacity of soil derived from Palaeozoic rocks Fig. 34-a. Compaction tests on masa (3-1ayer compaction, after Tanimoto
and Nishi, 1963).
is in general higher than that of granitic soils (masa), but
this conclusion must be erroneous. Very reasonably, Shibuya
(1960) recommended the measurement of porosity to determine
the degree of weathering of granite. Shima (1961) carried on

--- ----- ---------------------------------------------------------~-----------------------------------------------------------

 100 MECHANICS OF UNCONSOLIDATED AND FRACTURED ROCKS Mechanics of Fine Debris such as Soils 101

3.0,-----------,---------,,---------, 80

~ 60
V,X
'A-Line
o xl--/
;;;:
2.5r--;::=====::;---t----I--~51I ~,
>- 10.(-
(a) 6 40 "/ x . VvA~A~_
i=
E (j')
<C xV' ~....... V- v';
~ 2 0 f - - -- - - f - - - - - - f - --+-----,1--T 0: 20
.. Z::
~
~/ ,/ v'

o i/: ~~ xxV"'"
20 40 60 80 100
LIQUID LIMIT 1-
80

.
, ,
~ 60
V
o x/
z
>- /x Kaolin (SKEMPTON)
(b) 640 ...-
i= ,/
x
...-
(j') I
<C
0: 20 / " j..- "
j..-"
/ ...- i
V
o~ 40 60 80 100
O~--------~--------~~------~~ 20
1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 CLAY CONTENT ::!,
Dry density (g/cm 3 ) (a) Plasticity index versus liquid limit; (b) Plasticity index versus clay content
Dry density - unconfined compression strength curves (5-layer)
Fig. 35. Plasticity index of fine fractions of decomposed granitic soil,
Hong Kong (after Lumb, 1962).

2.0 seismic prospecting at many places in granitic regions and con-

cluded that the velocity of longitudinal waves in masa is
80
0.5 to 1. 0 km/sec, while those of fresh granites fall in the
~
~ 1.9
range of 4.0 to 5.4 km/sec. Many tests on the mechanical
properties of masa were done by Tanimoto and Nishi (1963)
~
25 from the standpoint of enlarging utilization of this soil for
.~

'" large-scale construction works. According to them, a specimen

:. 1.8
c5 compacted to the highest dry density does not have the highest
strength, and in order to give masa the highest strength com-
paction process is most effective at water contents slightly lower
1.7L.-------~=~===~:--~--,i
6 than the optimum water content for the highest dry density. In
Water content (%) addition, they acknowledged that the angle of internal friction
Compaction curves (5-layer) of the loosest sample is almost equal to the angle of repose;
Fig. 34-b. Compaction tests on masa (5-layer compaction, after Tanimoto
however, more elaborate investigation is greatly needed in this
and Nishi, 1963). connection.
102 MECHANICS OF UNCONSOLIDATED AND FRACTURED ROCKS Mechanics of Fine Debris such as Soils 103

Decomposed granitic soil in Hong Kong was studied by Lumb occur at a slope more gentle than that of slope rupture which
(1962) . Plasticity indices of the fine fractions are shown in does not need the existence of clay minerals for its occurrence.
Fig. 35. The results lie on or above the A-line and noticeably It is fundamentally a problem of rock control that landslips can
above the values quoted by Vargas (1953) for decomposed gran- occur on a gentle slope where rupture of slope cannot.
ite in Brazil. The average activity is 0.93 which would put Table 8. Classification of mass wasting.
the soil into the normal activity group, and except in two Soil fall , rock
samples, plasticity indices are higher than that of kaolinite, 1. Fall Mass travels through the air. fall , needle ice
eroSIon
presumably because of the appreciable content of mica in these
.fractions. However, this soil behaves essentially as a coarse Plastic deformation without
2. Creep clear shear plane. Soil creep
grained soil.
3. Rupture Abrupt brittle fail ure of Rock slide,
(YAMA-KUZURE) slope with clear shear plane. slump, g lide
4.2.5. Stability of Slope.
This item forms one chapter in every
text book of soil mechanics. The control of stability of slopes, 4. Slip Slow plastic flow with clear Landslip
natural or excavated, is an important aspect of civil engineering. ( JISUBERI) shear plane. ( Earth flow)
For geomorphologists, slope problems are the focus of interest Liquid flow, high content of Mud flow
5. Flow Flowslide in
because any topographic feature is composed merely of two water more than liquid limit
quick clay
elements, slope and altitude. (Consider slope S, altitude A and
Complex type, transitional
position P, then, topography = f (S, A) , where A = f (P) , S = 6. Others type or other Solifluction
dA/ dP. This is a fundamenal geomorphological concept) . Thus
mass wasting on slopes should have been a matter of primary When civil engineers calculate the stability of slope, they
concern for geomorphologists. However, they have indulged in usually assume the slip surface to be circular. However, shear
their fantastic imagination about slopes, saying convex, concave, surfaces do not seem to be as simple in nature. Nevertheless,
aufsteigende Entwicklung, absteigende Entwicklung, retreat of shearing stress , is expressed by angle of internal friction ifJ
slopes, and so on. This approach has had its time. Geomor- and cohesion C, as follows:
phologists have at long last had to come, hat in hand, before , = u tanifJ + C
the civil engineers to beg instruction in the matter of slope where u is normal stress.
stability, a matter long understood by the engineers. However, Sandy soil without cohesion lacks C, whereas in clay ifJ becomes
don't take this too sorely to heart. With little effort we can O. Geomorphologists must perform experiments on shearing,
not only catch up but also surpass them. Soil mechanics has and take up the problems of what type of rocks make a parti-
come to a standstill in a certain sense. cular kind of soil from the point of view of soil mechanics.
Among the problems of slope stability, some opinions about In regions that are subject to earthquakes, their effects
mass wasting will be presented. The well-known classification should be accounted for in the stability of slopes. If the accel-
of mass wasting by Sharpe is very systematic but very puzzling eration of earthquakes attains several hundred gals, slope rupture
because it lacks explanation of mechanisms from a mechanical occurs everywhere and mountain slopes lose their debris. The
point of view. Recently a new classification of landslides have effects of earthquakes are caused not only by their acceleration
been presented by a civil engineer (Varnes, 1958) , and it seems but also by changes in the fundamental physical properties of
to be much better. The writer wishes to propose a tentative soils and conditions of pore pressure. In soil that has an angle
classification of mass wasting which emphasizes the mechanisms of internal friction <jJ, this value decreases with the degree of
of such phenomena and ignores their shapes and so forth vibration as follows:
(Table 8) .
Landslips have a relationship to swelling clay minerals and
ifJ k= ifJ - tan-! v\

104 MECHANICS OF UNCONSOLIDATED AND FRACTURED ROCKS
where cP k is cp in the time duration of earthquakes and k is
'II
the magnitude of the earthquake.
4.3. Mechanics of Micronized Debris such as Clays
4.3.1. Clayey Soils. In general, soils which have 20~30% clay
components are called sandy clay loam, clay loam, or silty clay
loam, and when the clay content surpasses 30%, these soils are
called clays. However, soils are thought recently to behave as
clayey soils, if 10% of their components are clays. The Nor-
wegian applied geologist Rosenqvist (1958) said, as the general
reporter, that the physical, .chemical, and mineralogical properties
of the materials dealt with in soil mechanics are of extreme
importance for the fundamental understanding of the subjects
we are dealing with in the scientific and in the engineering
approach.
Concerning the important roles of clay minerals in soil me-
chanics, Grim (1962) has summarized in his book much data
that seems to be useful for geomorphologists.
4.3.2. Mechanics of Clay. The ratio of clay to water, namely
water content ratio, the type of clay minerals, and absorbed
cations on the surface of caly minerals, are reflected in the
mechanical properties of clays or clayey soils. We will discuss
some important aspects.
Plastic limits differ in different kinds of clay minerals and
even in the same species, and they depend on the differences
in crystal structure, lattice defects, and absorbed ions. In
general. plastic limits decrease in the order of attapulgite.
montmorillonite, halloysite 4H 20 , illite, halloysite, and kaolinite.
Allophanes in natural condition have a high value of plastic
limit which they lose when dried up. Plasticity indices, namely
the differences of liquid and plastic limits, decrease in the order
of montmorillonite, attapulgite, illite, halloysite, and kaolinite.
Grain sizes naturally influence Atterberg's limits because the
finer the grain, the larger the total surface of clays per unit
weight.
Atterberg's limits usually decrease markedly when clayey
soils dry up. It is extremely remarkable in the lateritic
soils containing ferric hydroxide and aluminum hydroxide. If
the organic materials and content of R 20 a undergo dehydration,
Mechanics of Micronized Debris such as Clays 105
they combine very firmly to prevent the intrusion of water,
namely to resist hydration. The changes of relations in the
clay-water system should be considered as being irreversible.
The repeating of moderate wetting and drying makes some clay
minerals, such as illite, chlorite, and kaolinite, in contrast to
their normal decrease, increase their plastic properties. It is
likely to be considered that such a reciprocation causes the pul-
verization of particles and changes of exchangeable cations and
soluble salts.
Skempton (1953) defined "activity" as the ratio of the plastic
index to the volume of components of grain size less than 2/1,
i. e. the volume of clays, and classified as follows:
Group 1. Inactive with activity less than 0. 5
Group 2. Inactive with activity 0. 5 to 0.75
Group 3. Normal with activity 0. 75 to 1. 25
Group 4. Active with activity 1. 25 to 2
Group 5. Active with activity greater than 2
Various kinds of clays have their activity as follows:
Montmorillonite . 0. 5-7
Attapulgite 0.5-1. 3
Illite 0.2-0. 6
Kaolinite 0.1-0.4
Halloysite O. 1-0. 2
Allophane in Japan 2
Allophane in New Zealand - 3
The activity of chlorite is considered to be the same as kaolinite
or illite.
Uniaxial compression strength d~ pends upon the components
of clay minerals. volume of non-clay materials, distribution of
grain size, shape of particles, structure of aggregation, hysteresis
effects on compression. exchangeable cations. water content. and
so on. The addition of clay minerals to some degree makes silt
and soil increase their compressi(;m strength. and montmorillo-
nites have the most eminent effects of this kind.
Montmorillonite is hardly subject to consolidation. and the
clays with Na-adsorbed ions undergo the effect of consolidation
with greater difficulty than the same clay minerals with Al and
Ca ions.
The same factors as described in the case of uniaxial com-
pression are important in considering shearing strength. In the
ranges of small water content, this strength is mainly influenced
106 MECHANICS OF UNCONSOLlDA TED AND FRACTURED ROCKS
by water content, while with relatively larger water content,
the kind of clay minerals and exchangeable ions play an im-
portant role in this property. Attention must be paid to the time
effect which is reflected greatly in the strength of shear.
Terzaghi (1944) defined the concept of sensitivity as the
ratio of the strength of soil in an undisturbed condition to the
remolded material at the same water content. Skempton et at.
(1952) classified the sensitivity of clays as follows:
[Group] [Sensitivity]
Insensitive clays <1
Low sensitive clays 1-2
Medium sensitive clays 2-4
Sensitive clays 4-8
Extra sensitive clays 8-16
Quick clays > 16
A soil composed of allophane has been described (Grad well and
Birrell, 1954) as having a sensitivity of 7. The sensitivity of
allophane is due to the substantial differences in textural char-
acteristcs and accordingly in strength between the soil test
pieces in their natural state and those in a remolded state, as
shown by Yatsu (1964 b) . In general, the more irreversible
the hydration and dehydration of clay minerals, the greater
their sensitivity. The work of remolding destroys the structure
of aggregation and changes the state of hydration that is hardly
ever regained. If the strength is recovered after a remolding
of test pieces for some duration, such a property is named
thixotropy.
4.3.3. Thixotropy and Mudflows. The term "thixotropy" OrIgI-
nally was given to the property of certain suspensions that
causes them to become fluid on agitation but set to gel when
undisturbed. A characteristic behavior of thixotropic materials
manifests itself in a hysteresis loop when they are tested in a
rotational viscometer (rheometer) under varying rates of shear.
At increasing rates of shear, the structure is continuously bro-
ken down and the up-curve is shifted toward larger stresses,
indicating a decrease in flow resistance, whereas the down-curve
determined at decreasing rate of shear is shifted toward smaller
stresses. Thixotropy, like other non-Newtonian types of flow,
results from the change of structures when materials are sub-
jected to shear stress, but it differs from the non-Newtonian
Mechanics of Micronized Debris such as Clays 107
flows in that the orientation of particles is not instantaneous
under shearing stress and needs a definite time lag for structural
recovery. These time lags depend upon the concentration of
the suspension, namely, the higher the concentration, the lesser
the time lag because the average intergranular distance is less,
with consequent greatness of intergranular attractive force.
Thus structural recovery soon occurs.
Bentonite, chiefly composed of montmorillonite and some
glacial till clay called quick clay, has striking characteristics of
thixotropy. The amount of thixotropic regain of strength in
remolded test pieces of soils is greatest in clayey materials with
high activity, namely in clays containing chiefly momtmorillonite.
It results from the extremely small particle size of montmorillo-
nite and its high water· adsorbing capacity which favors the
development of oriented water on clay minerals. The regain in
strength is considerable for montmorillonite, moderate to small
for illite and practically nil for kaolinite.
Grim (1962) opined that quick clays do not show any appre·
ciable regain in strength on standing after remolding and con·
sequently thixotropic hardening does not provide an explana-
tion for their sensitivity, and Kerr (1963) supported this opinion.
A great number of landslides (Mudflow in Table 8) in Scandi-
navia result from the properties of quick clays that were inten·
sively studied by Bjerrum (1961), Kjellman (1954) and others.
The landslides at Anchorage caused by the Alaskan Earthquake
(1964) and the one at Maseguchi (1947) belonged to the cate-
gory of mudflows. Quick clays lose their strength by shocks
and vibrations, assume a liquid state, and begin to flow. Many
mudflows in volcanic regions seem to have the same origin,
because of the occurrence of a great deal of montmorillonite
clay from hydrothermal reactions.
4.3.4. Properties of Some Cloy,ey . Soil I, Konto Loom. The so-
called Kanto Loam is not a" real loam in the soil classification,
but is the traditionaL common name which was given to the
altered volcanic ashes, covering the Diluvial terraces and hilly
lands in the Kanto Basin, Japan. Soils of a similar type cover
broad areas in Central and North-east Honshu Island. Several
hundred works have been contributed to clarify its origin and
nature from various points of view, geological, pedological,
agricultural, technical and so forth. However, some problems
108 MECHANICS OF UNCONSOLIDATED AND FRACTURED ROCKS Mechanics of Micronized Debris such as Clays 109

still remain obscure.

From the geomorphological point of view, Kanto Loam is
2.o1----i\\\---+--+---l--+-- +---J-..------j---1----l----l--....j
very interesting, in that it makes steep, in many cases almost
vertical cliffs, and undergoes so little rain wash erosion that in
some place, geomorphological inversion seems to be observed.
1.9 - - - I--'I.\S-l---l---+-- +--+--+-
:
o
~~~d )
Clay
.
AllUVium
~E 1.81--+-~~::--+--+--+--+--+-
Some part of the hilly land of Tertiary sandy shale, e. g., near "'- • Peat
Tsurukawa, probably was covered by Kanto Loam just as was I- 1.71--+---+' • Kanto Loam
:r:
the Sagami Diluvial Terrace, but Kanto Loam on this hill was <.9
W 1.61--+--+-~~
easily eroded because of its locality of deposition and the bed 3:
rock thereafter has been exposed to erosion due to its lower ~ 1.51-- +---1----+
:::J
value of permeability than that of Kanto Loam. It is a matter 1.41--+---+-------.:+--~~'1i::
for deep regret that most geomorphologists in this country do
not accord special attention to problems of land forms in which l.311-11-----j-f~~~~~f~~;Jg~j
the nature of Kanto Loam plays an important part.
1.2 1----t---t--t------t---t---r---;-F~~ci-'=~~~ti
Kanto Loam consist of small particle of crystals, clay miner-
als and amorphous allophane. The original materials of this 3 ----.L--4L----1--=~5=~---.::......J
1.10L - - L - . - L - . - L - - . L2----L----.L
soil are andesitic volcanic ashes of silica, feldspar, hornblende, VOID RATIO
hypersthene, augite, volcanic glass and so on (Kato, 1965). Fig. 36-a. Unit weight of soil-void ratio relationship of Kanto Loam
Clay minerals and allophane in Kanto Loam will be discussed and Alluvial soils in Tokyo and its vicinity (after Soc.
later. Grain size analysis of this soil is very difficult, because Arch. and Soc. S.M.F .E .• 1959) .
the results depend extremely on the dispersion methods. A low
percentage of clay content, sometimes less than 30%, has been 120r--~----~----~----~----~----~----~--~----_,
reported but this seems to result from an imperfect dispersion.
A combined treatment by adequate deflocculating agents and • Kanlo Loam
ultrasonic wave dispersion method, is recommended to determine 100
x Sill} Alluvium
the grain size distribution.
The Kanto Loam Study Group (1964) summarized the en-
o Clay
80 1---+--~--+---~--+-~4-~~~~~~~~
..
x
gineering properties at the end part of its bulky volume, most w
o
of which is devoted to the origin and correlation of four layers: z
r60 1-----I-----+----_+---,-+--~~~~P+~~~~-+_--~
Tachikawa Loam, Musashino Loam, Shimosueyoshi Loam and ]-
<:5
Tama Loam, in sequence from upper to lower. Many researches ~ o. :.
have been done on the engineering properties of Tachikawa 540 1---~------+~--_+~ ,~~~~~~~o~
. --
. ~---_+-~
D...
Loam and Musashino Loam, however very few on Shimosueyo-
shi Loam and Tama Loam because of their restricted distribu-
201------4---
tion. Here will be mentioned some properties of the upper two
Loams.
Kanto Loam has high void ratio and they are about 3 to 5. 0L---~~--~----~----~80~--~1~00~--7.12~O--~1~4~O--~lW~--~180
remarkably higher than those of Alluvial soils and almost equal LIQUID LIMIT %
to the void ratio of humus-rich clayey soils. Other remarkable
Fig. 36-b. Plasticity chart of Kanto Loam and Alluvial soils in Tokyo
properties are the high value of water content, almost always
and its vicinity (after Soc. Arc. and Soc. S.M.F.E ., 1959).
100 to 180%, and the very high content of non-free water in

-
110 MECHANICS OF UNCONSOLIDATED AND FRACTURED ROCKS

1.100
l Mechanics of Micronized Debris such as Clays

controlling the water content of the specimens strongly affects

111

\
the optimum water content on the compaction test. Fig. 37
1.000 -"~ shows this phenomenon (Kuno, 1962).

® )\ Many reports concern clay minerals in Kanto Loam. In this

field, Sudo (1956) and his followers studied intensively the

rf p
1~ alteration of volcanic glass fragments. Through the efforts of
0.900

~
mineralogists and pedologists, the components are clarified as
',,- follows:
'?-o.-
0
~ ®
;\~~.<&
Tachikawa Loam dominant in allophane, auxiliary

J ,
hydrated halloysite.
0. 700
Cf
:Y
@n Musashino Loam allophane and hydrated halloysite .
Shimosueyoshi Loam hydrated halloysite and halloysite.
Tama Loam halloysite.
0.600 u

~cr Yoshinaga and Aomine (1962) observed a fibrous clay min-

0. 50 0
20 40 60 80 100 120
~
140
w:%
Fig. 37. Effect of in it ial water content on the opt imum water
content of compac t ion test, Kanto Loam ( smaller than
0.85mm in diameter). P. 1 to P. 5 are in sequence
from dry to wet initial condition. P . 1: sample dried
in an oven, P . 2-5 : samples dried in air ( after Kuno,
1962).
the range of PF, more than 4. 2. The consistency of Kanto
Loam, determined by the ordinary method using the air-dried
sample, is very similar to those of Alluvial soils as illustrated
in Fig. 36-b. However, these results give an utterly false image
for the consistency of this soil. The drying treatment once
done, this soil does not recover its original properties, even if
water be added, i. e., the drying and wetting processes are
irreversible. Kanto Loam decreases its plastic and liquid limits
with the decrease of water content by drying in the air. This
phenomenon presumably is caused by the existence of allophane.
The shearing test shows that the value of cohesion is about
0.3 to 0. 5kg/cm2, almost equal to that of Alluvial clays, but its
angle of internal friction is 25° to 30°. The bearing capacity
estimated by the penetration test is 3 to 8 t / m2, however, when
calculated by load-settlement relation attains to 10 to 15 t / m2.
This discrepancy should originate from the special structure of
this soil.
It must deserve special consideration that the method of
60 .
eral in Kyushu named "Imogolite", which seems to be a type
transitional between amorphous allophane and crystalline clay
minerals. Imogolite is observed in Kanto Loam. Yatsu dis-
covered filmy allophane in Tachikawa Loam at the Kasugacho
Campus of Chuo University. This filmy allophane is very
unstable and he ('onverted it to crystalline halloysite by
collision with carbon vapor in high vacuum (Yatsu, 1964) .
New Zealand has a temperate humid climate, as does Japan.
The physical and soil engineering properties of volcanic clayey
soils there are very similar to those in Japan. Gradwell and
Birrell (1954) and Fieldes et at. (1955a, 1955b, 1956, 1957) have
contributed to the research on this type of soil.
4.3.5. Properties of some clayey soil II, post-glacial marine soils.
During post-glacial transgressions, very broad areas were sub-
merged by marine water under which a huge volume of sedi-
ments were deposited. In many regions, these marine deposits
subsequently have been covered by fluvial sediments and form
the substrata of fluvial plains and deltas.
In regions, depressed under the ice load in the period of
glaciation, the post-glacial transgression was followed by the
uplift of lands which raised the post-glacial marine soils to their
present elevation above sea level. In eastern Canada, most flow
slides have occurred in the valleys of the Ottawa and the St.
Lawrence Rivers where clays (called Leda clay) and silts have
been deposited in the Champlain Sea and now raised generally
up to 300 feet above sea level. In Norway, fjord lowlands near
 ......
......
tv

~
to
()
:I:
>
Z
oen
o
"l

~
()
o
Z
en
o
r
6
>
>-l
to
'='
>
Z
'='
"rj
~
>
()
>-l
c::
~
to
'='
;;0
o()
~
en

Fig, 38-a, Allophane (round) and imogolite (fibrous) in Tachikawa Loam at the Kasugacho
Campus, Chuo University,

...

~
~
::r-
'"" '
ri
'"
o
.....
~
ri'
a
"~.
0..
tJ
r1>
:r
en'
'"c(')
::r-

'"'"
o
Ii)
'<
'"

Fig, 38-b, Allophane (filmy), at the Kasugacho Campus, ChuD University, ......
......
w
 .....
.....
",.

... 2:::
t<l
()

"
:I:
:>
Z
0
Ul
0
."

c::
Z
()
0
Z
Ul
0
r
(3
:>
>-l
t<l
0
:>
z
0
,.."
~
:>
()
>-l
c::
~
t<l
• 0

• ~
0

•
• /',1),
()
:>1
Ul

I •
Fig. 38-c. Allophane (filmy ), at the IKasugac ho Camr;us, Chuo University.

2:::
~
::r-
oo
::l
ri'
if>

8.,
2:::
q.
o
::l
N'
(1)
0-
t;I
(1)

g"
w·
if>
c:
"
::r-
e;
o
'<
'"
if>

Fig. 38-d. Halloysite converted from filmy allophanes shown in Fig. 38-c by collision .....
,....
(Jl
cf carbon vapor in high vac uum.
116 MECHANICS OF UNCONSOLIDATED AND FRACTURED ROCKS
~ ~ ~ ~
Soil ' Elev. Water Content. Undrained Shear Strength and
Description ft % Preconsolidation Pressure, tift 2
20 40 60 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
{ Surface <7
lOH==l=+==+~=+=+=+=+=+=!==l==l==l==l
y Fill I"'--
Ot-+--+~--+--P~--~~-+--t-+--+~--+-~
>-FH--<'P't---+---+1'~
G -1Ot-+-= : B° vP~econlsolid~tion pre~sure ~\
>-~ ; c9<Y'
-~t-~=T~+--r~!\:,-\-+-01~~0~-+~r-1--+~+--r-1
LL
,:t--- ~ Jf ective overburden ttl
1" Clay I' ' ° 01
["Yf'" pressure \'
F -30 I \

~~ \ n~r'\.
-~r-~~~~+'-r~-r~~I-4 ,ro~~~~~
~ "-
E - 50 I--+.I__-j-:-,1-+---11-+ 1
\-+ __1-+-+ __ '\~.--t--+--+--I
°+---,
jl-' ,\ a'"",,
~ Foraminifera -60 ,
.......!..,'
"-
o
° on'
°"
il/
zones - . : 'I-Shear strength from
N
::':9':-:W:-J +--+--1-\1-\--t--+140 Ivan, tes
D - 70f---c;W,fj' "Cw

Fig. 39. Soil profile and geotechnical test results, Skabo, Oslo LO
00
LO
CD
(after Kenny, 1964) .
,..., L'l ,..., LO
Oslo and Trondheim were covered by marine clay deposits
which have been lifted up to about 600 feet. Similarly in Swe- I 1+
00 I 1+ 1+
den, the valleys of Stockholm and Goteborg undergo numerous NLO
,...,
LOO
NO
L'l LO
N
00
NO
LOO LOO
LO
LO
""'0 ""'0
flow slides. Meyerhof (1957) summarized the common charac- LO LO

teristics of these marine clays. According to him, the sites on

which flow slides occurred were mainly underlain by extra-
sensitive quick clays (4.3.3.). They have a relatively low plas-
ticity and are characterized by a liquid limit of about 25~60,
plastic limit of 15~25 and a plasticity index of about 1O~35. ,....; ,....;
Canadian and Swedish deposits are frequently less sensitive and
the corresponding Atterberg's limits are somewhat higher than
Norwegian ones. Clays and silty clays below a stiff crust have ,....;
undisturbed shear strength from about O. 1~o. 4 ton/W, and the 00 00 00
NS Nt'- C\)O
,...,
00
No>
00
C0 CD
ratio of shear strength to effective overburden pressure varies
from O. 1 ~O. 5 which correspond to an angle of shearing resist-
o
ance of about 50 to 20 0. After a period of rest the remoulded C0
C0

material recovers its strength by thixotropic hardening but

generally never regains its original strength.
Recently, Leda Clay has been intensively investigated by the
group of Soil Mechanics Section, Division of Building Research,
National Research Council of Canada. Table 9 summarizes the
characteristics of this clay. Crawford and Eden (1965) are
inclined to doubt that Leda Clay was deposited under marine
u
 I

118 MECHANICS OF UNCONSOLIDATED AND FRACTURED ROCKS Mechanics of Micronized Debris such as Clays 119
0 0 0 0 0 0

.Low surface
0
en
~

:2_.....J
0J
'" "'" LD <.0

900 \ '1:> g:E".....J

~
/ \
\ h ,/
,i
:..::::i..:::i / \

/',
I \
0, I 'j "-
800 0 I '. "
c:
2c:
0
~
r "~'i--'/ f/<) ,... i~- /\ \ Ii
700
0
0
'-'
,~,C:/\ Iii
~~3: 1;\\
.--. 2
0
en ,' ,
U)
600 ;,:'" I::::"" ~lr ~ ~
I/r-..- ~
\ .

t::;; ~
Low • surface
~

>- ~!~
~

:~
500 f------9
~

'(/j ~ ~ ;;t;
c
(])
400 V> 0?- 0' --' 0
(j)
~ '" § m :g ~
300 >'"
;;; "" '"
cD <D
'" OD
--' ::;;; ::;;; :;; ::;;;
200 :." Q.

• «'"
> --'
--' § "" ill §
100 ~ ~ Sj iil @

14
, Electrokinetic potential
Fig, 40, E lectro-kinetic potential of undisturbed Leda Clay as a function
of sensitivity (after Penner, 1964).

conditions. They acknowledge some differences in the geotech-

nical properties of this clay from . those of Scandinavian quick
clays. Leda Clay is more highly plastic (lp=30~40) , and has '- ~
8 ~-+--_t~-----~~ ~--+-~-----H4r-f==EO~N~--~
lower pore water salt concentration than Scandinavian clays. ~ (Y) (Y)~

This Canadian geotechnics school seems to question the existing S "<::t,

\
8 H_t---++----n 1---+-~-----++4r-t--+7 ""-
theory for sensitivity based on the salt-leaching. 0-
V>
'-
;:::

§ \
IU 1(,)
.
Penner (1964) measured the electro-kinetic potential in un- ""
disturbed samples of Leda Clay. Of particular interest is the :5
OD 8
co
fact that the potential increases directly with increasing sensi- c:
~
tivity. Surface chemistry must be a powerful method in an Ul 8<.0
attempt at complete solution of sensitivity problems.
Fig. 41 and 42 show the geotechnical properties of marine
soils in the Thames Estuary, Osaka Bay and Ube, which display
the normal consolidation; thereforet he strength of such clays
does increase with depth.
Alluvial plains are quite often underlain by post-glacial clays
that are high in water content and have not yet consolidated
enough to afford a large bearing capacity. Construction works
such as large buildings, bridges, highways etc. frequently en- f-p_
.I.cef"~~
,___
O~,--UO_:l-,---___ ~
P .0c1_8,-
P! Ios UOJ ,\ II 8WJ 0 N lVI:JV18 3JV~~31
o
Ul ';±'Vl NIVld GOOlJ "'""
counter great difficulties because of insufficient strength of lVIJVl8 - lSOd '->-
 MECHANICS OF UNCONSOLIDATED AND FRACTURED ROCKS REFERENCES 121
120
Geotechnique, vol. 4, pp. 46-69.
SHEAR STRENGTH (kg!cm2)
BJERRUM, L., and KJAERNSKI, B., 1957, Analysis of the stability of some
0r-~0.~1~0~.2~O~.3~0~.4~0~
. 5~____
Norwegian natural clay slopes, Geotechnique, vol. 7 pp. 1-16.
, BJERRUM, L., and SIMONS, N .E ., 1960, Comparison of shear strength cha-
\ ==} Osaka.' Bay ractt"ristics of normal consolidated clays, Norwegian Geotech-
E 2
,,
• .. Ube nical Inst. pub., 35, pp. 13-22.
,
2:
0
I-
I-
3

4
,
~,
... . 'I
BOWER, T .H., 1951, Mudflow occurrence in Trinidad. B. W. 1., Bull. Am.
Assoc. Petroleum Geol., vol. 35, pp. 908-912•
CAPPS, S.R., 1941, Observations of the rate of creep in Idaho, Am. Jour.
0
en Sci., vol. 239, pp. 25-32.
5
>- CHORLEY, R.]., 1959, The geomorphic significance of some Oxford soils,
<t:
en 6 Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 257, pp. 503-515.
w
:r: CRAWFORD, C.B., and EDEN, W.J., 1965, A compariron of laboratory results
I- 7
with in-situ properties of Leda Clay, Proc. 6th 1. C. S. M . F.
2:
0 8 E. 1965, Montreal, vol. 1, pp. 31-35.
Ct::
lL.. DAVIS, D.H ., 1954, Estimating porosity of sedimentary rocks from bulk den-
9
:r: sity, Jour. Geol. , vol. 62, pp. 102-107.
I-
E:J 10 DEVANATHAN, M .A.V., 1954, A theory of the electrical double layer and
0
11 the interpretation of differential capacity curves, Trans. Fara·
day Soc., vol. 50, pp. 373-385.
12 FIELDES, M ., and WILLIAMSON, K1., 1955, Clay mineralogy of New Zea-
land soils, I, New Zealand Jour. Sci. Tech., vol. 37, pp. 314-
335.
Fig. 42. Shear strength of marine clays, Osaka and Ube, Japan (after
FIELDES, M ., 1955, Clay mineralogy of New Zealand, II, New Zealand Jour.
Takenaka, 1964).
Sci. Tech., vol. 37, pp. 336-350.
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such ground subsidences as observed in Tokyo and Osaka. of New Zealand soils III, New Zealand Jour. Sci. Tech., vol.
38, pp. 31-43.
These are, in a sense, tangible manifestations of the direct
FIELDES, M., 1957, Clay mineralogy of New Zealand soils IV, New Zealand
rock control over human life. Jour. Sci. Tech., vol. 38, pp. 533-570.
FUJIMOTO, H ., 1965, Shearing properties of shirasu, Soil Mechanics and Fo-
undation Engineering, vol. 13, pp. 56-63.
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volcanic clays, New Zealand Jour. Sci. Tech., Sec. B, vol. 36,
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4, pp. 197-214. especially exact dating, correct knowledge of processes, and
TAYLOR, D.¥l., 1937, Stability of earth slopes, Jour. Boston Soc. Civil Eng., physico-chemical and mechanical understanding of rocks. The
vol. 24, pp. 337-385. intention of this essay has not been to explain how rock con-
UCHIYAMA, N., MASur,.T., and ONIKURA, Y., 1962, Montmorillonite in a trols are reflected in land forms, but to emphasize the impor-
volcanic ash soil, Soil Sci. Plant Nutr., vol. 8, pp. 13- 19. tance of physico-chemical and mechanical understanding of rocks
VARGAS, M., 1953, Some engineering properties of residual clay soil occurr- in geomorphological studies and also to explain, to some degree,
ing in Southern Brazil, Proc. 3rd r.C.S.M.F.E., I, pp. 67-71.
such thinking and methods of studying.
VARNES, D.J., 1958, Landslide types and processes, Landslides and Engine-
ering Practice National Academy of Science, National Re-
Men live on the Earth. Human lives are controlled directly
search Council, Publication 544, pp. 20- 47. and indirectly in many ways. Therefore, fundamental studies
WARKENTIN, B.P., and YONG, R.N., 1960, Shear strength of montmorillon- on the surface materials of the earth must supply essential data
ite and Kaolinite related to interparticle forces, Ninth Nat. for engineers. We should not be wedded to the term geomor-
Conf. Clay and Clay Mineralogy, pp. 210-218. phologz'cal method, and we should not be carried off our feet
WENTWORTH, C.K, 1943, Soil avalanches on Oahu, Hawaii, Bull. Geol. Soc. by the trivialities of z'sms and z'cs. We may use any method
Am., vol. 54, pp. 53-64. that leads to the truth of the matter and that is useful for the
WILSON, S.D., 1959, Application of the principles of soil rr:echanics to open- elucidation of facts, and should the necessity arise, we must
pit mining, Quart. Colorado Sch. Mines, vol. 54, no. 3, pp. develop new methods and apparatus by our original ideas
93-113.
and contrivances. Although the deciphering of reality needs a
WINKLER, E.M., 1956, Influence of sun heat on clays, Soil Sci., vol. 82,
great deal of painstaking work, we should not flinch from any
pp. 193-200.
Wu, T.H., DOUGLAS, A.G., and GOUGHNOUR, R.D., 1962, Friction and co-
difficulty. We have to give up living in the Moon of Valencia.
hesion of saturated clays, Jour. S. M. F. D., Proc. Am. Soc.
Civil Eng., pp. 1-32.
YOUNG STUDENTS FULL OF HOPE AND ENERGY
YATSU, E., 1957, On the application of the method of soil mechanics to
the investigation on the erosibility of bare mountain area in WILL PLAY THE MOST ACTIVE PART
Japan-an approach to the dynamic geomorphology-Miscellan-
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45, p. 1-8.
YATSU, E., 1964, Sur Ie gonflerr:ent des roches par I'imbibition de I'eau,
Applied Geography, no. 5, pp. 7-26.
YATSU, E., 1946b, Sur l'observation de l'allophane par Ie microscope elec-
tronique. Applied Geography, no. 5, pp. 48-56.
YOSHINAGA, N., and AOMINE, S., 1962, Allophane in some Ando Soils,
Soil Sci. Plant Nutr., vol. 8, pp. 6-13.
 AUTHOR INDEX

AKIMOTO, K., 66 HORIBE, T., 51

ANDERSON, H. W., 20, 21 HORTON, R. E., 3, 20
AOMINE, S., 111
ARAMAKI, M., 35 JENNY, H., 18

BAVER, L. D., 20 KATO, Y., 108

BIRRELL, K. S., 106, 111 KARMAN, T. V., 46
BJERRUM, L., 33, 107 KELLER, W. D., 18
BORCHERT, H., 64 KERR, P. F., 33, 107
BRACE, W. F., 68, 69 KJELLMAN, W., 107
BRUNAUER, S., 18 KOBAYASHI, Y., 51
KOIDE, H., 24
CHORLEY, R. J., 3, 94 KOMORNIK, A., 33
CRAWFORD, C. B., 117, 118 KOZACHYN, J., 20
KUNO, G., 110, 111
DAVIS, W. M., 2, 3, 5 KUPFER, D. H., 62, 63, 64
DREYER, W., 66
DURY, G. H., 3 LANGBEIN, W. B., 3
LEOPOLD, L. B., 3
EDEN, W. J.. 117, 118 LIVINGSTON, C. W., 51
LUMB, P., 101, 102
FAN, P. F., 35
FIELDES, M., 111 MATSUO, H., 96
FUJIMOTO, H., 96, 97 MEYERHOF, G. G., 116
MIDDLETON, H. E., 20, 21
GEIKIE, S. A., 18 MILLER, J. P., 3
GEITLEN, L. G., 33 MORI, R., 28
GILBERT, G. K., 3 MORRIS, W. J.. 35
GLOVER, R. E., 3 MUIR, R., 64
GLOYNA, E. F., 64 MULLER, L., 79
GRADWELL, M., 106, 111 MUSGRAVE, G. W., 20
GRIFFITH, A. A., 60
GRIGGS, G., 47, 48 NAKANO, H., 87
GRIM, R. E., 107 NAKAYAMA, M., 36
NISHI, M., 99, 100
HACK, J. T., 3
HARDY, H. R., 47 PENNER, E., 118
HENKEL, D. J., 119 PETERSON, J. B., 23
HJULSTROM, F., 2
HOLZ, W. G., 87 RINEHART, J. S., 52

I
d
128
ROSENQVIST, 1. T., 104
SERATA, S., 64
SHARPE, C. F. S., 23, 102
SHATTNER, 1., 33
SHIBUYA, T., 98
SHIMA, H., 98
SKEMPTON, A. W ., 105, 106, 119
STERNBERG, H., 35
STRAHLER, A. N., 3, 45
SUDO, T., 111
SUNDBORG, A., 3
SUZUKI, T., 35
TAKAHASHI, H., 17, 87
TAKENAKA, J:-; 120
TANAKA, Shin., 98
TANIMOTO, K., 99, 100
TALOBRE, J. A., 87
TERUTA, Y., 30, 31, 32, 33
TERZAGHI, K., 79, 106
THORNBURY, W. D., 45 SUBJECT INDEX
TURNER, F . J., 18
VARGAS, M., 102 Abrasion, 35 Bearing capacity, 110
VARNES, D. ]., 102 abrasion test, 35 of foundation, 95
coefficient of, 35 Bentonite, 107
WARKENTIN, B. P., 33 Acceleration of earthquake, 103 BET method, 18
WEISS, L. E., 18 Activity, 105 Biotite, 19, 98
WILSON, S. D., 79 Adhesive force, 95 Bischofite, 64
WOLMAN, M . G., 3 Adsorption, 13, 87, 93, 94 Black Cotton Soil, 33
WOODBURN, R., 20 Aggregate stability, 20 Boiling condition, 95
Aggregation, 23 Brazil, 102
YAMANOUCHI, H., 35 Air photo interpretation, 10 Breccia, 16
YATSU, E., 3, 4, 9, 10, 24, 25, 28, Alaskan Earthquake, 107 British Rheologist Club, 12
33, 34, 36, 81, 94, 98, 106, 111 Albite, 19 Brittle, 46
YOSHINAGA, N., 111 Allogenic mineral, 17, 19 brittle rock, 17
Allophane, 104, 106, 108, 110, 111 brittle material, 24
Alluvial fan deposits, 9 Brookite, 19
Alluvial clay, 110 Burgers model, 51
Alps, 87
Alterability, 15, 16, 18, 19 Calcite, 19
Alteration, California, 21
degree of, 17 Cambodia, 30, 32
method of studying, 17 Canada, 47, 111
Alternate load, 46 Carnalli te, 64
Alunite, 28, 87 Cataclasite, 81
Anatase, 19 Cation exchange capacity, 23
Anchorage, 107 Cavitation, 34, 66
Andesite, 87 Chalk, 35
Anhydrite, 68 Champlain Sea, 111
anhydritic sediments, 64 Chert, 19
Anisotropic, 45 Chlorite, 19, 33, 81, 105
anisotropy, 60 swelling chlorite, 28, 87
Antigorite, 87 Chrysotile, 28, 86, 87
Apatite, 19 Clay mineral, 16-19, 24-33, 87, 98,
Attapulgite, 104 104
Atterberg's limit, 104, ) 16 expansion and shrinkage of, 87
Attrition, 36 swelling clay mineral, 33, 93, 102
Augen, 81 Cleavage, 1, 18, 61
Authigenic mineral, 17, 19 Cohesion, 60, 94, 103
Colloidal state, 13
Bad land, 98 Colloid percentage, 21
Basal diffraction, 28 Compaction test, 111
--- - - -- ----- - - --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . J J j
130 131

optimum water content for, 101 Dynamic load, 46 French Alps, 28, 29 Hydrogen ion concentration, 18
Compression, 18 Hydrostatic pressure, 47
compression failure, 45 Earthflow, 23, 103 Geological structure, 4, 36 Hydrothermal,
compression test, 95 Echi River Fan, 8 photo interpretation, 10 alteration, 16-18
high speed compression, 51 Edinburgh, 18 prediction of, 11 reaction, 28, 87, 107
Consistency, 94, 110 Elasticity, 17 Geomorphological, Hysteresis, 105
Consolidation, 105 elastic body, 12, 46 inversion, 10, 108 hysteresis loop, 106
Creep, 1, 12. 103 elastic limit, 24, 46, 64 map, 3
creep of rocks, 47 elastic modulus, 52, 81 process. 45 Iberia Parish, 64
creep failure, 24 Electrical double layer, 13, 94 Geomorphology, 1, 2, 17 Illite, 18, 19, 28, 33, 81, 87, 104,
Cristobalite, 28 Electric registance-strain gauge, 52 applied geomorphology, 3 105, 107
Crustal movement, 2, 5, 16 Electro-kinetic potential, 118 climatic geomorphology, 3 Imogolite, 111
Crystal lattice, 17 Electron diffraction, 17 dynamic geomorphology, 10 Impact load, 46
Crystalline rock, 35 Embryology, 2 fluvial geomorphology, 3 Impaction, 16, 36
crystalline schist, 87 Endogenic, development, 2 impaction failure, 45
Cuesta, 10 process, 2 domain, 1 Impulsive,
agent, 16 method, 1 fracture, 51
Decomposition, 15, 16 Epeirogenic movement, 1 Glacial till, 33 wave, 52
Deflation, 20 Erosibility, 5, 15, 19, 20, 34, 35, 98 Glauconite, 19 Indentation pressure, 68
Deformation, 1 Erosion, 2, 15, 16. 20 Gneiss, 81 India, 33
deformation coefficient, 81 erosion ratio, 20, 21 Goteborg, 116 Infiltration capacity, 20
elastic deformation, 48 Evaporite, 64 Gouge, 16 Insolation fracture, 52
plastic deformation, 12, 17 Exogenic, 16 Graded river, 9 Intergranular attractive force, 107
pseudoviscous deformation, 48 force, 12 Granite, 17, 98 Interlayer adsorption, 94
Dehydration, 104 process, 1, 2, 12 granite dome, 98 Interlocking, 96
Denudation, 15, 34 Griffith flaw, 60 Internal friction, 103
Design pressure, 67 Failure, 45, 46, 47 Gulf Coast Plain, 64 Inugami River Fan, 8
Deval type, 36 Fall, 103 Gully erosion, 20, 96 Israel, 33
Diagenesis, 17, 19 Fall maker, 10 Gypsum, 19 Isotropy, 5
Diastrophism, 5, 16 Fault, 2, 4, 5, 12, 17 Izumi Sandstone, 28
Dike ridge, 10 Fatigue failure, 17, 45, 52 Hakone, 18
Dilatancy, 96 Feldspar, 19, 35, 98 volcano, 87 Jack method, 81
Dilatational wave, 17 Field measurement, 81 Halite, 64, 66 Japan, 18, 24-28, 87, 94-98, 105,
Diorite, 17 First-order reaction velocity, 93 Halloysite, 28, 87, 104, 111 107
Disintegration, 15, 36 Flaking, 66, 70 hydrated halloysite, 111 Jisuberi , 103
classification, 45 Flaw, 52,60 Hardness, 67 Joint, 1, 5, 16
Dislocation theory, 60, 66 Flow, 103 bulk hardness, 68 Jordan River, 33
Dispersion, 20 flow strain, 47 scratching hardness, 35
dispersion ratio, 21, 96 flowslide, 33, 103, 116 Vickers hardness, 67 Kagoshima Prefecture, 96
Divalent ion, 18 Fold, 4, 5, 12, 64 Hawaii, 18 Kamogawa, 87
Dolomite, 64 Fracture, 60 Hogback, 10 Kamogawa Tunnel, 86
Dropping hammer test, 35 theory of fracture, 47 Hong Kong, 101, 102 Kanto Basin, 107
Drilling velocity, 81 Fragmentation, 15 Honshu Island, 107 Kanto Loam, 107-115
Ductile, 46 France, 81 Hornblende, 19 Kaolinite, 19, 33, 102, 104, 105, 107
ductile material, 24, 47 Free energy, 94 Hydration, 105 Karst, 10
132 133
Kelvin unit, 51 81, 87 Plasticity, 61, 109 Rock drill, 81
Kieseritic rock, 64 Mohr, plasticity index, 95, 96, 101, 102, Rock salt, 64
Kinu River, 6 stress circle, 97 104, 109 Rotational viscometer, 106
Knickpoint, 10 Mohr's theory, 47 plastic deformation, 23, 24, 47 Rupture, 12, 103
Kyushu, 96, 111 Moisture equivalent, 21 plastic limit, 64, 95, 104, 110 slope rupture, 1, 15, 23, 24, 34,
Molecular theory, 12 plastic material, 64 96, 103
Land form, 1, 2 Monovalent ion, 18 plastic stage, 46 rupture of solid, 13
evolution of, 4 Montmorillonite, 18, 19, 28, 33, 34, plastic strain, 47
Landslide, 18, 23 87, 94, 104, 107 Pitting, 66, 70 Sagami Diluvial Terrace, 108
Land slip, 15, 23-28, 34, 86, 87, Moraine, 18 Poison's, Salt dome, 61, 64, 66
102, 103 Moving load, 46 number, 51 Sandstone, 35, 51
lands lip clay, 24, 33 Mudflow, 23, 33, 103, 106 ratio, 52 Schmit hammer test, 35
Lateral erosion, 15 Mudstone, 17, 81 Pore pressure, 103 School of Uppsala, 2
Lateral pressure, 46, 47 Muscovite, 19 Post-glacial, Sensitivity, 106, 118
Leda Clay, 33, 111, 116-118 Mylonite, 16, 80, 81, 87 clay, 33 Sericite, 28
Limestone, 17, 35, 46, 64, 68 marine soil, 111 Serpentine, 28, 87
Liquid limit, 95, 110 Nail gun test, 35 transgression, 111 Setouchi, 98
Livingston's energy transfer theory, New Tanna Tunnel, 87 Prek Thnot, 30-34 Shale, 17, 28, 35, 81, 87
51 New Zealand, 105, III Pseudoviscous flow, 64 montmorillonitic shale, 81
Load, 46 Niigata Earthquake, 95 Pyroxene, 19 Shatter zone, 2, 5, 24,
loading test, 81 Non-newtonian flow, 106 Shear,
Loam, 107 Norway, III Quantum theory, 13 shear failure , 45
Los Angeles type, 36 N-value, 79 Quartz, 19, 35, 81 shear strength, 34, 68, 105
Louisiana, 61-64 Quartzite, 35 shearing, 18
Olivine, 19 Quartz porphyry, 98 shearing test, 81, 95
Maebara Pass, 80 Onsen Yodo, 81 Queyras River, 28, 29, 87 shearing stress, 103, 107
Malpasset Dam, 81-85 Optimum water content for compac- Quick clay, 33, 103, 107, 116 Shikoku Island, 93
Manitoba, 33 tion, 101, 110, 111 Shimizu Slate, 52, 54-57
Marble, 51 Oregon, 21 Radiation damage, 65, 66 Shirasu, 34, 96, 97
Marl, 64 Orogenic movement, 1 Rain wash, 20 Shrinkage limit, 95
Masa, 34, 98-101 Orthoclase, 19 Regain in strength, 107 Siliceous sandstone, 35
Maseguchi, 107 Osaka, 120 Repeating stress, 17 Slate, 17, 60, 80
Mass wasting, 1, 15, 23, 93, 102, Osaka Bay, 118 Repeated load, 46 Slip, 103
103 Oslo, 116 Repulsion, 94 slip plane, 24
Maximum octahedral shear theory, Ottawa, 33, 111 Resid ual strain, 52 slip surface clay, 24
47 Oxford Soil, 94 Rheology, 12 Slumping, 34, 103
Maxwell unit, 48 rheological behavior, 46 Soil erosion, 20
Mesa, 10 Parallel orientation, 60 rheological element, 48 Solenhofen Limestone, 48
Metahalloysite, 87 Penetration test, 110 rheological model, 48 Solfataric clay, 81, 87
Mica, 102 Permeability, 10, 20, 94 Rheometer, 106 Solid state, 13
Microcline, 19 PF-value, 110 Rock control, 5, 9, 12 Solifluction, 103
Micro-configulation, 5 Physiology, 2 depositional land form, 15 Solleftea, 33
Middleton 's dispersion ratio, 20 Phytology, 2 relation to processes, 11 Solo, 87
Mississippi, 20 Plagioclase, 19 rock control theory, 4 Solubility, 18
Mixed layer mineral, 18, 28, 31-33, Plant morphology, 2 approach to rock control theory, 12 Specific surface, 18
 134
Splash erosion, 20
Stockholm, 116
Static load, 46
Sternberg's formula, 35, 36
St. Lawrence, III
Strain, 46
strain energy, 52
strain of rocks, 12
strain energy theory, 52
Stratification, 60
Stream text ure, 10
Strength, 45
strength of rocks, 5, 16, 45
strength test, 35
Stress, 18, 46
stress circles of Mohr, 47
Structural,
structural bench, 10
structural plain, 10
structural recovery, 107
Structure control, 5, 9
Surface,
surface-aggregation ratio, 21
surface chemistry, 34
surface energy, 94
surface fatigue, 70
Suspension percent, 20
Sweden, 33, 116
Swelling, 18, 81
swelling pressure, 88, 93
Sylvite, 64, 66
Takakurayama Slate, 55, 58, 59
Tama River, 34
,I Taxonomy, 2
Tectonite, 18
Tension, 18
tension failure, 45
Texas, 64
Thames Estuary, 118
Thermal spring, 24
Thermal stress, 52
Thixotropy, 106
thixotropic hardening, 116
Time,
135
time dependence, 47 mechanism of, 67 X -ray diffraction, 33
time effect, 106 Weathering, 1, 15-19
time-strain curve, 48 velocity of, 18 Yamakuzure, 103
Tokyo, 34, 120 weathering test, 35 Young's modulus, 52
Tourmaline, 19 Weeks Island, 61-64 Yugashima group, 87
Transvaal, 33 Wetting, 83 Yui,87
Triaxial cOrppression, 64 immersional wetting, 94 Yunomata, 96
triaxial compression test, 46, 96 Work hardening, 68
Trivalent ion, 18 Zeolite, 19, 28
Trondheim, 116 X-ray analysis, 33 Zircon, 19
Tsurukawa, 108
Tuff, 28
tuffaceous rock, 35
tuttaceous shale, 87
Ube, 118
Ultrasonic pulse wave, 53, 108
Unconsolidated rock, 81
Undisturbed soil specimen, 95
Uniaxial test, 46, 47
United States, 87
Van der Vaal's force, 95
Visco-elastic,
visco-elastic body, 12
visco-elastic behavior, 51
Viscous deformation, 64
Void, 18
void ratio, 108, 109
Voigt Unit, 48
Volcanism, 1, 16
volcanic ash, 18, 108
volcanic rock, 18
volcanic sand, 34
volcanic sandy soil, 96
Watarase River, 6
Water chamber method, 81
Water content, 108
Wear, 35, 45, 66
abrasive wear, 66
adhesive wear, 67, 68
cavitation wear, 66
cutting wear, 66, 68
galling wear, 66