SCHOOL OF PHYSICS

ZGT 295
GEOPHYSICS PRACTICAL
2G01 – SEISMIC SURVEY

NAME : AISAH TAUFIK HIDAYAT ABDULLAH

MATRIC NO. : 127509

LECTURER : DR. ANDY ANDERSON

STARTING DATE : 1 December 2016, Thursday

SUBMISSION DATE : 15 December 2016, Thursday

ABSTRACT

In the first week the seismic refraction survey was conducted to determine the velocity and
the depth of the each layer beneath the ground. Besides that, the survey was done to map the
geological subsurface of the study area. The study area was located at an open field in
University of Science Malaysia in Penang. There are 24 geophones were used during the
survey. The geophones were planted along the seismic line with spacing between geophones
is two meter and 20 meter offset. Then, the seismic cable was spread along the line and the
geophones were connected to the cable. Next, the seismic cable was connected with Terraloc
which located at the centre. All data were recorded by the Terraloc, and then transferred into
the computer. The data acquisition is done in this experiment.

On following day, all data were processed using the Firstpix and Gremix Software to get
travel time graph. The data were analysed. In the processed we are using delay time method.
And finally after getting graph we discussed this data to determine the velocity of each layer
as well as its thicknesses which is in the second week.
TITLE

Seismic Refraction Survey.

OBJECTIVE

 To determine the velocity and the depth of each layer beneath the ground of study area.
 To predict type of the layers and geological structure beneath the surface of study area.

APPARATUS

1. 1 unit of Terraloc MK 8 and a mouse

2. 2 unit of seismic cable
3. 24 units of geophones
4. Weight drop
5. Trigging set
6. A striker plate
7. Battery (12V)
8. 2 umbrella
9. 2 units of 50M measuring tapes
10. Insulation tape

1 2

6
5

7
4

Figure 1: The apparatus used in Survey

LOCATION

The seismic survey was conducted in University of Science Malaysia, Penang.

Figure 2: Map of University of Science Malaysia

GEOLOGICAL SETTINGS

The major portion of Penang Island is underlain by igneous rocks. This granitic rock can be
divided into 2 types which are Sungai Ara and Bukit Bendera types (Tan, 1994). The first
type (Sungai Ara) is late Carboniferous to early Permian in age, contains primary muscovite.
For the second type (Bukit Bendera) is Triassic age, does not contain primary muscovite, and
is a course grained (Tan, 1994). (Figure 3) shows the geological map of Penang.

Figure 3: Geological map of Penang (Tan, 1994)

INTRODUCTION

A seismic survey is a geophysical survey method used to map the geology of the
subsurface. The main purpose of this type of survey is to identify potential resources. An
image of the subsurface can be obtained by using seismic data. Geologists use these data to
interpret the subsurface to identify areas of resources. Briefly described, low-frequency sound
waves are transmitted from a source on the surface into the subsurface. The sound waves are
reflected between the geological layers in the subsurface, where the various layers reflect the
sounds differently. These reflections of sound waves are then captured by receivers. The raw
data is then processed by computers to produce images of the subsurface that geologists can
interpret to gain better knowledge of the subsurface.

THEORY OF SEISMIC REFRACTION

Seismic refraction is a commonly used geophysical technique to determine depth to bedrock,

competence of bedrock, depth to the water table, or depth to other seismic velocity
boundaries. An impulsive source creates a seismic wave (sound wave) which travels through
the earth. When the wave front reaches a layer of higher velocity (e.g. bedrock) a portion of
the energy is refracted, or bent, and travels along the refractor as a “head wave” at the
velocity of the refractor (bedrock). Energy from the propagating head wave leaves the
refractor at the “critical angle” of refraction and returns to the surface, where its arrival is
detected by a series of geophones and recorded on a seismograph. The angle of refraction
depends on the ratio of velocities in the two materials (Snell’s Law).

P-Wave Refraction

P-wave refraction evaluates the compression wave generated by the seismic source located at
a known distance from the array. The wave is generated by vertically striking a striker plate
with a sledgehammer, shooting a seismic shotgun into the ground, or detonating an explosive
charge in the ground. Since the compression wave is the fastest of the seismic waves, it is
sometimes referred to as the primary wave and is usually more-readily identifiable within the
seismic recording as compared to the other seismic waves.

S-Wave Refraction

S-wave refraction evaluates the shear wave generated by the seismic source located at a
known distance from the array. The wave is generated by horizontally striking an object on
the ground surface to induce the shear wave. Since the shear wave is the second fastest wave,
it is sometimes referred to as the secondary wave. When compared to the compression wave,
the shear wave is approximately one-half (but may vary significantly from this estimate) the
velocity depending on the medium.
Two Horizontal Layers

Figure 4: shows the propagation of seismic waves (bottom diagram) and related travel time
(top diagram) of the direct (blue line) and the first refracted phase (green line)

ic0 – critical angle

V0 – velocity of the first layer
V1 – velocity of the second layer
h0 – thickness of the first layer
T01 – intercept
The seismic refraction technique is based on the refraction of seismic energy at the interfaces
between subsurface/geological layers of different velocity. The seismic refraction method
uses very similar equipment to seismic reflection, typically utilizing geophones in an array,
and a seismic source (shot). The schematic diagram to the right illustrates the path of seismic
waves propagating from a source at the surface. Some of the seismic energy travels along the
surface in the form of a direct wave. However, when a seismic wave encounters an interface
between two different soil or rock layers a portion of the energy is reflected and the
remainder will propagate through the layer boundary at a refracted angle. At a critical angle
of incidence the wave is critically refracted and will travel parallel to the interface at the
speed of the underlying layer. Energy from this critically refracted wave returns to the surface
in the form of a head wave, which may arrive at the more distant geophones before the direct
wave. By picking the time of the first arrival of seismic energy at each geophone, a plot of
travel-time against distance along the survey line can be generated. This type of graph is
shown in the schematic to the right. The gradients of the lines in this type of plot are related
to the seismic velocity of the subsurface layers. The final output is a velocity/depth profile for
the refractors as shown below.
Another approach available for the interpretation of refraction data is the modelling and
inversion of the acquired seismic velocities. By modelling the paths taken through the
subsurface by the seismic energy, or ‘ray tracing’, the thickness of each layer in the model
can be adjusted in an iterative manner until a solution is achieved. This produces a cross-
sectional velocity model of the subsurface. Borehole records can further calibrate the data to
provide levels of the subsurface layers across the survey line.
METHODS

1. A seismic line is measured by a measuring tape with length about 100 meters.
2. After that, the seismic cable is spread along the seismic line.
3. Then, 24 geophones are planted to the ground and each geophone has a spacing of 2
meters and it is clipped at the seismic cable.
4. The Terraloc also known as seismograph had been placed at the centre of the 100m of
measuring tape.
5. Besides, the seismic cable is also connected to the Terraloc.
6. Geophones are tested by knocking them using finger to ensure that everything is
connected properly.
7. Then, if the geophone is not in the correct arrangement reverse cable will be used.
8. This are the seven shot points :
 Offset (- 20 meters)
 Between geophones 1 – 2
 Between geophones 6 – 7
 Between geophones 12 – 13
 Between geophones 18 – 19
 Between geophones 23 – 24
 Offset (+20 meters)
9. The weight drop had been released on to the striker plate.
10. The signals detected had been recorded and the best data will be saved in the
seismograph, and if not the data will be deleted.
11. The weight drop is shot starting at the interval between G1–G2, -20 meters offset, G6–
G7, G12–G13, G18–G19, G23–G24, and +20 meters offset.
12. Data that received by the Terraloc had been saved.
13. All data in the Terraloc are transfer into the computer.
14. The data are processed by using Firstpix and Gremix Software and then interpreted as a
result of survey, see (Figure 6).
 1st Geophone 24th Geophone

Offsets Offsets

-20 m 0m 46 m 66 m

Figure 5: Connection of equipment.

Figure 6: Seismic processing.
DATA

Distance between geophones : 2 meters

Elevation : 10 meters

File Name Shot Point Distance (m)

8337 Between geophones 1 – 2 1

8338 Offset -20 meters -20

8339 Between geophones 6 – 7 11

8340 Between geophones 12 – 13 23

8341 Between geophones 18 – 19 35

8342 Between geophones 23 – 24 45

8343 Offset +20 meters 66

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The first arrival time data in between two geophones is plotted in the graphic of relationship
between the distances versus the first arrival time of each shooting point. This (Figure 7)
shows the travel time graph versus distance. From the travel paths the graph show there are
two layers, because they consist two different gradients. The steeper gradient in layer one
indicate the low velocity. For layer two is less steeper than layer 1 and have high velocity.

Based on (figure 7) it also indicate the total travel time which is 70ms with the distance 46m.
when we conduct our experiment we have seven shot point.

Figure 7: Travel time graph (ms) versus Distance (m) graph

(Figure 8) below shows the graph of the velocity (m/s) versus distance (m), for the first layer
the velocity is in the upper one which near to surface is about (300 – 400)m/s, the line is
smooth an consistent. Whereas the second layer the velocity is (1000 – 1300)m/s.

Figure 8: Velocity (m/s) versus Distance (m) graph

(Figure 9) below shows the graph of the elevation (m) versus distance (m). From this graph
we can indicate ranges of the depth which is 3.3 m to 4.6 m. Then, from that the depth is
flunctuated until 44 m.

Figure 9: Elevation (m) versus Distance (m) graph

To know type of layers beneath our survey location, we should take a look at geological
information and table of velocity. From geological information, Penang Island is underlain by
igneous rock which is granite.

From the velocities that we get for first layer is about 300m/s to 400m/s, its interpreted as
claysand. It is because process of over long time periods of weathered from granite. The
major materials in this top layer is sand but it also mix up with clay & silt. Claysand is one
type of soil which fine soils. Claysand is unconsolidated sediment containing high of sand
and having a ratio of silt or clay less than sand. Unconsolidated materials are sediment that is
loosely arranged whose particles are not cemented together, found near to the surface.
Unconsolidated material also does not have exerted pressure on it, due to the top layer. Clay
& silt are the tiniest soil particle. These layers also have high of porosity and highly fractured.

And from table of velocity based on (Google, 2016), velocities range from 4000m/s and
above is considered as fresh granite. But, from result that we get for second layer the
velocities range is from 1000m/s to 1300m/s so it is a weathered granite. Weathered granite
has velocity below than 4000m/s. Weathered granite is process weathering from fresh granite.
This weathered granite have small fractured and small porosity. Small porosity indicate the
movement of water in that soil or rock almost impossible. The texture of second layer is
much compacted and harder compare to first layer. Because this layer in below, the pressure
that exerted is high. In simple word, we can say that if we go more deeper beneath the surface
the pressure and the velocity is become more greater.

Figure 10: Soil formed from weathered rock

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, from this data of seismic survey there are two layers which can be determined.
The first layer have velocity around 300 m/s to 400 m/s, and we interpreted this layer is
claysand soil. Meanwhile for the second layer has higher velocity which is 1100 m/s to 1300
m/s and because of pressure exerted in this layer is high, this layer more to weathered granite.
In other word, Velocities almost always increase with effective pressure. The only way to
know the pressure dependence of velocities for a particular rock is to measure it. Increasing
in velocity also indicate that we are going deeper which have higher density. When the
velocity is low, it show high porosity and highly fractured.
REFERENCES

Implementation of seismic surveys on the Norwegian Continental Shelf. Retrieved

from http://www.npd.no/global/engelsk/5-rules-and-regulations/guidelines/guidelines-
seismic-surveys.pdf

SEISMIC REFRACTION. December 7, 2016. Retrieved from

http://www.environmental-geophysics.co.uk/documentation/info/seismics.pdf

Seismic refraction. (n.d.). Retrieved October 10, 2016, from

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismic_refraction

BOON, TAN. "Engineering properties of granitic sons and rocks of Penang Island,
Malaysia."