CHAPTER- I

«
 CHAPTER - I.

liny nn 21
It is well known that, next to air water is

quite indispeneible for life* So we have to know

where from water comes and what happens to it. It

need not he said that man oannot live without water

hut he could live better if he knows more about water.

One of the most important impacts of modern

society is on the water supplies. 2he mounting

population growth has caused manj^roblems like,

extensive, urbanization in water short areas,

development of modern advanced techniques in

agriculture to increase the food production, and

unlimited expansion of industries. As all these

need large quantities of water, the demand for

freshwater is continuously increasing at alarming

rates. Ihis has set the man to search for more and

more resources of water. Realising the impprtance

of this commodity, Kennedy? once said '$he man who
——r~

solves the problem of water is worthy of two noble

prizes, one for peace and one for science.1

Vast quantities of water are present on the

globe as 3/4th of the earth's surface is covered

by water. But 97 percent of the world's water

resources are in the oceans and saline. This water

is available to man only at prohibitively high cost

of production. In the remaining 3 percent of water

77 percent is immobilised as ice cgps and g&aciers.

This water is also not easily available and accessible

So only 1 percent of total water reserves are

available for man to meet his needs. In this

1 percent of global fluid fresh water, only 3 percent

of it is seen in the form of streams and lakes at any

given moment. Remaining 97 percent is underground

which is estimated to be 8 trillion acre feet. In

this water most of it is groundwater as the soil

water and gaetthe water in the zone of aeration is

comparatively negligible when compared to the total

quantities of groundwater.

It is said, resources of India are her people,

land and her water. Wauer is essential to make people
and land fully productive. As the Indian population

is rural based groundwater development becomes an

)
important base for rural upliftment.
Cr

India is the seventh largest country of the World

with an area of 328 million hectares. The rainfall

varies from as little as 125 mm(5" ) in parts of

Rajasthan to 2500 mm(l00") on an average leaving apart

the places of heavy precipitation in Assam and Western

 3

ghats, She average rainfall can be taken as 1125 mm(45n).

In this precipitated water 570 milliard M3 of water

is said to contribute for groundwater recharge.

She total irrigated area by surface water resources

is said to be 41_ million hectares. In the irrigated

area about 30 percent of water is lost as deep

j^eifc oration which further contributes to groundwater

to an extent of 90 milliard M3. So totally 460

milliard Ms is taken as groundwater recharge annually.
*

In this, a sizable percentage is loat as base flow

in the rivers. She available groundwater is said

to be 275 milliard M3 or 60 percent of the total

annual recharge. In 1974 the estimated area irrigated

by groundwater was 16 million hectares and about 105

milliard M3 of water was used. Assuming an increase
<*•
of 7 million M3 of water every year (Baweja 1978),

presently 140 milliard M3 of water is used for lift

A

irrigation. About 50 percent of groundwater is yet

to be tapped.

In India nearly 70 percent of the land area is

made of_hard_rp.cks. In this 70 percent of the land,

75 percent is made of preCambrian crystalline formations.

Large part of this crystalline terrain does not have

adequate surface water resources. She rain fall also

varies from 400 mm to 1000 mm and thus large areas m
 4

crystalline terrain can be classified as semi-arid

regions. Hence it is necessary to search for
groundwater resources.

In hard rock areas, as Hirehalla basin

» ^ _

constitutes one such, the groundwater potentialities

are limited when compared to alluvial and sedimentary
terrains. She groundwater occurrence and distribution
are highly irregular and unpredictable and vary from
pface to place. Ihe methodology and techniques
developed for groundwater studies in sedimentary
rocks and alluvial tracts are not applicable in
these formations. Ihe problems encountered in hard
'rocks are different from non-indurated sedimentary
formations. Since hard rocks do not possess any
primary porosity, the occurrence of groundwater is
only in the portions which have secondary porosity
like weathered and fractured zones of the rocks. So
the main object of groundwater exploration is to locate
and delineate these weathered and fractured zones in
these rocks. Hence the problem is to adopt a suitable
methodology and field techniques for exploration of
groundwater in such terrains. Groundwater potential
is to be estimated correctly, so that its exploration
is properly planned for optimum utilization.
 $

1.2 METHODS Off EXPLORATION;

An elaborate list of methods which could he
employed for solving problems associated with
groundwater occurrence, movement and distribution,
is presented injpable 1.1. The table 1.1 gives the

entire spectrum of techniques that are presently

employed in different parts of the world for
groundwater exploration. The methods like water
dowsing and water divining are also included for the
reason that still there ar^people who believe in
them and such practice is still prevalent in some
parts of the world.

The methods of groundwater exploration are mainly

classified as aerial, surface, subsurface and esoteric.
The aerial methods, based on the interpretation of
aerial photos, satellite photos and landsat imagery
etc.,, are generally employed for regional surveys.
In these methods mag or structural and regional features
like, faulting, folding and formation trends can be
quickly recognised which may help in the evaluation
of some of the characteristics of big aquifers,
recharge and discharge area etc. Generally the cost
of aerial survey, when large areas are to be covered,
will be less than,the cost of standard ground survey
ffllthods (Kamarov,1968)• Kroneberg (1975) and Ozoray

(1975) have described the usefulness of different

 6

TABLE It
METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF GROUNDV/ATFR EXPLORATION
AFTER RANGA RAO

f
AERIAL SURFACE SUBSURFACE ESOTERIC
1 PHOTOGEOLOGIC METHOD | GEOLOGICAL METHOD 1 GEOLOGICAL 1 WATER DEMINING
2 LANDSAT 2. GEOMORPHOLOGICAL METHODS (a)DRILL TIME LOG 2 WATER DOWSING
S INFRARED IMAGERY IblLITHO LOG 3 WATER WITCHING
a. HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL METHODS
4 EM TECHNIQUES 4 HYDROGEOLOGICAL METHODS 2 HYDROGEOLOGICAL 4 ASTROLOGICAL
5 BLA^MAGIC
<«) RADIO KIP 5 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS (a) PUMP TEST
(o) ELECTRICAL (b) RECOVERY TEST G BIOPHYSICAL
lb) AFMAO
0) NATURAL
S TRACER STUOIES
SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL
(o) NATURAL TRACERS
TELLURIC
l»> ARTIFICIAL lb) RADIO ACTIVE TRACERS
RESISTIVITY )J GEOPHYSICAL LOGGING
INDUCED POLARISATION (a) ELECTRICAL
CHARGED BODY S P LOGGING
FREQUENCY SOUNDING INDUCTION LOGGING
RADIO WAVE PROFILING IP LOGGING
RADIO WAVE SOUNDING (b) RADIOACTIVE
RADIO KIP GAMMA RAY LOG
(b) SEISMIC GAMMA GAMMA LOGGING
NEUTRON GAMMA LOGGING
(I ) REPLETION
lc) SEISMIC
(ll) REFRACTION
ACCOUSTIC WELL LOGGING
(c> MAGNETIC ACCOUSTIC ALTERNATION LOGGING
(Ml GRAVITY
Id) GEOTHERMAL
(o) GEOTHERMAL DIFFERENTIAL TEMPERATURE LOGONS
6 GEOBOTANICAL METHODS (•) MECHANICAL LOGGING
7 GEOCHEMICAL METHOOS CALIPER LOGGING
ll) RESISTIVITYMETRY
is) flow metrt
(h) CHARGED BODY
aerial methods in groundwater exploration. In
recent years landsat imaginary are widely used
for hydrogeological investigations.

Ihere are several methods which are employed

on the surface. Ehese can he broadly classified as
1) geological, where lithological units are mapped
along with textural and structural features which
decide the water hearing properties of the rocks*
2) hydrometeorological, where precipitation, evaporation

and their variation in time and space are studied

for water balance calculations? 3) geomorphological,

where morphometry and drainage pattern are taken into

account for assessment of surface runoff?
4) hydrogeological, in which aquifer parameters and
characteristics are studied by conducting investigations
in wells/bore wells? 5) surface geophysical methods,

where changes in physical properties of the rocks

due to the presence and absence of water are taken as

indicators for groundwater occurrence, distribution and

movement, imong the several geophysical methods,
the electrical resistivity methods are the most
used ones.

Methods employed injfche subsurface studies can also

be divided as (l) geological (2) hydrogeological and

(3) geophysical. She pre-r^qmisite for employing these
 8
-

1JlC
methods, is^presence of a bo re well /well. Henoe these

investigations are carried out in the final stages of

groundwater studies. Depending upon the nature of the
problem to be solved and the details needed, certain
set of subsurface methods are employed.

!lhe tracer techniques, where some chemicals,

radioactive isotopes and dyes are employed, are
finding larger applications in the groundwater studies
especially in knowing groundwater movement and
location of discharge and recharge areas (Jagadish,
Bahadur, 1975). Hence the tracer techniques appear
to possess good prospects and wider application in
future.

Apart from the methods which have sound scientific

basis, the water divining and dowsing are still
persisting. Radhakrishna (1968) calls these people

as * a tribe of persons called water diviners

are exploiting our ignorance and making foMunes*.
So the scientific methods are still to be popularised
to receive wider recognition especially from the rural
folk -who reall^need more and more groundwater in
future, especially for agricultural purposes.
 9

One point which needs to "be emphasized here is

that, even though several methods are available for
groundwater investigations, no single method can
solve all the problems connected with groundwater
occurrence,, and further it can be added that no
single method can also give a definite or unique
solution to any particular problem, Therefore, one
should apply as many methods as possible and
permissible to solve the problems associated with
location and evaluation of groundwater resources.
This factor is also stressed in the proceedings
of international hydrological decade (1969). Several
scientists (Ogilvy, 1969? Hathe, 1969? Bhimasankaram,
1969? Galfi et al,1969? Richter, 1970) have also

opined that the cooperation of hydrogeologists and

geophysicists will be helpful in solving many
groundwater problems.

1.3 LOCATION AMD EXTENT:

Hirehalla drainage basin lies between the north
latitudes 15° 12• 37" and 15° 43* 51" and east
longitudes 75° 45* 35 n and 76° 15' 42". It is

covered by survey of India toposheets 57 A/2, A/3 and

48 M/L4, M/15. It is 1605 Sq.KMs (627 Sq.Miles) m

area and occupies parts of Koppal and Yelburga

talukas of Raichur district of Samataka-India (Fig.1.1).
 IQ

!
I
 u
1.4 AIMS AMD OBJECTIVES;

A drainage basin is selected with a view that

in hard rock areas the boundaries of the groundwater
basinj&r group of sub-basins of similar nature follow

the boundaries of the surface stream basin. The

elementary watershed approach in hard rock areas
Cb\7\c.\ witk !>«Ain
conform to the concept that drainage basin^Baweja,
1978). So the basin wise study will give a better

and more correct assessment of the groundwater

potential of an area than the study on the bails of
administrative boundaries like talukas or group
of villages etc.

The Hirehalla basin is also situated in a region

which does not get water from any surface water
resources. She agriculture is entirely dependent
on vagaries of monsoon. She only alternative for
assured agricultural crops is lift irrigation by
exploitation of groundwater.
(The mam objectives of the present investigations
are as follows:

1) To demarcate the boundary between the fresh

water zone and saline water zone as nearly l/4th of

the area is made of saline patch.

2) (Do study the hydrogeological conditions and

aquifer characteristics from the data which is
available from various agencies engaged in groundwater
 i2

studies and from the data collected by the author

during the present investigations.

3) To locate the depth to the basement and to

know the persistence of joints and fractures m the
subsurface by geoelectrical investigations so that
the thickness of the aquifer and its potential can
be estimated,

4) To estimate the dynamic reserves of

groundwater from the study of water table fluctuations.

5) To estimate and analyse the present withdrawals

of groundwater and their effect on the dynamic and
static reserves.

6) To suggest furtherjdevaLopment and for

effective and efficient management of groundwater

for optimum utilization.

1.5 IH7BSTIGATI0HS COEDXJGTID IN SEES AREA:

To solve the problems associated with the aims

and objectives mentioned m the preening section,

geological, hydrometeorological, hydrogeological and

geophysical investigations were conducted by the
author in the area.

The entire area of Hirehalla basin was geologically

mapped in.the years 1975 and 1977. Bach lithological
unit was demarcated noting mineral assemblage,
textures and structures of the rocks. Joints and
fractures which play a vital role in the groundwater
occurrence in hard rock areas were noted in the field
and the same are plotted on the Schimdt eq.ual area
net. Thin sections of the rocks were studied to
know the textures and the exact mineral assemblage
and its variation from rock type to rock type and
from place to place in the same rock type.

As part of the hydro-meteorelogical studies, rain

fall data of 22 years from 1957 to |978 was collected
for Koppal and Telburga, the two taluka headquarters
situated in the basin. She rain fall data for these
stations was' available only after the year of the
state reorganisation with the Bureau of -Economics and
Statistics, Bangalore. Prom the meteorological
observatory at fungabhadra dam which is within 15 miles
from Hirehalla basin, the pan evaporation data was
collected, which in turn is used to calculate the
water balance of the area. Water balance studies were
made on the basis of Thornthwaite (1955) scheme and
also betaking into consideration rainy days of each

month.

To study the occurrence and distribution of

groundwater, hydrogeological investigations were carried
out. More than 2000 wells were inventoried to study
the dimensions, yields, mode of discharge, subsurface

geology and nature of aquifers. 11 observation wells

were chosen, spreadout in the area, for the study

of water table fluctuations and to calculate dynamic

and static reserves of groundwater of the basin.

28 short duration pump and recovery tests were

conducted for the evaluation of aquifer

characteristics. 76 water samples were collected

and analysed for the various cations and anions

which determine-the quality of water. She pH and

conductivity of water samples were also noted and

reciprocal of conductivity i.e., resistivity of

water is used to bring out a correlation between

formation resistivity and resistivity of groundwater.

Making certain assumptions, which are considered
as reasonable, based on the present status of

information, groundwater reserves of the area are

calculated. Ihe present discharge and recharge

and balance of groundwater are also estimated for

future planning, development and management.

Ihe hydrogeological and geoelectrical

investigations were given equal importance. One of

the aims of geoelectrical investigations was to

demarcate the boundary between saline water zone

and fresh water zone as about l/4th of the area

contains saline water in the subsurface. About

 15

30 line Kms of electrical profiling was conducted for

this purpose. By the contrast of electrical
resistivities of formations below the saline
water zone and fresh water zone, the boundary
could be easily demarcated.

187 vertical electrical soundings (YES) were

conducted mostly for location of sites for wells/
borewells. The YES curves are interpreted by
curve matching techniques. At six places soundings
were conducted in lines, which are presented aSe
sounding profiles. Spreadout in the basin^lS radial
vertical electrical soundings were conducted to
study the persistence, intensity and direction of
joints and fractures in the subsurface.

Electrical resistivity survey was conducted by

employing two kinds of equipments, known as B.G.
resistivity meter designed by N.G.R.I. and A.O.
resistivity meter known as ABEM Terrameter.
Throughout the survey for both, profiling and
sounding Sehlumberger configuration was used.

Three correlation diagrams are constructed

between formation resistivity ( ) and conductivity
of water, ^ and chloride content of water and,

and total dissolved solids (TBS) of water. These

diagrams are useful in deciphering water quality
from YES data.
1.6 PHYSIOGRAPHY:

She topography of the area is characterised

by nearly level to very gently undulating planes
with a few isolated rocky hills, conspicuously
breaking the otherwise flat relief of the area.
She most prominent physiographic feature of the
area is the group of hills occupying about
14 6q..Kms at and around Koppal town, in the south­
eastern portion- of Hirehalla basin. She hillocks
are composed of massive and well jointed rocks
and exhibit tor topography with rounded and smooth,
}

jumbled array of boulders. On the top of the

hills, Koppal fort is constructed which forma a
✓
landmark of this area. She hills are made of
Koppal_syeniteg. Smaller dome shaped hills
with steep escarpment slope are seen at Gavimath,
Bahadurbanda and Manglapur. Another notable
feature is the arch like boulder (locally called
as Pallakkigundu) on the top of one of the foills

on which Ashokan inscription is discovered.

Some more hillocks of coarse grained

porphyritic granites are found near Irakalgada,
Huligudda, Mandalmari and Yajrabandi villages.
Series of small bouldary hillocks fringe the
north eastern border of Hirehalla basin.
 Central and eastern portions are made of long
slopy landscapes usually braided with snail,
shallow drainage ways. Ihese features appear to
have been formed under the present erosion cycle.
However m the vicinity of the rocky hills, slopes
range from moderate to strong which become slightly
slopy further away. In the north western portion
which is covered by black soil, the terrain is
nearly level to gently sloping with slope
gradients being less than 5.

She highest point of the basin is 719.7 m

(2339 ft) above mean sea level (msl) and is

situated on the Koppal hillocks and the lowest

point is the bank of lungabhadra river and is
523 m (1700 ft) above MSL. She rest of the area
is between the contours of 2150 ft and 1650 ft.
But the area at the confluence of Hirehalla and
Sungabhadra river gets submerged upto 1700 ft.
contour by the back water of lungabhadra reservoir.