Ocean & Coastal Management 137 (2017) 82e95

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Ocean & Coastal Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ocecoaman

Who cares about dirty beaches? Evaluating environmental awareness

and action on coastal litter in Chile
Tim Kiessling a, b, c, Sonia Salas c, d, Konar Mutafoglu e, Martin Thiel a, b, c, *
a
lica del Norte, Larrondo 1281, Coquimbo, Chile
Facultad Ciencias del Mar, Universidad Cato
b
Millennium Nucleus Ecology and Sustainable Management of Oceanic Island (ESMOI), Coquimbo, Chile
c

Centro de Estudios Avanzados en Zonas Aridas (CEAZA), Coquimbo, Chile
d
Department of Psychology, University of La Serena, La Serena, Chile
e
Institute for European Environmental Policy, Brussels, Belgium

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Coastal litter is a source of environmental, economic and health-related problems in many parts of the
Received 12 May 2016 world, but local responses are not necessarily related to the severity of the impacts. In particular, it is
Received in revised form unclear how environmental perception of community members and government bodies relate to active
20 October 2016
engagement on coastal pollution. The present study analyses the coastal litter situation and evaluates the
Accepted 29 November 2016
willingness of citizens to engage at four sites (three regions of mainland Chile, and Easter Island;
henceforth Rapa Nui) that feature differences in culture, economy sectors and landscape characteristics.
Data on coastal litter were obtained from citizen science campaigns and assessments of large litter ac-
Keywords:
Marine litter
cumulations on beaches and rocky shores. The willingness to engage was evaluated qualitatively,
Willingness to engage considering municipal planning documents and the perception of residents on coastal litter and general
Socio-economic factors waste management. We found very large quantities of litter in northern Chile, posing a hazard to marine
Pro-environmental behaviour wildlife and human health, and moderate quantities in the other regions. The region with the most
Waste management severe case of coastal pollution does not feature the highest engagement, possibly a result of underlying
factors such as an unsustainable economy and few possibilities for the population to connect with the
natural environment. On mainland Chile, municipal engagement is low to moderate while on Rapa Nui
there exist integrated waste-management strategies that address coastal pollution. Inhabitants of Rapa
Nui seem to have a better conduct in the coastal environment (picking up litter, littering less), and show
more engagement in waste-reduction strategies (recycling, volunteering for beach clean-ups). We sug-
gest that the unique cultural history of the island, a landscape that allows meaningful interaction with
nature and an economy based on sustainable tourism and high international visibility facilitates
engagement on environmental issues. We advise managers to consider respective underlying variables,
to create environments that allow contact with nature (e.g. public access to parks), and to encourage
bottom-up initiatives, preferably by local actors (e.g. by promoting already engaged individuals or
organisations).
© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction human populations by causing health impacts, for example by

Litter in marine and coastal environments is ubiquitous (Galgani
et al., 2015) and does not only present a hazard to a wide range of
marine wildlife (Derraik, 2002; Kühn et al., 2015), but also affects
* Corresponding author. Facultad Ciencias del Mar, Universidad Cato
lica del
Norte, Larrondo 1281, Coquimbo, Chile.
E-mail addresses: timkiessling@gmail.com (T. Kiessling), kmutafoglu@ieep.eu
(K. Mutafoglu), thiel@ucn.cl (M. Thiel).
accumulation and rotting of coastal litter, the presence of sharp
objects, and the incorporation of microplastics in marine food webs
(via ingestion by small organisms, e.g. Cole et al., 2013). Economic
damage occurs in the form of costly clean-up operations, lost rev-
enue from tourism due to the low attractiveness of a littered
coastline (Ballance et al., 2000; Schuhmann, 2011), and damage to
harbour infrastructure, boats and aquaculture facilities (reviewed
in Newman et al., 2015).
This wide range of problems should ensure adequate local

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.11.029
0964-5691/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 T. Kiessling et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 137 (2017) 82e95
responses, resulting in the removal of coastal litter, the estab-
lishment of adequate waste management and, ultimately, the
prevention of litter in the first place. However, this is not neces-
sarily the case: a prerequisite for active and effective engagement
is recognition of the coastal litter problem (or any environmental
issue in question), which in turn is influenced by environmental
perception and the awareness of the local community and relevant
authorities.
Factors influencing environmental awareness and potentially
pro-environmental behaviour and engagement of individuals
have been the subject of numerous studies. Following Kollmuss
and Agyeman (2002), factors may be divided into internal and
external: among the former, personal experience and contact
with natural areas (especially during childhood), a disposition of
educators (parents and teachers), and witnessing environmental
pollution seem to be among the key predictors of environmental
awareness (Chawla, 1998; Palmer et al., 1998). Miller (2005) ar-
gues that a 'disconnection from nature' (caused for example by
living in urban environments that do not allow for meaningful
interaction with nature) is a cause for the lack of interest in
biodiversity conservation. Several socio-economic factors such as
age, income, education, gender, and the place of residence (urban
or rural) are also predictors of environmental awareness. The role
of those, however, is not conclusive and probably case-specific
(reviewed in Van Liere and Dunlap, 1980). These socio-
economic factors have been identified by the few studies on lit-
tering behaviour in coastal environments, finding that female
visitors, those with higher education and more personal wealth,
as well as older people usually litter less (see Santos et al., 2005;
Dias Filho et al., 2011; Slavin et al., 2012; Eastman et al., 2013).
However, Gusmerotti et al. (2016) emphasise the role of young
adults to address the marine litter problem and they identify
environmental knowledge and social norms as shaping factors for
pro-environmental behaviour.
External factors, such as the political system, the social and
cultural background and the economic situation (Kollmuss and
Agyeman, 2002) affect not only single individuals but at least a
group of people or residents of a specific region. Social pressure,
often exercised by connected communities rather than large
anonymous residential areas, can also influence pro-environmental
behaviour, as has been shown by Heinen (1995) in the context of
waste management. Scenic characteristics of the environment (i.e.
the type of surrounding landscape) may also shape the relation to
nature: most participants who were shown visual clues of different
landscapes preferred savanna-type locations and open woodlands
over urban and desert environments, especially when asked
whether they would like to live there (Balling and Falk, 1982;
Hartmann and Apaolaza-Iba
n~ ez, 2010).
Yet another factor to consider is the economic development of a
given region. If wealth, usually measured in (per capita) gross do-
mestic product (GDP), derives from large industrial operations with
great environmental impact such as the mining industry (Dudka
and Adriano, 1997; Mani and Wheeler, 1998), a transition to a
more sustainable economic development, incorporating alternative
measures of wealth like social justice and biological productivity
(Barbier, 1987), is likely to be more cumbersome than for econo-
mies ultimately dependent on integrated and healthy ecosystems.
Growing wealth is usually also associated with a higher per capita
waste production (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012), although this
does not necessarily translate into higher coastal litter quantities
because of more efficient and alternative disposal strategies
(recycling, composting). Still, mismanaged plastic waste, consti-
tuting a large proportion of coastal litter, contributes significantly
83
to ocean pollution in developing and developed countries (Jambeck
et al., 2015).
In summary, factors shaping environmental awareness are
manifold and while internal factors apply mostly to individuals,
external factors are often uniform for a given region. In order to
address the coastal litter problem properly, a variety of these fac-
tors should be assessed and considered for management strate-
gies. In particular, it is unclear how environmental awareness
translates into engagement on coastal litter and how the latter is
related to the severity of the problem. In this paper we present an
integrated approach that assesses the severity of the problem
(coastal litter quantities) and the environmental awareness and
perception of inhabitants (employing surveys on beach litter and
recycling habits) and municipalities (assessing municipal planning
documents) of four regions in Chile. We expect that a region with
(i) a sustainable main economy sector, (ii) an ‘attractive’ landscape
that will enable individuals to have meaningful interactions with
nature, (iii) a cultural history, anchoring residents to their birth-
place, and (iv) outside pressure (for example in the shape of in-
ternational tourism) will feature the highest environmental
awareness and willingness to engage in managing coastal litter
pollution.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Study sites
Chile is a country with a coastline of more than 4000 km and,
apart from the capital Santiago (with 40% of the population, INE,
2012), most cities are located close to the coast. Three of the
four selected regions that serve as case studies (Antofagasta,
Coquimbo, and Los Lagos) are located on the Chilean mainland
(Fig. 1). Easter Island (henceforth Rapa Nui, the name preferred by
its inhabitants) is located in the central South Pacific, about
3700 km from the mainland and constitutes a municipality within
the mainland region of Valparaíso. Rapa Nui is surrounded by
oligotrophic waters (recognised as a distinct marine ecoregion,
Spalding et al., 2007), and has only a fraction of inhabitants of the
mainland regions, each of which is home to over half a million
people (Table 1).
Chile covers a wide range of climate zones ranging from dry
deserts in the north, to Mediterranean and temperate climates in
the central regions and alpine tundra in the south (Peel et al., 2007).
The Antofagasta region is located in the Atacama Desert and
therefore characterised by virtually no rainfall. Plant growth is
restricted to very few areas where moisture accumulates. The
Coquimbo region is considered an arid zone at the southern edge of
the Atacama Desert with limited rainfall, which provides sufficient
water for irrigation agriculture in the transverse valleys. The Los
Lagos region has a temperate climate with regular rainfall and
features extensive forests and large freshwater lakes. Rapa Nui has a
subtropical, oceanic climate and a mostly rocky coastline though a
few sandy beaches exist. The area of the island is 164 km2 and
therefore much smaller than the mainland regions (126,000 km2
for Antofagasta, 41,000 km2 for Coquimbo and 49,000 km2 for Los
Lagos).
Traditionally, one of the most important and well-paying eco-
nomic sectors in Chile has been the mining industry. In Antofagasta,
mining is especially important (generating most of the GDP of the
region), followed by the construction industry. People in Antofa-
gasta enjoy one of the highest average wages (15,000 US$ annually
compared to the Chilean average of 11,000 US$), and the region is
the richest of Chile (according to per capita GDP). Few people live in
84 T. Kiessling et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 137 (2017) 82e95

island are indicated

Fig. 1. Map of Chile showing the four case study regions. The dot represents the regional capital (name in brackets). The Mejillones peninsula and the Chiloe
by arrows.

Table 1
Description of case study regions.

Antofagasta Coquimbo Los Lagos Rapa Nui Chile

Climate & landscape

€ ppen climate classificationa
Ko Cold desert (BWk) Cold desert (BWk) Temperate oceanic (Cfb) Subtropical Cold desert,
humid (Cfa) temperate and
polar (B, C, D, E)
Landscape description Desert, extreme Bordering Temperate Volcanic, grass Deserts, mountains,
aridity, the desert, arid, rainforest cover, and shrubland, temperate rainforests,
almost no plant plant growth lakes, regular rainfall regular rainfall polar tundra,
growth in interior volcanic islands
Area (kmb) 126,000 40,500 48,500 164 756,000
b
Economy (data for 2012/ 2013)
Main economy sectors Mining (57%), Mining (36%), Manufacturing (19%), Tourismc (n/a) Finances (20%),
(in percentage of Construction (17%) Personal services Personal services (17%), Mining (13%),
regional GDP) (13%), Construction (10%) Finances (11%) Commerce (12%)
Main employment sectors Mining (23%), Retail (19%), Food Retail (19%), Service Retail (20%),
(in percentage of Retail (17%), production Manufacturing (14%), industry/tourism Manufacturing (11%),
employed population) Transport (11%) (14%), Mining (12%) Food production (12%) (71%)c Food production (11%)
Per capita GDP 44,000 US$ 11,000 US$ 8000 US$ n/a 14,000 US$

Population (data for 2012)

Number inhabitantsd 595,000 735,000 822,000 6,000c 17,455,000
Average annual incomee 15,000 US$ 10,000 US$ 9000 US$ n/a 11,000 US$
Percentage of population 5.4 13.8 16.1 n/a 11.7
living in povertyf

Tourism (data for 2013)g

Number of tourists 702,000 323,000 536,000 76,000 6,774,000
Overnight stays 1,232,000 765,000 890,000 141,000 13,240,000
Percentage of international 17% 8% 28% 48% 32%
tourists
Percentage of international 23% 9% 26% n/a 34%
overnight stays

All sums expressed in United States $, according to conversion rate by the World Bank for 2013 (1 US$ ¼ 495.27 Chilean Pesos). n/a ¼ Information not available.
a
Peel et al., 2007. bINE, 2012, INE, 2013b, Banco Central de Chile 2015. cPLADECO Rapa Nui, 2005, 2013. dINE, 2012.. eINE, 2013b. fCASEN 2015. gINE, 2014a.
 T. Kiessling et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 137 (2017) 82e95
poverty (~5%), compared to Coquimbo (~14%), and Los Lagos (~16%,
Table 1). A large proportion (20%) of the people employed in
Antofagasta comes from other regions. In Coquimbo, similar to
Antofagasta, the mining and construction industry are among the
main income sources, but the per capita GDP and the average in-
come of the region lies below the national average. The economy of
the Los Lagos region primarily developed around salmon aquacul-
ture (and related industries) but has diversified after a virus had
caused a temporal collapse in the salmon industry (see Barton and
Fløysand, 2010), resulting in a growing importance of the retail and
personal service sector. The main source of income on Rapa Nui is
tourism with approx. 70% of the local workforce employed in this
and related sectors (Table 1).
Chile receives about 2 million international tourists a year and
almost 5 million more are domestic tourists (INE, 2014a). Among
the case study regions Rapa Nui receives by far the most tourists in
relation to the local population. Almost half of the visitors to the
island are international tourists, followed by the Los Lagos region
(28%), Antofagasta (17%), and Coquimbo (8%, Table 1).
2.2. Sampling of beach litter and litter accumulations
Litter on the beaches of the case study regions was assessed
during two nationwide campaigns involving schoolchildren (under
the program Científicos de la Basura) in 2012 and 2016. Another
sampling was conducted in Antofagasta in 2014. During all sam-
plings vertical transects were established at the beaches, on which
stations were positioned to reflect sampling points at the lower,
middle, and upper shore, respectively (also see Bravo et al., 2009).
The number of transects per beach and stations per transect (and
therefore the total area sampled) varied according to the capacity of
the sampling team (Appendix 1). At each station, a square of
3  3 m (9 m2) was established and all litter on the surface within
the square was quantified and classified according to its type
(plastic, cigarette butts, paper, glass, metal, and other). On Rapa Nui
supplementary samplings of rocky shores were conducted in 2014
and 2015 in order to estimate the proportion of litter objects
originating from fisheries. These samplings also involved school-
children and were conducted near Taharoa were all accessible litter
Fig. 2. Coastal litter in the case study regions. a ¼ People camping and preparing food next to a litter accumulation in Antofagasta. b ¼ A litter accumulation close to Puerto Montt
(Los Lagos). c ¼ Litter dump site consisting of glass, metal and plastics at a camp site at Punta Teatinos (Coquimbo). d ¼ Small litter fragments and a fishing rope in rock crevasses
(Rapa Nui). Image credits: Tim Kiessling (a), Martin Thiel (b, d), Oscar Pino (c).
85
was collected and classified.
Accumulations of litter objects (or illegal litter dump sites, Fig. 2)
were quantified on some of the beaches previously sampled for
litter densities and also in neighbouring coastal areas. Their ma-
terial composition was noted (plastic, paper, glass, metal, and
other). A litter accumulation was treated as such if all of the
following criteria were met: (a) at least five items present in one
spot (less than 30 cm apart), (b) the size of each item was at least
5 cm (longest side), and (c) the overall space occupied by litter
exceeded 1 m2. If two litter accumulations were less than 5 m apart
they were considered as one accumulation.
2.3. Municipal planning documents
To assess the engagement of municipalities in coastal litter and
waste management, their current community development plans
(Plan de desarrollo - PLADECO) were reviewed. The chosen munic-
ipalities represent the entire island of Rapa Nui and the cities (but
not entire regions) of Antofagasta, Coquimbo and Puerto Montt
(located in the Los Lagos region). Community development plans
are not legally binding, but represent the main strategic medium-
term planning tool for Chilean municipalities. The length of the
planning period and the structure and topics of the document are
subject to the needs and goals of each municipality. The planning
period for the plans are from 2013 to 2022 for Antofagasta, 2013 to
2018 for Coquimbo, 2011 to 2016 for Puerto Montt, and 2013 to
2016 for Rapa Nui.
2.4. Environmental perception and engagement of residents:
surveys in case study regions
The present study draws on data from two surveys. A ques-
tionnaire about general environmental views, experiences related
to the environment, and the attitude towards reducing litter by
recycling was conducted among people in principal cities of the
case study regions. Questionnaires for Rapa Nui and Antofagasta
were performed during the summer (January) of 2015 and those
for Coquimbo and Puerto Montt during the summer of 2016. Only
local residents were interviewed in places open to the public
86 T. Kiessling et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 137 (2017) 82e95
(beaches, streets, shops). An interview took about 15 min and
consisted of statements which could be ranked on a five-point
(Likert) scale with the options “Totally agree”, “Agree”, “Neither
agree nor disagree”, “Disagree”, and “Totally disagree”. The ques-
tionnaire was conducted in Spanish. For the analysis we consid-
ered between 48 and 60 interviews per region and excluded
statements that received ambiguous responses. Several state-
ments were grouped to represent the domains Attitude (12 state-
ments), Belief (11 statements) and Behaviour (4 statements). We
weighted interviews according to gender (female and male) and
age (four categories: 16e23, 24e33, 34e46, 47e77 years) to reflect
demographics in the respective regions for the year 2012 (INE,
2012). Statistical analysis was conducted with the free software
PSPP (Pfaff et al., 2012), employing ANOVA to test for differences in
response to individual statements and domains per region, and
one-tailed bivariate correlation to assess the relationships among
domains and regions.
The data for a second survey came from a citizen science project
and were collected by schoolchildren of an average age of 12 years,
who were supervised by their teachers and scientific assessors. This
project evaluated knowledge about coastal pollution, environ-
mental behaviour (regarding litter) of respondents at the beach,
and preferred solutions for the coastal litter problem. The survey
was undertaken in public spaces, lasted between 10 and 15 min and
consisted of 25 questions. The nationwide data (982 people inter-
viewed throughout Chile) had already been analysed by Eastman
et al. (2013), but the present paper includes some unpublished
data for the four study regions, especially for Rapa Nui. 574 in-
terviews were considered in this study, with an unequal number for
each region (Antofagasta n ¼ 125, Coquimbo n ¼ 236, Los Lagos
n ¼ 181, Rapa Nui n ¼ 32). An ANOVA was carried out within PSPP
to test for differences among regions for selected questions.
3. Results
3.1. Coastal litter in the study regions
Beaches in Antofagasta had the highest densities of litter objects
(9.5 objects * m1), about 5 times more objects per 1 m2 than
beaches in Los Lagos (2.0 objects * m1) and Coquimbo (1.5 objects *
m1). Less beach litter was found on Rapa Nui (0.5 objects * m1,
Table 2). Within the Antofagasta region, beaches close to the city of
Antofagasta contained much more litter than beaches in more
remote regions (e.g. the Mejillones peninsula), leading to a high
Table 2
Average quantities of coastal litter (beach litter and litter accumulations), main litter sources, and actions on coastal litter in the four case study regions. Regarding
beach litter, some beaches have been assessed twice in different years, resulting in two samples (see Appendix 1 for details).
Antofagasta
2
Beach litter * m 9.5 ± 14.5 (12 samples
e 1692 m2)
Litter accumulations 8.1 (354,000 m2 surveyed)
* 10,000 m2 at beaches
and coastline
Main litter sources Beach visitors (Bravo et al., 2009)
Litter infrastructure Litter bins and service at licensed
at coastline beaches. No infrastructure
in other coastal areas.
Actions on coastal litter Irregular beach clean-ups.
standard deviation. This is similar for beaches in the Los Lagos re-
gion (Appendix 1). Plastics, cigarette butts and various other ob-
jects were among the main components of litter, while paper, glass,
and metal were found less frequently. On Rapa Nui 75% of beach
litter was plastic and more than 60% of the litter found at rocky
shores could be classified as fishery or maritime debris (nets, buoys,
crates, work clothes, Fig. 3).
Litter accumulations were frequently seen in the Antofagasta
and Los Lagos region (Table 2). In the former case, litter occasionally
occupied areas of more than 100 m2 (pers. obs.) and was present on
beaches as well as in neighbouring coastal areas. Especially
contaminated were areas where many illegal campers were
observed (Fig. 2a), some of who built semi-permanent structures
and stayed for weeks at a time. In comparison, litter accumulations
in the Los Lagos region generally consisted of fewer items (compare
Fig. 2a and b). In Coquimbo, litter accumulations were seen less
frequently. Most littered areas coincide with illegal camping sites
(as is the case in Antofagasta, Fig. 2c). On Rapa Nui, no single litter
accumulation could be observed, not even close to campfire and
barbecue sites where only few single litter items were encountered
(Fig. 4c).
3.2. Current residue management, municipal planning and the role
of local initiatives
Observations of litter infrastructure (litter bins or containers,
regular service) at beaches of the mainland study regions showed
that most licensed beaches (i.e. beaches with authorised restau-
rants or rentals for beach and sport equipment) are appropriately
equipped and serviced, but unlicensed beaches generally have few
or no litter bins and irregular service, while no litter infrastructure
exists on rocky, less accessible shores (pers. obs.). On Rapa Nui,
relatively few litter bins are observed on beaches and no regular
litter service exists for rocky shores. Beach clean-ups are organised
in all regions by various organisations and involve the Chilean
Navy (DIRECTEMAR), local neighbourhood organisations and non-
governmental organisations. Apart from Rapa Nui, where a
municipal-backed coastal clean-up brigade exists, beach cleaning
is an irregular affair and relies on the support of volunteers
(Table 2).
Regarding solid waste management, no integrated and
municipal-coordinated “waste valorisation” program (e.g. recy-
cling, composting, energy recycling) exists in the three mainland
regions. In Coquimbo and Puerto Montt (Los Lagos) public
Coquimbo Los Lagos Rapa Nui
1.5 ± 0.7 (7 samples 2.0 ± 5.6 (9 samples 0.5 (1 sample, 162 m2)
e 2052 m2) e 1899 m2)
2.7 (78,000 m2 surveyed) 8.3 (45,000 m2 surveyed) 0.0 (26,000 m2 surveyed)
Beach visitors Beach visitors, aquaculture Fishery debris, other
(Bravo et al., 2009) (Bravo et al., 2009; countries (present study,
Hinojosa and Thiel, 2009) Hidalgo-Ruz and Thiel, 2013)
Litter bins and service at Litter bins and service at Few litter bins at licensed
licensed beaches. No licensed beaches. beaches. No infrastructure
infrastructure in other No infrastructure in other coastal areas.
coastal areas. in other coastal areas.
Irregular beach clean-ups. Irregular beach clean-ups. Regular and municipal-
backed beach clean-ups.
 T. Kiessling et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 137 (2017) 82e95 87

Fig. 3. Composition and origin of beach litter found in the case study regions. Left ¼ Litter objects found during beach sampling classified according to material. Right ¼ Litter
objects found on rocky shores on Rapa Nui classified according to origin (fishery/maritime or other). N ¼ Number of beaches assessed. n ¼ Number of total litter items found.

recycling centres exist for a wide range of domestic litter, while in
Antofagasta the recollection is limited to electronic waste
(Table 3). Single individuals, private companies and foundations
are involved in recycling efforts in the case study regions, and
while no central register exists, it seems that more of them are
active in the regions of Coquimbo and Los Lagos than in Antofa-
gasta (Table 3). The latter region plans, for example, to construct
recycling spots and to recover littered areas under the plan of Creo
Antofagasta (Appendix 3). The topic of waste management is of
intermediate importance in the community development plans of
Antofagasta and Coquimbo (Table 3). Antofagasta plans to clean
the coastal environment and place it under surveillance, as well as
initiate municipal recycling and community education campaigns.
The municipality of Coquimbo plans to ban single-use plastic bags
within a few years and to strengthen community education to
improve recycling rates and address the problem of illegal litter
dumpsites within the city. Although the topic of litter is not
mentioned in the community development plan of Puerto Montt,
the municipality started to employ a scheme to teach recycling and
composting in several parts of its communities (Municipalidad de
Puerto Montt, 2010), and a commission formed by regional gov-
ernment bodies (and other actors such as universities and NGOs) is

Fig. 4. Citizens engaged on coastal litter and waste management in Chile. a ¼ Boy scouts volunteering at a beach cleaning on the Mejillones peninsula (Antofagasta). b ¼ A
recycling station initiated by citizens of La Herradura (Coquimbo). c ¼ Informal fireplace at the coastline of Rapa Nui with neatly stacked firewood (upper left corner). d ¼ Volunteers


after a beach cleaning on Rapa Nui. Image credits: Tim Kiessling (a), Maria de los Angeles (b), Martin Thiel (c, d).
88 T. Kiessling et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 137 (2017) 82e95

Table 3
General litter management and involvement of municipalities and local actors in case study regions.

Antofagasta Coquimbo Los Lagos Rapa Nui

Principal waste disposal Landfill Landfill Landfill Landfill, recycling, export of wastea

Waste valorisation Recycling of Two community-run One community-run Municipal recycling

infrastructure electronic wasteb,
nationwide
operating companies
collect paper, glass, metalc
recycling centresd, recycling centred, and recycling centre,
nationwide operating companies at least 10 further municipal composting
collect paper, recycling spots, initiative, domestic composting,
glass, metalc, at least 6 locally often associated to schoolsf, community educationa
operating companies collect paper, municipal composting
glass, metal and plastic, at least initiativeg
14 registered individuals
collect recyclable materiale

Municipal waste reduction
plansa
Municipal recycling, coast
surveillance and cleaning to
address coastal litter,
community education
Municipal recycling, ban Unknown
of single-use plastic bags, (not mentioned
community education in community
development plan)
Amplify municipal
recycling, municipal
composting, amplify
domestic composting,
energetic recycling,
community education

Importance of litter topic Medium, 3% of document Medium, 3% of document Low, litter is not mentioned High, 5% of document
in municipal planning dedicated to litter dedicated to litter in planning document dedicated to litter
documenth

Registered non- 6,337 (6) 6,168 (7) 9,736 (4) 94 (2)

profit organisations
(with an environmental
focus)i

Topics of engagement of Coastal litter, Recycling, community Coastal litter, littering, Recycling, community
NGOs and local actorsj social work, sport education, coastal litter, social work community education, coastal litter
education, conservation

a
PLADECO Antofagasta 2013, PLADECO Coquimbo 2013, PLADECO Puerto Montt 2011, PLADECO Rapa Nui 2005, PLADECO Rapa Nui 2013. bMunicipalidad de Antofagasta,
2014. cSINIA, 2016.. dBased on http://www.triciclos.cl/#puntos-limpios/puntos-limpios-en-chile. eJunta de Vecinos La Herradura, 2016. fBased on http://www.recicla-me.
cl/#puntos. gMunicipalidad de Puerto Montt, 2010. hBased on percentage of text addressing solid litter in relation to entire community development plan of respective

n, 2013. jFor a non-exhaustive list of local actors see Appendix 3.
municipality, see Appendix 2 for details. iServicio de Registro Civil e Identificacio

involved in environmental education, addressing topics from
recycling to excursions to experience national parks.
Among the case study regions, Rapa Nui has the most integrated
waste disposal system with a functioning municipal recycling plant,
handling about 15% of domestic waste and serving as a recycling
centre for the community. A part of the population is further
actively composting organic litter (PLADECO Rapa Nui, 2013).
However, as a small island it is also dependent on exporting waste
to the mainland at a high economic cost. The issue of litter man-
agement is of high priority in the current planning document and
the municipality seeks to establish a composting plant, amplify the
existing recycling plant, explore possibilities to establish an energy
recycling plant, and educate the community about residential
composting (Table 3).
In all case study regions non-profit and non-governmental or-
ganisations as well as individual citizens are engaged on the topics
of marine litter and/or waste management (Fig. 4). Because of the
lack of municipal recycling schemes several private companies and
individuals address this gap (for a non-exhaustive list of local actors
see Table 3 and Appendix 3). Citizens and organisations are
prominently involved in the issue of coastal litter on Rapa Nui,
where a charismatic leader (Mama Piru) and other organisations
(e.g. Ka'ara) organise regular beach clean-ups and education cam-
paigns. At least two NGOs are active on the issue of coastal litter in
Antofagasta (Budeo Bodyboard Club, Colibrí Eco-Social). In
Coquimbo, engaged citizens and initiatives are focusing on litter
disposal and waste management issues (community recycling
spots, liquid waste disposal in wetlands, reduction of plastic bags).
A surfer organisation (Olas Limpias) is active on the issue of coastal
litter and another NGO finances its social work by recycling (UPA-
SOL). At least two NGOs are active in the Los Lagos region on the
topics of beach litter, littering, and recycling (Puerto Montt es
Nuestra Casa, Yaqu Pacha; Appendix 3).
3.3. Environmental views and behaviour of residents: surveys in
case study regions
Respondents of the survey identified beach visitors as the most
common source of coastal litter (Table 4). People on Rapa Nui and
in Los Lagos also considered fisheries and boats as a debris source.
Beaches were perceived to be most dirty in Antofagasta, followed
by Los Lagos and (depending on season) Coquimbo and Rapa Nui.
When asked about personal littering behaviour, people from Rapa
Nui stated to litter less frequently, carry coastal litter more
frequently to litter bins, and talk more frequently to infractors
than citizens of Antofagasta, Coquimbo and Los Lagos. In all re-
gions, the survey participants agreed on community education
and fines as solutions for coastal litter but the suggested amount
for such a fine varied between 70 and 90 US$ (Coquimbo and Los
Lagos, respectively), 120 US$ (Antofagasta), and 910 US$ (Rapa
Nui, Table 4).
The questionnaire on general environmental views and opinions
about recycling behaviour contained a statement of whether or not
respondents have the possibility to enjoy nature close to their living
area. While respondents from Coquimbo, Los Lagos and Rapa Nui
responded favourably, participants from Antofagasta responded
significantly more negatively (ANOVA, F ¼ 31.0, p < 0.01, Table 4).
Averaging all statements assigned to the domains Attitude, Belief
 T. Kiessling et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 137 (2017) 82e95 89

and Behaviour, participants from Coquimbo and Rapa Nui have a
significantly stronger pro-environmental standpoint than residents
of Antofagasta and Los Lagos (ANOVA, F ¼ 26.9, p < 0.01). This
tendency is repeated considering the domain Attitude on its own
(ANOVA, F ¼ 29.2, p < 0.01). Regarding Belief, the respondents from
Coquimbo have a better score than those from Los Lagos and Rapa
Nui while people in Antofagasta score worst (ANOVA, F ¼ 28.6,
p < 0.01). Considering Behaviour, respondents on Rapa Nui have a
significantly better score than people in Coquimbo and Los Lagos
but not Antofagasta, which fares intermediate between the others
(ANOVA, F ¼ 5.5, p < 0.01).
A strong opinion in one domain appears to positively influence
another, as we found a correlation between Attitude and Belief,
which is much more pronounced in Antofagasta and Los Lagos
(Bivariate correlation, r > 0.70, p < 0.01) than in Coquimbo and
Rapa Nui (Bivariate correlation, r < 0.35, p ¼ 0.01). There is no
significant correlation between Belief and Behaviour in any of the
regions (Bivariate correlation, p > 0.20). Between the domains
Attitude and Behaviour, the strongest positive correlation can be
observed for Rapa Nui (r ¼ 0.42, p < 0.01), followed by Los Lagos
and Antofagasta (both r ¼ 0.26, p ¼ < 0.05), while the relationship
is not significant for Coquimbo (r ¼ 0.20, p ¼ 0.07).
Considering individual statements, responses from Coquimbo
and Rapa Nui appear mostly similar, as do those from Antofagasta
and Los Lagos (the two latter regions usually scoring worse than the
former two). In particular, people from the former two regions
generally have a more positive attitude towards recycling. Ques-
tioned if they actually practise recycling, respondents from Rapa
Nui stated to do so significantly more often than people from the
other case study regions (82% versus 55% in Coquimbo, 46% in Los
Lagos, and 40% in Antofagasta, ANOVA, F ¼ 14.0, p < 0.01). Re-
spondents from Rapa Nui are also more readily available to
volunteer for beach clean-ups (ANOVA, F ¼ 6.7, p < 0.01). Inter-
estingly, their opinion on the usefulness of separate litter bins on
the beach also differs from the other three regions, judging them
less helpful in order to promote recycling (ANOVA, F ¼ 8.0,
p < 0.01).
4. Discussion
4.1. Coastal litter situation and litter sources
As in many other parts of the world (Browne et al., 2015),
coastal litter is a prevalent problem across the entire Chilean
coast, including its oceanic islands (Bravo et al., 2009; Thiel et al.,
2011; Hidalgo-Ruz and Thiel, 2013). The quantities encountered
are comparable to other, often more populous countries (Bravo
et al., 2009). The most polluted region within Chile is Antofa-
gasta (present study, Bravo et al., 2009); these large quantities of
beach litter and litter accumulations (consisting of food leftovers,
used hygiene products and sharp objects) not only pose an
environmental hazard to marine wildlife (especially on the
Mejillones peninsula, a biodiversity hotspot, Ulloa et al., 2013)
but also a health hazard to beach visitors, considering the
proximity of camp sites (Fig. 2a). While many litter accumula-
tions were found in the Los Lagos region as well, they are not
expected to pose a significant health hazard to beach visitors as
they are generally much smaller and beach litter quantities are
much lower compared to Antofagasta. Other beaches on the
Chilean mainland likewise feature significantly less coastal litter
(Bravo et al., 2009). On Rapa Nui no single litter accumulation
was found and low quantities of coastal litter were recorded.
However, microplastics that are less conspicuous also contribute
to coastal pollution on Rapa Nui, and the quantities of these small
fragments encountered exceed those of study sites on the Chil-
ean mainland and are comparable to other oceanic islands
(Hidalgo-Ruz and Thiel, 2013), illustrating that the coastal litter
problem is present, albeit not easily visible.

Table 4
Selected questions and statements from the surveys conducted among the population in the case study regions. Participants of national survey: Antofagasta n ¼ 125,
Coquimbo n ¼ 236, Los Lagos n ¼ 181, Rapa Nui n ¼ 32. Participants of questionnaire: Antofagasta n ¼ 48, Coquimbo n ¼ 60, Los Lagos n ¼ 56, Rapa Nui n ¼ 60. If not stated
otherwise, values represent averages. Lower scores in the second part of the table (questionnaire) indicate that respondents agree more with the respective statement.

Antofagasta Coquimbo Los Lagos Rapa Nui

National survey about conduct at the beach environment

Percentage of participants that replied that beach litter originates from visitors, fishermen, boats 91, 15, 10 89, 7, 3 83, 25, 22 78, 28, 34

Perceived beach cleanliness during summer, winter. Lower score is cleaner, 1 to 10 7.1, 6.3 6.1, 4.5 6.8, 5.8 5.2, 5.3

“How often do you litter?” Lower score is less frequent, 1 to 5 1.9 2.0 1.7 1.3

“Do you carry beach litter to a trashcan?” Lower score is more frequent, 1 to 5 2.6 2.9 2.9 1.8

“When you see someone littering, do you say something?” Lower score is more frequent, 1 to 5 2.8 3.5 3.4 2.2

Questionnaire about environmental views and recycling, 1 to 5

“Where I live, I have a lot of possibilities to enjoy nature” 3.0 1.9 1.6 1.0

“I would be available to help to clean beaches as a volunteer” 2.2 2.0 2.3 1.4

“I am willing to change my habits and to separate litter for recycling” 1.4 1.2 1.5 1.2

“People today are accustomed to single-use objects and products with short life cycles” 2.0 1.2 1.6 1.1

“I think our system of consumption is positive even though single-use objects have become more common” 3.2 2.0 1.8 2.2

“I am separating litter for recycling” 2.8 2.7 3.0 1.4

“I am frequently buying single-use household items” 3.6 3.7 3.7 3.1

Score across all domains. Lower score is more desirable 1.9 1.5 1.8 1.5

Score across domain Attitude 1.6 1.2 1.7 1.2

Score across domain Belief 1.8 1.2 1.6 1.4

Score across domain Behaviour 2.9 3.1 3.2 2.6

90 T. Kiessling et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 137 (2017) 82e95
Sources of coastal litter on the Chilean mainland are manifold
and vary according to region: in southern Chile, most floating litter
is related to aquaculture operations (Hinojosa and Thiel, 2009),
while in central Chile rivers act as a vector, transporting litter from
inland sources to the coast (Rech et al., 2014). The proximity to
populated areas, the types of litter, and the presence of litter on
upper parts of beaches point to beach visitors as a main source of
coastal litter across continental Chile (Thiel et al., 2003; Bravo et al.,
2009); most survey participants correctly identified this source.
Mismanaged solid waste of coastal cities is yet another source of
litter in the coastal environment (Thiel et al., 2011). It is estimated
that 80% of marine litter on the Chilean mainland comes from land-
based sources (Rovira, 2006), indicating a domestic problem. In
contrast, coastal litter on Rapa Nui is almost exclusively of foreign
origin as is also indicated by the absence of domestic litter accu-
mulations, the high proportion of fishery items among marine
debris, and the large quantities of microplastics (present study,
Hidalgo-Ruz and Thiel, 2013). It is suggested that these litter items
reach the shore of Rapa Nui by accumulation and transport within
the South Pacific Subtropical Gyre (Eriksen et al., 2013; Hidalgo-Ruz
and Thiel, 2013).
4.2. Willingness to engage on coastal litter and underlying factors
The population of Antofagasta is least prepared to act on coastal
litter and on improving litter management. Although the magni-
tude of the litter problem on its own should be sufficient to
generate action we identified a range of factors that are likely to
discourage it and may help to explain this lack of engagement
(Table 5). Clearly, the local population is aware of the problem as
governmental surveys show (CASEN, 2013; PLADECO Antofagasta,
2013), but awareness on its own is unlikely to translate into pro-
environmental behaviour (Kollmuss and Agyeman, 2002). Other
environmental and health problems in the region are often asso-
ciated with the mining industry, for example beach pollution by
hydrocarbides (Merino and Herrera, 2006) and exposure of the
local population to arsenic and lead contamination (e.g. Borgon ~o
et al., 1977; Sepúlveda et al., 2000; Pe
rez-Bravo et al., 2004), yet
local people have little opportunities to mitigate these problems.
Mining in Antofagasta is also likely contributing to the low will-
ingness to engage on environmental issues because of the large
“floating population” of workers this region attracts due to high
wages. This population may hold inferior environmental percep-
tion towards their host region because of less local knowledge and a
lack of sense of belonging (as has been shown for the floating
population of China's Shawan River Basin by Gu and Ma, 2013). The
opposite of this emotion, “place attachment” may act as a mediator,
Table 5
A selection of factors contributing to environmental awareness and engagement on the coastal litter problem. Plus signs indicate that the factor is at work in the
respective case study region, promoting engagement there. A minus indicates the absence of a factor, parentheses indicate moderate importance of the respective factor. Own
elaboration, based on qualitative criteria (see text for details).
Factor encouraging engagement
Source of problem is external
Impact of problem is great (e.g. to environment or human health)
Feasibility to address problem
Local economy is sustainable
Internal pressure is high (social pressure, effective legislation and prosecution)
External pressure is high (international visibility, tourism)
Present culture and history are anchored in natural environment
Population has a sense of belonging
Landscape is “attractive”
Participation in decision-making processes is possible (bottom-up approach)
though not a guarantee for environmental responsible behaviour
(Vaske and Kobrin, 2001). Another factor refers to aesthetic values:
the desert environment is among the least preferred places in vi-
sual comparisons of landscapes (Balling and Falk, 1982); residents
of Antofagasta are especially unsatisfied with the appearance of
their city (summarised by OECD, 2013a) and according to our
questionnaire do not have much opportunity to enjoy nature.
External pressure to maintain a clean environment is mostly lack-
ing close to the coastline, because the large number of international
tourists visiting the region are mainly attracted to inland features
(INE, 2014b).
The Coquimbo region shows increasing municipal involvement
in litter issues and several citizen-initiated projects address the
lack of recycling infrastructure. One of the main contributors to
the economy of Coquimbo (as in Antofagasta) is the mining in-
dustry. However, there is no large floating population attracted to
Coquimbo. Rather the opposite is true: many people from
Coquimbo work in the Antofagasta region (INE, 2013a). Mining
also does not contribute significantly to per capita GDP and per-
sonal income, which are both below national average (INE, 2013b;
Banco Central de Chile, 2015). Other sectors such as fishing and
agriculture are not only important employers but also act as a
tourist attraction. The mild climate and extensive beaches further
attract summer tourists (mainly from the capital Santiago, INE,
2014a) and domestic migrants, making Coquimbo the region of
Chile with most net-immigration (INE, 2007). Coastal protected
areas allow visitors to experience patchy rainforests (Fray Jorge
National Park) and marine wildlife (Pingüino de Humboldt Na-
tional Reserve), and are destinations for tens of thousands of
people annually (CONAF, 2014). This recreational focus on the
coast is likely to facilitate environmental awareness and conser-
vation of places and habitats. Regarding coastal litter, a study
conducted at La Herradura beach in Coquimbo found that visitors
especially value a clean environment (Loyola, 2012), in line with
research conducted in other countries (e.g. Roca and Villares,
2008). Holzapfel (2014) found that residents from the Coquimbo
region are willing to reduce the use of plastic bags when supplied
with reusable bags. Based on our questionnaire, the willingness to
reduce waste quantities is generally stronger here than in the
Antofagasta and Los Lagos regions. However, turning this positive
attitude into action is especially lacking in Coquimbo, as shown by
the lack of correlation between the domains Attitude and
Behaviour.
In the Los Lagos region the economy is mainly dependent on
the aquaculture industry, especially salmon rearing (FAO, 2005;
PLADECO Puerto Montt, 2011). This dependence has created so-
cial problems in the past: one of the highest unemployment rates
Antofagasta Coquimbo Los Lagos Rapa Nui
   þ
þþ (þ) (þ) þ
 þ þ 
 (þ) (þ) þ
 (þ) (þ) þ
 þ þ þþ
 (þ) þ þþ
 (þ) þ þþ
(þ) (þ) þ þ
   þ
 T. Kiessling et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 137 (2017) 82e95
in recent times in the regional capital Puerto Montt was caused by
an outbreak of the infectious salmon anaemia virus (Barton and
Fløysand, 2010; PLADECO Puerto Montt, 2011). In the entire re-
gion, the rapid industrial development of aquaculture beginning in
the 1980s has had undesired side effects, but especially so on
Chiloe
(Fig. 1). The large archipelago (over 9000 km2) is mostly
isolated from the mainland and in the past has developed a unique
cultural heritage based on native Mapuche-Huilliche culture and
evangelism (reflected in wooden churches, mysticism and legends
of sea deities, Torres, 2009, Brintrup, 2012, UNESCO, 2016). The
development of aquaculture has not only led to environmental
problems (Buschmann et al., 2009) but, as argued by several au-
thors, has replaced a former system of food self-sufficiency of is-
landers and further poses a threat to their unique cultural identity
res et al., 2005). Possible consequences
(Barrett et al., 2002; Salie
are a changing perception of the natural environment as an inte-
gral part of life towards a medium for resource extraction.
Responsible tourism focused on cultural values (ethno-tourism) is
seen as an alternative development opportunity (Costa and
Valenzuela, 2012). The potential of tourism in the region is illus-
trated by the already large number of international visitors
(Table 1) and attractive landscape features (lakes, mountains,
islands, coastline). Other factors of environmental concern are the
urban extension of the regional capital Puerto Montt (PLADECO
Puerto Montt, 2011) and the high domestic waste production
(above national average, Comisio
n Nacional del Medio Ambiente,
2010).
Among the case study regions, Rapa Nui shows the greatest
concern for coastal litter and waste management, has the best
integrated infrastructure, and the most ambitious plans to reduce
or recycle domestic waste. The strong awareness and willingness
of citizens to engage on the island are likely a result of its isolated
geographic location, the unique cultural identity and biodiversity,
and its dependence on (international) tourism, which makes it
prone to outside pressure (Table 5). The latter is illustrated by the
discontinued use of plastic bags to package souvenirs after tour-
ists complained (S. Narva
ez, personal communication), which also
suggests that the vast quantity of visitors to the island do not
litter extensively. Residents of Rapa Nui seem to feel responsible
for the natural environment and also have many possibilities to
enjoy nature (Table 4), which is important to create environ-
mental awareness (Miller, 2005; Nisbet et al., 2009). As almost
half of the islanders are of the Rapanui ethnicity, it is not sur-
prising that they prefer traditional ocean conservation measures
such as tapu (essentially fishing taboos, Aburto et al., 2015), and
oppose top-down conservation measures imposed by the Chilean
government (Gaymer et al., 2014). Wiener et al. (2015) found that
native people on Hawaii also showed a strong interest in tradi-
tional ocean conservation measures, and highlight the impor-
tance of cultural and place-based connections for conservation.
The importance of involving local populations in development
projects is also illustrated by Tran (2006): people living on the
island of Holbox (Mexico) have acquired an advanced under-
standing of development and environmental issues and see
themselves as an integral part to address problems. Further
contributing to environmental awareness on Rapa Nui is the small
size of the island and the community-driven lifestyle, which in
turn is likely to generate social pressure and promote pro-
environmental behaviour (see Heinen (1995) in the context of
small, well-integrated communities and recycling attitudes).
Finally, the coastal litter problem has been brought upon Rapa
Nui from the outside and few litter items are of domestic origin.
This may facilitate unification against an external threat
91
(“common enemy”, De Jaegher and Hoyer (2012) and references
therein), further promoting the willingness to engage on envi-
ronmental issues.
4.3. Comparing case study regions
While we found that the residents of the case study regions
are aware of coastal pollution and mismanaged household waste,
a direct engagement is often lacking, especially so on mainland
Chile. Based on the conducted questionnaire, between 40%
(Antofagasta) and 82% (Rapa Nui) of the respondents declared
that they recycle. A similarly high percentage responded posi-
tively to the same question in government surveys (66 and 64%
for entire Chile, MMA, 2015; 2016, respectively). This is probably
overstated, considering the absence of a clear definition of
“recycling” in the surveys (including the present study), and the
inclusion of people who occasionally recycle (only about 3%
recycle daily, MMA, 2016). The overall recycling rate of solid
waste by volume in Chile is low at about 9% (data for 2009,
Comisio
n Nacional del Medio Ambiente, 2010). People often
mention a lack of time, infrastructure or municipal involvement
as reasons to not practice recycling (pers. obs., MMA, 2016). This
discrepancy between goodwill (attitude) and actual practice
(behaviour) becomes most apparent when comparing results
from Rapa Nui and Coquimbo: residents in both regions score
high within the survey regarding environmental beliefs and at-
titudes, but concrete action is missing in Coquimbo. We attribute
this discrepancy not only to lacking municipal/governmental
support but also to a more complex underlying set of variables
such as the regional economy, culture and opportunities to enjoy
nature (Table 5 and previous section). The latter seems to be
especially meaningful considering Antofagasta, which (as most
Chilean cities) does not meet the standards for public access to
green areas recommended by the World Health Organisation
(OECD, 2013b). Another important variable that has not been
addressed in the present study and needs further investigation is
the educational background of the population in question.
Regarding individuals, the level of education suggests an effect on
recycling attitudes (e.g. Perrin and Barton, 2001) and littering (e.g.
Arafat et al., 2007; Eastman et al., 2013). Regarding the economy,
main income sectors attract a large quantity of people to two
regions: in Antofagasta, temporary immigrants look for wealth
and not for a permanent and pleasant place to live. On Rapa Nui,
tourists desire to experience the unique cultural history of the
island, which cannot coexist in a deteriorated (coastal) environ-
ment, illustrating an example of strong outside pressure. This
outside pressure is, to a lesser extent, also present in the regions
of Coquimbo (national tourism and migration) and Los Lagos
(international tourism).
4.4. Rapa Nui as a role model and implications for management
We regard Rapa Nui as a role model, given its concrete actions
on the (externally caused and difficult to solve) coastal litter
problem and advancement on waste management practices to
address the problem of relying on waste exports to the mainland.
The local municipality has recognised the problem and promoted
natural leaders already previously involved in coastal litter issues.
Rapa Nui most closely reflects the factors we predict to promote
environmental awareness and engagement: a mostly sustainable
economy sector, an attractive landscape, a profound cultural history
and external pressure caused by tourism and high international
visibility.
92 T. Kiessling et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 137 (2017) 82e95

Moving forward, based on the previous discussions, we advise NC 120030.

that coastal and urban development projects allow residents and
visitors a meaningful interaction with the natural environment. Appendix 1. Beach litter quantities in the four case study
This can be achieved by creating responsible access to recreational regions
areas (beaches, wetlands, national parks) and providing sufficient
green spaces in urban zones (including school yards and working
spaces). The inclusion of green spaces within areas frequented
during daily life is often associated with mental health benefits
Beach Year(s) Area Litter Beach
(reviewed by Tzoulas et al., 2007). In ecologically sensitive areas, sampled sampled (m2) objects found litter * m2
when dealing with an environmentally unaware population, sur-
Antofagasta 2012, 2014, 1,692 16,068 9.50 ± 14.49
veillance and prosecution is another option, which seems to be (N ¼ 12) 2016
accepted by visitors of coastal environments (Santos et al., 2005;
Balneario 2012 54 1,318 24.41
Eastman et al., 2013). Even more important (and preferred by
Antofagasta
beach visitors, Santos et al., 2005; Eastman et al., 2013) is com- 2016 144 6,874 47.74
e
munity education to create awareness of present and future envi- Balneario Taltal 2016 180 410 2.28
ronmental threats. Support from governing bodies should be Playa Blanca 2014 162 238 1.47
directed at people already involved in the matter (for example by Playa Bolsico 2014 162 511 3.15
promoting and supporting natural leaders or people recycling for a Playa El Salitre 2016 216 532 2.46
Playa Juan 2014 162 985 6.08
living), and should translate into direct action (e.g. awareness
pez
Lo
campaigns, beach clean-ups, supporting communal composting, Playa 2014 162 137 0.85
creating recycling infrastructure). Strict top-down approaches are Mejillones
unlikely to be successful and will probably face opposition among Rinconada
Playa Paraiso 2012 54 1,171 21.69
populations with a value system based on tradition and cultural
Playa 2014 162 438 2.70
heritage. Rinconada
Playa Trocadero 2012 162 1,672 10.32
5. Conclusion e 2016 72 1,782 24.75

Coquimbo 2012, 2016 2,052 2,974 1.45 ± 0.65

This study examined coastal litter quantities and evaluated ac- (N ¼ 7)
tions on coastal litter and general waste management in four re- Playa Changa 2012 648 635 0.98
gions of Chile. We found that the magnitude of the problem is not e 2016 324 383 1.18
necessarily related to local engagement (i.e. large litter quantities Playa El Faro 2016 216 276 1.28
do not guarantee adequate responses from the population or gov- Playa Grande 2016 216 377 1.75
ernment bodies). We propose some factors (present in the most Tongoy
Playa La 2012 324 705 2.18
engaged, but absent in the least engaged region), that can
Herradura
encourage local populations to find solutions to environmental 2016 162 435 2.69
e
problems. Among these suggested factors are: having access to Playa 2016 162 163 1.01
spaces that allow meaningful interaction with nature, the presence Pichidangui
of sustainable economy sectors, promotion of tradition-based value Los Lagos 2012, 2016 1,899 3,859 2.03 ± 5.64
systems, and external pressure to maintain a clean environment. (N ¼ 9)
Further studies should quantify the effect of these variables and
Playa Ancud 2012 162 89 0.55
evaluate the perspective of the natural environment among people 2016 108 173 1.60
e
living in different places. Playa 2016 225 417 1.85
Chinquihue
Acknowledgements Playa Chonchi 2016 216 611 2.83
Playa Contao 2012 324 79 0.24
Playa Cucao 2012 270 125 0.46
We thank Soledad Narva
ez for valuable insights from Rapa 2016 216 611 2.83
e
Nui and are grateful to her, Oscar Pino and Vivian Macaya for Playa 2016 216 101 0.47
help in conducting the questionnaire. Soledad, Maria de los Maicolpue


Angeles Gallardo, Magdalena Gatta, Carla Christie, Gabriela Playa Pelluco 2012 108 2,020 18.70
Navarro and Carola Aparicio helped to compile information about Rapa Nui
organisations, NGOs and initiatives active in the respective re- (N ¼ 1)
gions. We also thank teachers and students from Chilean schools Playa Anakena 2016 162 81 0.50
who sampled beaches and conducted surveys under the
program Científicos de la Basura. Angelo Araya Pin~ ones provided
helpful input regarding the analysis of survey data. We further Appendix 2. Analysis of community development plans
thank Patrick Ten Brink and Giulia Gitti from the Institute for (PLADECOs)
European Environmental Policy for comments on a manuscript
related to the present work. Finally, we thank Sven Bergmann The community development plans (issued by Chilean munici-
and two anonymous reviewers for constructive feedback, and palities) of Antofagasta, Coquimbo, Puerto Montt (Los Lagos), and
Mika Tan for improving the English in the manuscript. Parts of Rapa Nui were analysed according to the occurrence of keywords
the litter surveys from Antofagasta were financed by referring to waste. The proportion of the text referring to solid
project FNDR Antofagasta ID-618775-2-LP13 to CEAZA. This waste (infrastructure, management, projects, problems) was
study was financed by the Chilean Millennium Initiative Grant compared among plans.
 T. Kiessling et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 137 (2017) 82e95 93

Antofagasta Coquimbo Puerto Montt Rapa Nui

Length of document in words 191,000 79,000 19,000 50,000

Occurrence of term “basur*” (¼ litter) 32 17 0 27

Occurrence of term “residuo*” and “desecho*” (¼ waste) 79 52 0 42

Occurrence of term “vertedero” and “relleno” (¼ litter dump site) 49 23 0 22

Occurrence of term “recic*”, “compost*” and “punto limpio” (¼ recycling, composting, recycling station) 72 15 0 44

Text (in words and percentage of entire document) related to solid waste 5155 2010 0 2672
2.7% 2.5% 0.0% 5.3%

Appendix 3. Organisations and initiatives acting on coastal

litter and waste management in the case study regions (non-
exhaustive)

Organisation or initiative Region Topic More information

Científicos de la Basura All Chile, based Coastal litter, scientific education http://www.cientificosdelabasura.cl/
in Coquimbo

DIRECTEMAR All Chile Coastal litter http://www.directemar.cl/

limpieza-de-playas.html

Creo Antofagasta: Antofagasta Antofagasta Litter dump sites, public spaces http://creoantofagasta.cl/que-es-
Limpia y Conectada (ALC) antofagasta-limpia-y-conectada-alc/

Budeo Bodyboard Club Antofagasta Social work, sport, coastal litter http://www.budeo.cl/escuela-social-budeo/

Colibrí Eco-Social Antofagasta Coastal litter https://www.facebook.com/colibri.ecosocial

Parque Eco Rayen Antofagasta Recycling http://www.parqueecorayen.cl/

n Regional de
Corporacio Coquimbo Several initiatives, among them: http://www.crdp.cl/detallenoticia/691
Desarrollo Productivo Coquimbo Reduction of plastic bags,
installation of community
gardens, “recycling parks”

Olas Limpias Coquimbo Coastal litter, community education http://ficsurf.cl/2013/olas-limpias/

UPASOL Coquimbo Recycling, social work http://www.upasol.cl/

Regional de Educacio
Comite
n Los Lagos Environmental education
Ambiental Puerto Montt

Puerto Montt es Nuestra Casa Los Lagos Environmental education, http://www.puertomonttesnuestracasa.cl/

littering, beach litter

Yaqu Pacha Los Lagos Conservation, coastal litter,

environmental education

Ka'ara Rapa Nui Coastal litter

Mama Piru & Kakaka Here Henua Rapa Nui Coastal litter, environmental education

Barton, J.R., Fløysand, A., 2010. The political ecology of Chilean salmon aquaculture,
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