Professional Documents
Culture Documents
3, 2009, Part II
Introduction
Work values are linked with other relevant variables in career development, such as
professional interests or vocational personality (Finegan, 2000; Berings, Fruyt &
Bouwen, 2004; Xenikou, 2005; Rottinghaus & Zytowski, 2006), are formed in a
specific work context (Mukherfee, 2006) and influence the orientation interven-
tion designed, for example, as an element of the professional portfolio or the
development of transversal participatory and personal skills (Valentine, 2004;
Hirsch, 2006). These values were analysed from various theoretical perspectives
(Cortés, 2006; 2008; Porfeli, 2006). In an Iranian context (Ali & Amirshahi, 2002),
768 executives appreciated values that were closer to collectivism than to individu-
alism. Ghorpade, Lackritz & Singh (2001) carried out a research with 749 uni-
versity students (West Coast University) in various courses of study, concluding
that work values of altruism, initiative and collectivism correlated positively with
the capacity to lead in the working world, while individualism correlated negatively.
Also, in the American context, Leong, Herdin & Gaylor (2005) measured the
work values of medical students through the Values Scale (Super & Nevill, 1986),
confirming that the use of skills, success, promotion, aesthetics, altruism, authority
and independence were the most appreciated and the least were psychological
resistance and risk. Within the same scope and using identical instruments, Duffy
& Sedlacek (2007) used a sample of 3,570 students to confirm that they preferred
intrinsic values (especially females), followed by high salaries, contribution to
society and prestige.
This project follows two theoretical lines: Schwartz and Meaning of Work
(MOW). The Schwartz model (1990; 1992; 1994; 1999) derives from Rokeach
(1973) and divides values into two types: instrumental and terminal.The Schwartz
domain structure is classified in two dimensions: openness to change (self-
direction, stimulation and hedonism) vs. conservation (tradition, conformity and
security); and self-improvement (fulfilment and authority) vs. self-transcendence
(universalism and benevolence).We agree with Arciniega & González (2000; 2002;
2005; 2006) that the Schwartz model is very appropriate for the issue of work
values because of its structure and widely verified multicultural validation
(Schwartz, Lehmann & Roccas, 1999; Grand & Schwartz, 1998; 1999; Schwartz &
Boehnke, 2004) and because it holds an inference in the intervention.We relate the
Schwartz perspective to building up the professional and career development and
the entrepreneurial capacity.
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442 European Journal of Education, Part II
Regarding the first, Myyry & Helkama (2001; 2002) established a relationship
between values, professional development and moral sensitivity. They concluded
that the values of benevolence and universalism influenced high ethical professional
skills and that exactly the contrary occurred with the priorities of power and
hedonism.This study can be compared to that of Schwartz and Bardi (2001) which
was carried out using workers in various professions. It constituted the basis for the
study carried out by Abbott,White & Charles (2005) in a business context. Lyons,
Duxbury & Higgins (2006), with a sample of 549 Canadian workers in the public,
semi-public and private sectors, discovered that those in the first two sectors showed
high values of universalism and benevolence and that those of the private sector
showed high values in the latter and in self-direction. It was also influenced by a
cultural argument. For example, Siu (2003) highlighted that the Confucian phi-
losophy (social harmony, reciprocity in relationships, collectivism, resistance, etc.)
was apparent in the work values and in the meaning of life of Oriental workers.
Concerning entrepreneurial capacity, Moriano, Palací & Morales (2006) sur-
veyed a sample of 340 wage-earners and self-employed people in Spain, Bulgaria
and the Czech Republic with the help of various questionnaires, including the
Schwartz values questionnaire (with 37 items) and The Meaning of Working of the
MOW Group (1987). Generally, entrepreneurs identified themselves with indi-
vidualist and hedonist values such as power, achievement, acknowledgement and
promotion. As for motivation, leadership values and ability to work within a group
(Berings et al., 2004) were also relevant for the placement and development in the
world of work. The authors believe that professional training and orientation bear
on the psycho-social profile of the university entrepreneur, since they offer self-
employment as a work option.
Our other theoretical reference is the MOW (Meaning of Working Study)
Group. The MOW International Research Group (1987) differentiates between
five components of the meaning of work: centrality of work, societal norms, results
assessed, importance of work objectives, and identification with the work function.
The MOW Group prepared a questionnaire, The Meaning of Working: An interna-
tional View, (1987), with 27 items researching the aspects mentioned above. The
authors have extended the studies, especially at an empiric level, to various con-
texts (Ruiz Quintanilla & Wilpert, 1991), for example, Israel (Harpaz, 1988;
Cinemon & Hellman, 2006). The MOW questionnaire was also used in Spain,
adapted to Castilian Spanish and validated by a research group from the Univer-
sidad de Valencia (Gracia et al., 1995; Salanova, 1992). It was used by various
authors (García Martínez & Berrios, 1999; Gracia, Martín, Rodríguez y Peiró,
2001; Zacarés, Ruiz-Alfonso y Llinares, 2004; Moriano et al., 2006).
This group (MOW, 1987) emphasises that the most important result of work is
income (35% of responses) and, secondly, its interesting and satisfactory nature
(19.5%). It did not find any significant differences between men and women.
As for work aims or values, an interesting job and learning were the most appre-
ciated by both sexes, followed by a good salary, i.e. they tended to prefer more
intrinsic aspects, which also correlates with greater initiative in work. There were
also no differences regarding age. Though some authors, like Claes (1987), who
belongs to the MOW group, emphasise that the youngest prefer instrumental
values because they lack financial security and the oldest prefer expressive or
intrinsic values, something also often noticed in persons with a higher level of
training. Concerning the sex variable, Salanova et al. (1991) reviewed several
studies carried out to date in which it is claimed that women give more importance
to social and emotional aspects at work, whilst men give it to salaries, promotion
and independence.Yet, as already pointed out, the MOW Group did not find these
distinctions.
Gracia et al. (2001) carried out a longitudinal research (at intervals of 6
months, one and then two years) on two groups totalling 238 youths on their first
jobs (clerks and metal workers).The results indicate that the different components
of the meaning of work vary in different degrees with time, i.e. as work progresses,
less importance is given to work in itself, while extrinsic values of work (mainly
monetary) increase. This is often linked with work precariousness and instability.
The fact is that security is often related with work satisfaction and intrinsic work
values, as may be seen in a study with hired teachers (greater esteem for money)
and permanent teachers (greater esteem for intrinsic values) carried out by Feather
& Rauter (2004). Hattrup, Ghorpade & Lackritz (2007), in trans-cultural work
with 1,882 university students from Ecuador, Germany, the Indies, Mexico and
USA, found a positive correlation between the value of collectivism and centrality
at work, but it was not significantly different in the five countries. These data are
similar to those found in the work of Hansström & Kjellberg (2007) in which
centrality is greater among nurses than engineers and especially among women,
who defend the value of altruism.
Schwartz (1999) linked domains with the work values of the MOW (1987)
group. Thus, intrinsic values are coherent with independence and hedonism, but
conflict with the values of conservatism. Extrinsic values are compatible with the
latter and with power, but not with independence and hedonism. Social values are
congruent with universalism and benevolence, but conflict with power and com-
petitiveness (Schwartz, 1999; Roe, Schwartz & Surkiss, 1999).
Method
Participants
The sample is made up of 374 university students (283 women and 91 men) with
different specialities in Teaching (first year): Musical Education, Primary Educa-
tion, Physical Education, Hearing and Language, Education, Foreign Language,
Special Education; and 2° cycle in Psychopedagogy. All are from the Faculty of
Education in Zaragoza in which we teach (see Table I).
Musical Education 9 24 33
Primary Education 12 58 70
Physical Education 56 34 90
Hearing and Language Education 0 3 3
Foreign Language 7 52 59
Special Education 4 89 93
Psychopedagogy 3 23 26
Total 91 283 374
Results
Objective I. Knowing work values from Schwartz’s perspective
and universalism (.119). Likewise, when a factorial analysis was carried out in
order to find the relation between the 10 domains, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin
(KMO) test was first carried out, whose value is 0.655, relatively close to the
unit, which indicates the exactitude of our data (see Table III).
From here, a matrix of components is proposed and 3 appear (see Figure 1). In
the first, self-direction, stimulation, hedonism, achievement, authority and security
positively correlate with one another. In the second, benevolence and universalism
positively correlate with security, conformity and tradition. And in the last, benevo-
lence and universalism positively correlate with self-direction, stimulation and
hedonism. Generally, two groups of values and domains were observed: one,
universalism, benevolence, tradition, conservation and security; and the other,
achievement, authority, hedonism, stimulation and self-direction. However,
benevolence and universalism positively correlate with security, conformity and
tradition, as well as with self-direction, stimulation and hedonism, though far more
with the first three.
Hypothesis II.The work value with the highest grade is that of having an interesting job,
especially among women. The values that obtain the highest scores are those related
with working in an interesting job, good interpersonal relations, job stability and
opportunities to learn new things.The following subsequently appear from highest
to lowest, in that order: good physical work conditions, a good balance between work
Gráfico de componentes
CO
0,9 SE
TR
0,6
Componente 2
BE LO
AU
0,3
UN HE
0,0 AD ES
-0,3
-0,6
-0,9
-0,
-0,9 -0,6 -0, -0, 9
-0,3 0,0
0,3 0,3 0,0 3 6
0,6 0,9 0,6
0,9
te 3
Component onen
e1 Comp
Hypothesis III. Family and leisure are the most valued familiar environments selected by
the students. Concerning the relative centrality, the family is the most valued aspect
(37% approximately and an average of 36.89 points); then leisure (26%; 26.20
points); work (19%; 18.74 points); social participation (11%; 10.98 points) and
last, religion (7%; 7.16 points). Hence, the hypothesis is verified, since family and
leisure are those given most points by the university students. It may be observed
that, from absolute centrality, work has a medium-high centrality, i.e. 4.18 over 7
(see Table V).
Hypothesis IV. The values of promotion, a good salary, power and acknowledgement
positively correlate with authority and achievement. Considering that, as may be
observed in the first objective, achievement relevantly correlates with authority
(.548), and it verifies that the four values proposed positively correlate with both
domains, especially with reference to achievement, the hypothesis is confirmed.
Though the average correlation between achievement and acknowledgement
(.459) and between authority and power (.354) may be highlighted, the correlation
is not very high in either of the two cases (see Table VI).
Discussion
The first aspect that comes to light is the relation between Schwartz’s approach
and that of the MOW Group, as may be observed in the results according to the
third objective. Schwartz’s research in this area (Schwartz, 1999; Roe et al., 1999)
is verified.
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