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Research Article Open Access

Smallholder Farmers Perception of Rural-Rural Migration and its

Contribution to Food Security in Kigoma Rural District, Tanzania
Juma Ayoub Tegeje*
Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Solomon Mahlangu College of Science and Education, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania
*Corresponding Author: Juma Ayoub Tegeje, Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Solomon Mahlangu College of Science and Education, Sokoine
University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania, Tel: +255715224409; E-mail: gwahoma@yahoo.com
Received date: January 10, 2018; Accepted date: January 17, 2018; Published date: January 24, 2018
Copyright: © 2018 Tegeje JA. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Abstract

Food insecurity is a major issue in Tanzania and varies across regions and seasons. This study assessed the
contribution of smallholder farmer’s rural-rural migration to household food security using people’s perception. Kidea
Village of Kigoma Rural District was chosen as case study to represent other villages which were established by and
have been receiving smallholder farmer migrants from other hunger-stricken villages. Land ownership status, types
of crops, food availability and access, post-harvest food management practices, the amount of food harvested and
length of time it lasted were used as determinants of food security. Household questionnaire, focus group
discussion, physical observation and key informant interviews were employed in data collection. The findings show
that all respondents had security of land tenure, allowing more food production. Investment in multiple cropping
helped to accommodate risks and uncertainties from unforeseen poor climatic conditions. The reported post-harvest
food management practices including food donations and brewing did not contribute to food insecurity since their
frequencies and amounts were occasional and small, respectively. A high proportion of respondents reporting
adequate and affordable food in the village market imply that exchange between food-surplus and food-deficit
households was made possible. In addition, majority of respondents reporting better production of crops at
destination than in their villages of origin implies that migrant households were food secure. However, it was noted
that migration to Kidea is more of subsistence than long term investment in economic development.

Keywords: Food security; Peasant migration;
diversification
Introduction
State of the art literature
There is limited information on the contribution of smallholder
farmers’ rural-rural migration to household food security, particularly
in Tanzania and the world at large because most studies regarding
rural-rural migration and food security grossly neglected this aspect.
Instead, more emphasis has been placed on rural-urban consequences
migration and its associated socio-economic [1-3]. Whereas this is the
case, households and individuals in many parts of the world are
gradually seeking options outside their home areas to meet their food
and income requirements [2,4-6]. Rural-rural migration is the
movement of people from one rural area to another within the same
country. Depending on the conditions existing at sending areas, rural-
rural migration can be either voluntary or forced. Seasonal migration
of labourers to agricultural, forestry or fishing areas is an example of
voluntary rural-rural migration [7]. Forced rural-rural migration
occurs when social, economic or environmental conditions in the
sending area become unbearable, forcing people to look for an
alternative location for securing their livelihoods [8]. In this respect,
rural-rural migration is used as an important livelihood strategy by the
rural families to increase their food security [9]. Increasing population
pressure, land conflicts, agriculture commercialization and cultural
factors can act as drivers for rural-rural migration [2].
Livelihood Studies conducted in India, Nepal, Vietnam, Western Kenya and
Southern Tanzania indicate that migration involves individuals and
households moving to other rural areas either permanently,
temporarily or by keeping part of the their families in the areas of
origin. The current rural-rural and rural-urban migration in Tanzania
as reported by Kurji, Mbonile, Madulu, Mung’ong’o and Mwamfupe
and Mung’ong’o [10-14] is taken as a survival and income earning
strategy involving herders, farmers and labour migrants following the
breakdown of livelihood base in the areas of origin. In poor rural
societies prone to food insecurity and limited income generating
opportunities, labour migration, either in a rural-rural or rural-urban
migration pattern, mostly carried by adult males, becomes a stabilizing
component in the overall livelihood security to ensure food security
especially of those left behind [15].
A Household Food Economy Survey on the role of migration in
livelihood in Tanzania, which was carried out in the semi-arid regions
of Dodoma and Singida discovered that in years when the food
availability is significantly below the usual levels, labour migration for
paid jobs to plantations in Iringa, Morogoro and Arusha Regions is the
only strategy that can meet a significant percentage of the food gap.
The amount of money earned from sale of labour in plantations is
remitted to the migrants’ areas of origin for sustaining the rest of the
family members [16]. Although the available literature indicates
smallholder farmer rural-rural and even rural-urban migration as a
livelihood strategy [8,17,18] majority of them have not assessed the
extent to which this mobility behaviour contributes to food security
among the migrant households.
Since the late 1980s many areas in Kigoma Rural District
experienced migration of smallholder farmers, which originated from

J Ecol Toxicol, an open access journal Volume 2 • Issue 1 • 1000-112

Citation: Tegeje JA (2018) Smallholder Farmers Perception of Rural-Rural Migration and its Contribution to Food Security in Kigoma Rural
District, Tanzania. J Ecol Toxicol 2: 112.
land-shortage and food-insufficient villages to food-surplus areas [19].
Driven largely by food shortage, the hunger-stricken smallholder
farmer households could move as far as 200 km to areas where land is
still more productive (especially unoccupied/forest) within and outside
the district. Most of these migrants originate from the Ujamaa
(socialist) villages formed in the early 1970s as part of villagization of
production, which in essence collectivized all forms of local productive
capacity. In these migrations, migrants aimed at improving household
food security through food production and income generation upon
settling in the area of destination. Among the targeted areas in and
outside the district include areas located in and near the Malagarasi-
Moyovosi Ramsar Site and the low-lying areas along Lake Tanganyika
both in western Tanzania. Since then, about 135 new villages have been
established by rural-rural migrants in Kigoma Rural District. Kidea is
one of the targeted villages by migrants in the district. Since its
establishment in 1990, the village has been receiving migrants from
other villages experiencing food shortage in and outside the district. To
date, no study has been conducted in the district to assess the extent to
which migration offers solution to food insecurity, which faces many
smallholder farmers in Kigoma Rural District. The basic question this
study attempts to answer is: To what extent is rural-rural migration a
solution to food insecurity in Kigoma Rural District Tanzania?
According to FAO and Pinstrup-Andersen [20,21] food security
exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic
access to sufficient amounts of safe and nutritious food that meets their
dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. As
such, food security can be measured by four basic dimensions, namely
availability, access, stability and utilization. Availability (at household
level) refers to amount of food available in a household through all
forms of production, purchase, and donation [22]. Access refers to
ability of households to access food, which is determined by physical,
economic/financial and socio-cultural conditions existing in the
society [22,23].
Stability encompasses those situations in which households are
vulnerable to either temporary or permanent loss of access to
resources, factor inputs, social capital or livelihoods due to extreme
weather events, economic or market failure, civil and natural resource
conflicts or environmental degradation [24]. Utilization refers to
people’s ability to absorb nutrients and may also cover factors such as
safe drinking water and adequate sanitation to avoid the spread of
diseases. The concept is based on how food is used, prepared, stored, or
processed. It also includes cultural practices that negatively affect
consumption of enough nutritious food. The factors considered in this
paper may fall in one or more of the four dimensions of food security.
Research gaps
Studies on food security in Tanzania and Kigoma Rural District in
particular are very limited, and those that exist have largely focused on
indicators such as ethnicity, household wealth and social support [25],
maternal anxiety and depression [26], food intake and food quality
[27,28], maize varieties [29], and Radimer/Cornell measure [30] in
assessing household food security. However, it has been established
that other determinants such as land tenure security [31-34], types of
crops farmers grow and their purpose [35-37], how food is managed
after harvest [38,39], amount of food produced and how long it lasts
after harvest [40], household income [41,42] and availability of food
and access in the local or international market can influence household
food security [43]. Unfortunately, these determinants have not been
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adequately applied in food security determination in the afore-
mentioned studies.
Research objectives
Based on the shortfalls inherent in the food security research in
Tanzania and elsewhere, the present study aimed to assess the
contribution of smallholder farmers’ rural-rural migration to
household food security using people’s perception. Using locally-based
indicators, the present study aimed to specifically assess land
ownership status and its modes of acquisition in the study village,
identify the types of crops grown and their purposes, assess the post-
harvest food management practices and implications on food security,
assess the amount of food produced and length of time it lasted after
harvest, identify the sources and approximate household income per
year, and assess food availability and access in the local market.
Importance of the study
Findings from this study are expected to offer baseline data on
rural-rural migration and related issues in the district in particular and
Tanzania in general. It also sheds light on whether or not rural-rural
migration is a viable solution to food insecurity among smallholder
farmer households. It also offers basis for planning and community
mobilization geared to enable food insufficient households generate
income and actively engage in rural self-employment schemes through
ranges of capacity building activities in their villages. The study evokes
the sustainability issues related to rural-rural migration as a survival
strategy to achieve household food security. It is anticipated that
prolonged cultivation on a limited area coupled with increasing
population in the study village is likely to degrade the soil. Depletion of
soil fertility is likely to induce movements to other places which are
still virgin. If unchecked, food production can be achieved at the
expense of the environment.
The study has an immense contribution on achievement of some
Sustainable Development Goals, to which Tanzania is a signatory.
Goals 1, 2 and 15: poverty reduction, reducing food insecurity, and
sustainable management of forest and other resources, respectively. It is
relevant to the Tanzania Development Vision 2025: enhancing
environmental conservation and food security and reducing abject
poverty and the Tanzania Agriculture Climate Resilience Plan
2014-2019: enhancing crop productivity and food security. Relevant to
this study are also the National Climate Change Strategy 2013:
addressing problems of rural-urban and rural-rural migration, the
Tanzania Agricultural Sector Development Programmes ASDP
2013-2017 and Climate Smart Agriculture Programme 2015-2025:
achieving sustainable agricultural sector through mobilization of
private sector investments and partnership. It also contributes to
implementation of the National Food Security Policy 1997, which
recognises food availability, accessibility and utilization as three major
pillars of food security.
Materials and Methods
Study area
This study was conducted in Kidea Village, located in Kandaga Ward
in Kigoma Rural District (Figure 1). The village is located at an altitude
of 1,200 m a.s.l., with its terrain largely dominated by plains, hills
especially on its south and south-eastern parts, and a few valleys and
swamps especially in areas near the Malagarasi River. The soil is
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Citation: Tegeje JA (2018) Smallholder Farmers Perception of Rural-Rural Migration and its Contribution to Food Security in Kigoma Rural
District, Tanzania. J Ecol Toxicol 2: 112.
predominantly loamy and clay, with alluvial soils predominant in most
places especially near Malagarasi River. A large part of this village is
poorly drained except for the southern part which is drained by
Malagarasi River. All the villagers are smallholder farmers who depend
on rain-fed agriculture. Other activities such as fishing, livestock
keeping, bee keeping and honey collection, business, charcoal making
are common in the area. The commonly grown food crops are cassava,
paddy, beans, maize, sweet potatoes, bananas and peas. Maize, banana,
sweet potatoes and cassava are the major staple food and have highest
per capital consumption rate in the local diet in the study area [19].
The selection of this study village was based on the fact that it is one
of the new villages established by rural-rural migrants, mainly in
search of arable land. More interestingly, the village receives migrants
from four main villages experiencing three major push factors namely
land shortage, loss of soil productivity and unemployment. For
example, between 1990 and 1994 migration to the study area started at
a low pace, but the number of immigrants increased tremendously and
peaked in the period between 1995 and 1999 and was almost
maintained constant in the period between 2000 and 2004 [44].
It is worth noting that, apart from immigration, the general increase
in village population as presented above was also influenced by birth.
However, the rate of immigration to the village declined by 20%
between 2005 and 2010. Based on this trend, it was thought that with
20 years of its existence, the village could provide enough and more
relevant data to answer the research objectives.
Figure 1: The study area. Note the Kamese Hills on the south and
south-eastern part of the village.
Data collection
Data collection involved the use of household questionnaire
consisting of open and close ended questions. House-to-house visit
Sub-villages Total households Sample size
Mazungwe 212 275/885 × 212=66
Kidea Kati 224 275/885 × 224=70
Kamutumbu 118 275/885 × 118=37
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was made to sampled households where heads of targeted households
were requested to respond to the survey questions. All the heads of
sampled households responded to the administered questionnaire,
making 100% response rate. In addition to incorporating the most
important socioeconomic and demographic information of the
respondents, the questions focused on eliciting information on trends
and causes of rural-rural migration, nature of livelihood activities and
the contribution of rural-rural migration on household food and
income security in the study area. This method was chosen because it
yields quality data as the same questions are asked across all
respondents [45].
These questions were administered to sampled heads of households
who migrated to the study village since 1990 when it was established.
Purposive sampling and proportionate random sampling were
employed to obtain the sample for administering a household
questionnaire. All the 5 sub-villages (Mazungwe, Kidea Kati, Bakwata,
Kamtumbu and Mibangani, with different number of households)
were purposively included in the study (based on their size and
geographical distribution). The total number of migrants’ households
for the whole village was 885. Proportionate random sampling was
employed to obtain representative heads of households using the
Slovin’s formula [46], which is:
�
�=
1 + ��2
Where; n=number of sampled households in the whole village,
N=number of households in the whole village, and e=the desired level
of precision or sampling error at a stated confidence level. Using a
confidence level of 95%, the sampling error becomes 5% or 0.05.
Therefore: n=885/1 + 885 × (0.05)2
n=885/1 + 885 × 0.0025
n=885/1 + 2.2125
n=276
Based on Slovin’s formula, and at the 95% confidence level, the
study sampled a total of 276 households and considered representative
of the 885 households. To ensure that the number of sampled
households in a particular sub-village is proportional to the total
number of households in that sub-village, a proportionate stratified
random sampling was applied using the following formula:
�
� = ��
Where; a=sample size for each sub-village, n=number of sampled
households for the whole village, N=number of households in the
whole village and b=number of households in each sub-village. The
number of sampled households in each sub-village is presented in
Table 1.
% of Total
24
25
13
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 Citation: Tegeje JA (2018) Smallholder Farmers Perception of Rural-Rural Migration and its Contribution to Food Security in Kigoma Rural
District, Tanzania. J Ecol Toxicol 2: 112.

Page 4 of 9

Bakwata 95 275/885 × 95=30 11

Mibangani 236 275/885 × 236=73 27

Grand total 885 276 100%

Table 1: Number of households in each sub-village in Kidea Village

Focus group discussion (guided by a checklist of questions) was held
with 10 purposively selected villagers. Included in the discussion were
villagers with different occupations (farmers, employees, pastoralists,
charcoal makers, traders, hunters) with due consideration of gender
and age of respondents. The discussion with selected villagers focused
on general trends of migration to the study village, factors for their
migration, difference in food and income security between Kidea
Village and villages of their origin, and their overall perception of
migration as a livelihood diversification strategy.
of them owning between 0.5 and 19 acres, and 24% owning between 20
and 79 acres (Figures 2a and 2b). Land acquisition took several forms,
including land purchase (53.3%), allocation by government (21.3%),
acquiring unoccupied land (12.0%), inheritance (5.3%), renting (5.3%)
and land sharecropping (2.7%). Land renters include new migrants to
the village and financially unable to purchase land by the time of this
study.

The method was chosen because it generally provides personal and

group feelings, perceptions and opinions about a research topic under
question [47]. Key informant interviews involved the District
Agricultural and Livestock Development Officer, 3 food traders in the
village market, 5 farmers and 3 pastoralists. Guided by village leaders,
these informants were purposively selected based on the
understanding that they had specific information relevant to this study.

Key questions in these interview included time they moved to the

study village, the status food and cash crop production and their
market prices including affordability, coping strategies to food and
income insecurities and their overall perception of migration as food
and income security strategy. These methods enabled acquisition of
information about knowledge, perspectives and attitudes of people and
free exchange of ideas and getting more detailed response about the
impact of migration decision to food security [48].

The main sources of secondary information were the University of

Dar es Salaam (UDSM) Central Library and internet, from which
relevant information related to rural-rural migration and food security
were obtained. The Kigoma Rural District Agricultural and Livestock Figure 2: (a) Respondents’ modes of land acquisition (b)
Development Department was consulted to provide data and Respondents’ land ownership status
information on food production status and trend in the district. The
data for this study was analysed using MS Excel 2007 where descriptive
statistic such as percentages were generated and results presented in
histograms.
Types of crops grown and their purposes
Findings All respondents grew a combination of crops, with maize, cassava,
beans, groundnuts and potatoes being the commonly grown crops. Of
The smallholder farmers’ perception of rural-rural migration and its
the 276 respondents interviewed, 84.0% grew maize, 65.3% cassava and
contribution to household food security is presented in the following
66.7% grew beans for food and cash purposes (Figures 3 and 4). While
sections using five factors, which are hereby considered to be measures
about 84% of the households reported to grow potatoes, 8.0% and 2.7%
of food security.
of the respondents reported to grow sunflower and tobacco,
respectively
Land ownership status and its modes of acquisition in the
study village
This study found that all respondents owned land, with about 76%

J Ecol Toxicol, an open access journal Volume 2 • Issue 1 • 1000-112

Citation: Tegeje JA (2018) Smallholder Farmers Perception of Rural-Rural Migration and its Contribution to Food Security in Kigoma Rural
District, Tanzania. J Ecol Toxicol 2: 112.

Page 5 of 9

120 120

Food 100 98 Better

97.3 95
100 Cash 100
92 Worse
88

Percentage of respondents
84 84 F& C
No change
D/grow 80
80 71 Don’t grow
65.3 66.7 65.3
Percentage

60 60
48 46
46.7

40 36 34.7 40 33
34.7
28 29.3
24
20
20 16 8
9.3 8 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 3
5.3 6.7
4
0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
Maize Cassava Beans G/nuts Potatoes Banana Peas S/flow er Tobacco
Maize Cassava Beans G/nuts Potatoes Banana Peas S/flow er Tobacco
Crops Crops

Figure 3: Types and purposes of crops grown by respondents (%) Figure 5: Situation of crop production at migrants’ destination
Key: F & C=Food & Cash; D/grow=don’t grow; G/
nuts=groundnuts; S/flower=sunflower
Of all the respondents, 177 (64%) reported to produce food lasting
to the next harvest while the remaining 99 (36%) produced food that
did not last to the next harvest. Of the latter case, 20% had food lasting
for three quarters of a year, 12% for half a year and 4.0% for quarter of
a year (Figure 6). Majority of households reporting to run short of food
before the next harvest are those who sold part of it to cater for
household requirements (e.g. education and medication) and those
who owned small farmland (1-2 acres). These had recently migrated to
the village and, by that time, had not acquired adequate land.
Figure 4: Cassava, maize and tobacco fields in Kidea village. Note Households reporting to sell food depended largely on farm produce
the intercropping practice which is common in the area. and had limited income generating activities to supplement the on-
farm income.

Post-harvest food management practices

With regards to how food crops are used after harvest, this study
found that household consumption was the main use of food crops
while local brewing was the minor. Of the 276 respondents, 96% of
them reported to use crops mainly for food and 3% for food and local
brewing. Majority of respondents reported that local brewing is
predominantly carried out using certain varieties of banana which are
not suitable and preferred for consumption. In addition, almost all
respondents reported occasional incidences of food donations to
neighbours and relatives to cater for wedding, funeral and other Figure 6: Length of time food lasts after harvest. It is a commonly
ceremonies in and outside the village. However, these constituted less used measure of food security (Ala and Bello) [49].
than 1% of all household food consumption. Sunflower and tobacco
were the main crops sold for cash. Households reported to sell a
portion of food crops in incidences where they either had not grown Sources and approximated household income per year
cash crops or experienced poor harvest thereof.
Although information on income is usually unreliable, this study
Amount of food crops produced and length of time food tried to document information on the average annual household
lasted after harvest income from different income generating activities (e.g. sale of crops,
charcoal making, sale of labour, petty business, fishing and craftworks)
Almost all respondents were not able to report the amount of food and how households spent their income. This was made on assumption
produced per growing season, partly due to poor record keeping and that if food is available in the market and a household is a rationally
memory lapses. However, they were able to compare the amount of behaving unit (so that all the income or food available for the
food production between their areas of origin and destination using household is distributed rationally based on requirements of the
unmeasurable qualitative terms such as better or worse. The different household members), the annual household income earned
proportion of respondents reporting better production of maize, would determine the extent to which the household is food secure or
cassava, beans, groundnuts and potatoes at the place of destination insecure. Accordingly, the study found that 76% of the households
ranged between 70% and 100%, with maize and cassava accounting for earned a maximum of 500,000 Tshs (USD 600/year (Figure 7) while a
98% each, beans 95%, groundnuts 71% and potatoes 88% of the total small proportion (24%) earned between 1,500,000/- and 3,000,000/-
respondents (Figure 5). Tshs/year.

J Ecol Toxicol, an open access journal Volume 2 • Issue 1 • 1000-112

Citation: Tegeje JA (2018) Smallholder Farmers Perception of Rural-Rural Migration and its Contribution to Food Security in Kigoma Rural
District, Tanzania. J Ecol Toxicol 2: 112.
Figure 7: Sources and annual household income in the study village
With respect to sources of income, 91.8% of the households generate
income from sale of crops while only 8.2% of the income was from the
aforementioned off-farm sources. To substantiate this argument, some
respondents reported to engage themselves in running small shops and
kiosks, market stalls and restaurants for selling basic household items,
food items and traditional local meals, respectively. Additionally, some
villagers were also seen selling bites (locally known as vitumbua and
maandazi) in the village market and on the streets. Majority of
respondents (88%) spent their income on various household
requirements (e.g. food, paying for education and health services,
buying clothes and other domestic utilities like kerosene and soap).
Moreover, 12% of the households reported that apart from spending
their income on household requirements, they also invested part of the
income on farming through paying casual labourers who help with
farm preparation, cultivation, weeding and crop harvesting.
Food availability and access in the local market
Availability of the main staple and non-staple food in the market is
hereby considered to be one of the dimensions of food security.
Accordingly, respondents were asked to state whether or not there were
adequate staple food crops in the markets and whether the prices were
affordable or not. About 98.7% of the respondents reported availability
of adequate staple food and affordable prices. A field visit to the village
market revealed that the price for 1 Kg of un-milled maize ranged
from Tanzanian Shillings (Tshs) 150/- to 200/- (USD 0.06 to 0.09).
While the price for one bundle of dried cassava (equivalent to 5 Kg of
flour when milled) was Tshs.1000/- (USD 0.43). During harvesting
period this price could go as low as Tshs. 500/- (USD 0.21) per bundle.
Prices for beans followed almost similar patterns. Other crops such as
groundnuts were usually sold on wholesale basis.
Discussion
Land ownership status in the study village
Access to, size, and mode of land acquisition are some of the most
important indicators of the four dimensions of food security. When
land is available in good quantity and if other production factors are
available, households will naturally get the opportunity to produce
more food for consumption and market [50]. The implication of this
finding is that migrants in the study area benefit from possessing
secure land tenure. Having secured land tenure, and if other
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Page 6 of 9
production factors are kept constant implies that majority of migrants
had a greater likelihood of engaging in food production because they
could maintain rights over the land for the whole duration of
investment. The land tenure system and size of the land owned
determine the extent to which an individual or households can access
land and the amount of food produced per unit area cultivated.
Reduction or outright loss of access to land in an agrarian society, leads
directly to a reduction in income and access to food. On the other
hand, increased security of tenure in productive resources enables
more efficient and productive agricultural production.
Generally, the higher the perception of tenure security, the higher
would be the farmers expected returns to the investment. Carter et al.
reports similar findings in selected villages in Chiradzulu and
Mangochi Districts in Malawi [51]. The recognition that land is the
most important resource base of the rural poor from which all other
economic systems and activities are generated was also reported by
[50].
According to Maxwell and Wiebe [32], a farmer’s perception of the
probability that he or she could maintain rights over the land for the
duration of the investment is an important variable in achieving food
security. The higher the perception of tenure security, the higher would
be the farmers expected returns to the investment. Whereas reduction
or outright loss of access to land leads to a reduction in income and
food, increased security of tenure in productive resources enables more
efficient and productive agricultural production.
Access, size, as well as mode of land acquisition are some of the
most important indicators of household food security. When land is
available in good quantity and quality, households will naturally get the
opportunity to produce more crops for both household food and
market [50]. The study found that all respondents owned enough land.
Although a small proportion of respondents rented land but more than
ninety two percent had secure land tenure. The implication of this is
that migrants in the study area benefit from possessing land. By having
secure land tenure, and if other factors were kept constant, majority of
migrants had a greater likelihood of being food secure because they
could maintain rights over the land for the whole duration of
investment.
Farmer’s perception of the probability that he or she could maintain
rights over the land for the duration of the investment is an important
variable in achieving food security. The higher the perception of tenure
security, the higher would be the farmers expected returns to the
investment [32]. While reduction or outright loss of access to land in
an agrarian society leads directly to a reduction in income and food,
increased security of tenure in productive resources enables more
efficient and productive agricultural production (ibid). Nature of the
soil can also contribute to food security. Rural-rural migration of
migrants labourers from areas of infertile soils of the Upper West
Region in the north to more fertile land of Brong-Ahafo region in the
south both in Ghana are reported to ameliorate food security for their
families [52]. Conway and Shrestha [53] documented rural-rural
migration in the Hill and Tarai regions of Western and Central Nepal
prompted by landlessness, low productivity and inability of the
households in sustain themselves.
Types of crops grown and their purposes
Owning land cannot by itself guarantee household food security.
Household food security is also determined by the types of crops
grown and their purposes. Most of the crops grown in the study area
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Citation: Tegeje JA (2018) Smallholder Farmers Perception of Rural-Rural Migration and its Contribution to Food Security in Kigoma Rural
District, Tanzania. J Ecol Toxicol 2: 112.
(maize, cassava, beans, groundnuts and potatoes) form a major portion
of the staple food and have highest per capita consumption rate in the
local diet in the study area in particular and Tanzania in general [19].
In many places, when some or all of these crops fail due to whatever
reasons, such as poor rains and pests, most of the households complain
that they do not have enough food. This is an indication that these
crops are important in sustaining household food security.
To tackle this risk, farmers choose to do multiple cropping. The
advantage of multiple cropping with regard to food security is twofold.
First, it ensures the harvesting of other crops in the event that the main
crops (maize and cassava) fail. In this village, investment in crop
diversity is used as a coping strategy to accommodate risks and
uncertainties from unanticipated unpleasant climatic conditions by
spreading it across a variety of crops with different climatic
capabilities. This contributes to creating vigorous food cropping system
that can endure a wider range of environmental changes [54].
Secondly, apart from being used as food, part of it can be sold to cater
for other household requirements and investment on farming to
increase production hence improving food availability at household
level.
Post-harvest food management practices
The mere fact that local brewing is predominantly carried out using
a certain variety of banana which is not suitable for food implies that
local brewing had no negative impact on food availability and access.
In view of the fact that the amount of food donated was small and the
incidences of food donations were occasional, it can therefore, be
argued that local brewing and food donations did not negatively affect
household food security. Post-harvest food management (PHFM)
practices have great implication on the level of household food
security. When food is harvested, it is normally put under different
uses depending on the type of food grown, household food
requirements and the culture of a place. PHFM practices including
food donations and uncontrolled use of food in ceremonies can reduce
the amount of food meant for consumption, thus, endangering both
availability and sustained access to adequate food by household
members [55].
Post-harvest food management (PHFM) practices have great
implication on the level of household food security. When food is
harvested, it is normally put under different uses depending on the
type of food grown, household food requirements and the culture of a
place. PHFM practices including uncontrolled use of food in
ceremonies can reduce the amount of food meant for household
consumption, thus, endangering both availability and sustained access
to adequate food by households [55].
This study found that a small proportion of respondents used crops,
particularly, banana for local brewing. The mere fact that local brewing
is predominantly carried out using a certain species of banana which is
not suitable for food implies that local brewing had no negative impact
on food availability and access. Although food donation to ceremonies
and relatives was reported as one of the PHFM practices, this practice
did not contribute to reduction in food availability and access at
household level because the donated amount was small and the
incidences of food donation were occasional. From the above
information, it can, therefore, be argued that local brewing as well as
food donation did not negatively affect household food security.
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Amount of food produced and length of time it lasted after
harvest
The fact that two third of the households produced food that lasted
to the next harvest while only one third produced food that did not last
to the next harvest is an evidence that majority of households were
food secure. Households which produced food that did not last to the
next harvest employed a combination of coping strategies including
casual labouring, borrowing from neighbours, collection of wild foods,
engaging in petty business and handicraft making to bridge food
deficit gap. This implies that households can still maintain stable
availability of and access to food in spite of low food production [40].
The fact that three quarters of the households produced food that
lasted to the next harvest while only one quarter produced food that
did not last to the next harvest is an evidence that majority of
households were food secure. Among households which produced
food that did not last to the next harvest, majority had food lasting for
three quarters of the year; very few for half a year and insignificant
proportion had food lasting for one quarter of a year. It was also found
that some of the households who reported to run short of food before
the next harvest arrives are those who sold part of the crops soon after
harvest in order to get money for fulfilling other non-food household
requirements, including education and medication.
Households which produced food that did not last to the next
harvest employed a combination of coping strategies including casual
labouring, borrowing from neighbours, collection of wild foods,
engaging in petty business and handicraft making to bridge food
deficit gap. This implies that households can still maintain stable
availability of and access to food, in spite of low food production [40].
Food availability and access in the local market
Availability of the main staple and non-staple food in the market is
one of the dimensions of food security. This study found that almost all
the required food crops were available in the village market at
affordable prices. The prices for maize (150-200 Tshs/kg) and cassava
(200 Tshs/kg) in the study area fetched comparatively lower price than
the national average price (400 Tshs/kg for maize) and 300 Tshs/kg for
cassava) [56].
Depending on the purchasing power, availability of all required food
crops in the market ensured individuals and households access to food.
When food is available in the markets at an affordable price, the
exchange between food-surplus and food-deficit households or
individuals is made possible and allows households with different
income levels within a livelihood to access adequate quantities and
quality of food [57]. Maize and cassava are the main staple foods in
Tanzania. The per capita consumption of cassava (157 kg per capita) is
more than twice that of maize (73 kg per capita). Owing to its greater
calorific density, maize is more important as source of calories,
contributing to 33% of the total compared to 15% for cassava [58].
This finding implies that, agriculture, especially crop production, is
the major activity that generates income for sustaining general
household welfare and food security in particular. This does not deny
that fact that households possess other activities that augment the
income generated from sale of crops. These may include sale of labour,
charcoal making and selling, petty business, timber production,
craftwork and fishing.
Similar findings were reported in the agricultural survey done by
the Bureau of Statistics in 1986/87. It was reported that, about 41% of
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Citation: Tegeje JA (2018) Smallholder Farmers Perception of Rural-Rural Migration and its Contribution to Food Security in Kigoma Rural
District, Tanzania. J Ecol Toxicol 2: 112.
rural households in Tanzania had their main source of income from
sale of crops while only 31% of the income was from non-agricultural
sources URT, 1989. Furthermore, reported that in Tanzania as well as
in other developing countries agriculture is still the main source of
rural income and in most cases, most people and households in rural
areas engage themselves in both agricultural as well as in non-
agricultural activities to complement agricultural production [59].
It has been established that availability of food in the markets at an
affordable price makes the exchange between food-surplus and food-
deficit households possible, and allows households with different
income levels within a livelihood to access adequate food [57,60]. On
the other hand, unavailability of and poor access to food can increase
the amount of resources necessary for the households to obtain
appropriate food for a nutritionally balanced diet, especially among
vulnerable groups such as the urban and rural poor, and women and
children in developing countries [61].
Conclusion and Recommendations
Migrants’ overall perception on the impact of migration on
household food security involved comparison of the overall situation
of food production, availability and access between areas of origin and
destination. Accordingly, a high proportion of respondents applauding
improved access to more and productive farmland, better crop harvest
and affordable food prices imply that migration to the study area had
positive impact on household food security. Better performance of the
commonly grown crops in the area of destination than at places of
origin, as reported by majority of respondents, is yet another proof of
the positive impact of migration on household food security. The
observed multiple cropping system for food, cash or both purposes
helps in creating a strong food crop system that can endure a broader
range of environmental vagaries thus, ensuring crop harvest. Coping
strategies including casual labouring and borrowing from neighbours
which were adopted by food-deficit households is also an assurance to
food security as these practices help to bridge the food deficit gap
before the next harvest.
Despite the positive contribution of migration to household food
security, prolonged cultivation on a limited area coupled with
increasing population in the study village is likely to degrade the soil,
especially when proper land management practices such as
permaculture are no adhered to. Depletion of soil fertility is likely to
induce movements to other places which are still virgin. If unchecked,
prolonged cultivation on a limited area coupled with increasing
population in the receiving villages is likely to degrade the soil, leading
to enhanced food security at the expense of the environment.
When assessing the impacts of rural-rural migration on food
security, one should bear in mind that migration can sometimes
reallocate household labour associated with productive and
reproductive activities in the areas of origin, reduces labour force for
food production and increase the work burden of men and women,
depending on who is left behind. In view of the above, this study
recommends that concerted efforts be taken by the regional or district
government to curb the persistent food insecurity in the district. To
achieve this purpose, migrants in their destinations as well as non-
migrants in their places of origin should embark on strategies geared
to maximize crop productivity and achieve both food security and
environmental conservation.
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Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank all the respondents for devoting
their valuable time and provide information that made this study a
success. I extend my sincere thanks to my thesis supervisor Professor
Claude Gasper Mung’ong’o for his tireless guidance till the completion
of this study. I also thank the Tanzania Ministry of Education and
Vocational Training for funding this study.
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