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Reall Life

R Lif
Examples in
Fluid Mechanics

Lesson plans and solutions

Eann A Patterson, Editor


Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

Lesson plans and solutions


First edition January 2011
Second [electronic] edition September 2011

Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics


Lesson plans and solutions

Copyright © 2011 Eann A Patterson (editor)

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-


NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License. To view a copy of this license, visit
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/ or send a letter to Creative Commons,
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that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

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This edition is distributed free of charge by the ENGAGE project


(www.EngageEngineering.org), which is supported by the National Science Foundation
under Grant No. 0833076.
Real Life
Examples in
Fluid Mechanics

Lesson plans and solutions

Suggested exemplars within lesson plans for Sophomore level courses in Fluid Mechanics.
Prepared as part of the NSF-supported project (#0431756) entitled: “Enhancing Diversity
in the Undergraduate Mechanical Engineering Population through Curriculum Change”.

Eann A Patterson, Editor

The University of Liverpool


eann.patterson@liverpool.ac.uk
This work was developed during the NSF-supported project (#0431756) entitled:
“Enhancing Diversity in the Undergraduate Mechanical Engineering Population through
Curriculum Change”. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations
expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views
of the National Science Foundation. The following members of the project contributed to
the many discussions which led to this production of this volume:
Ilene Busch-Vishniac McMaster University (Project leader)
Patricia B. Campbell Campbell-Kibler Associates Inc
Darrell Guillaume California State University, Los Angeles
Eann Patterson Michigan State University

.
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

CONTENTS
page no.
Introduction 5
INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS
1. Fluids and their properties 6
Blowing bubbles, pouring detergent, floating paperclips, fried eggs
2. Statics 9
Apple bobbing, bath plug, escaping from submerged car
FLUIDS IN MOTION
3. Kinematics of fluid motion 14
Cream in coffee, BMW convertible, air-conditioning, bathroom ventilation
4. Dynamics of fluid motion 18
Floating table tennis ball, hurricanes, hand out of car window, vacuum cleaner
CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS
5. Momentum 22
Lifting with balloons, washing cups, umbrellas in the wind
6. Energy 25
Forced air heater, hand-dryer, cyclist food consumption
MODELING
7. Similitude and dimensional analysis 28
Bath toys, vacuum cleaner, artery flow
FLOW
8. Viscous flow in pipes (internal flow) 32
Vacuum cleaner, water squirter, bicycle pump
9. Flow over bodies (external flow) 37
Swim suits, heart surgery and pizza delivery
10. Flow in open channels 41
Water slide, curb drain, drainage ditch
11. Compressible Flow 46
Rampaging bull, flock of sheep, supersonic flight, factory explosion
APPLICATIONS
12. Turbomachines 51
Toy planes, car water pump, airplane propeller design

3
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

4
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

INTRODUCTION
These real life examples and supporting materials are designed to enhance the teaching of
a sophomore level course in fluid mechanics, increase the accessibility of the principles,
and raise the appeal of the subject to students from diverse backgrounds. The examples
have been embedded in skeletal lesson plans using the principle of the 5Es: Engage,
Explore, Explain, Elaborate and Evaluate. The 5E outline is not original and was
developed by the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study1 in the 1980s from work by
Atkin and Karplus2 in 1962. Today this approach is considered to form part of the
constructivist learning theory3 and a number of websites provide easy-to-follow
explanations of them.
This booklet is intended to be used by instructors and is written in a style that addresses
the instructor, however this is not intended to exclude students who should find examples
interesting, stimulating and hopefully illuminating, particularly when their instructor is
not utilizing them. In the interest of brevity and clarity of presentation, standard
derivations, common tables/charts, and definitions are not included since these are readily
available in textbooks which this booklet is not intended to replace but rather to
supplement and enhance. Similarly, it is anticipated that these lesson plans can be used
to generate lectures/lessons that supplement those covering the fundamentals of each
topic.
It is assumed that students have acquired a knowledge and understanding the following
topics: first and second law of thermodynamics, Newton’s laws, free-body diagrams, and
stresses in pressure vessels.
This is the fourth in a series of such notes. The others are entitled ‘Real Life Examples in
Mechanics of Solids’ (ISBN: 978-0-615-20394-2), ‘Real Life Examples in Dynamics’
(ISBN: 978-0-9842142-0-4) and ‘Real Life Examples in Thermodynamics’ (ISBN 978-0-
9842142-1-1). They are available on-line at www.engineeringexamples.org.

1
Engleman, Laura (ed.), The BSCS Story: A History of the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study. Colorado
Springs: BSCS, 2001.
2
Atkin, J. M. and Karplus, R. (1962). Discovery or invention? Science Teacher 29(5): 45.
3
e.g. Trowbridge, L.W., and Bybee, R.W., Becoming a secondary school science teacher. Merrill Pub. Co.
Inc., 1990.

5
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS

1. Topic: Fluids and their properties

Engage:
Take into class a pile of drinking straws, some
paper cups, a bottle of dish washing detergent and a
bottle of water. In front of the students, add
detergent to water so that the solution is about one
part detergent to ten parts water. Give each student
a straw and a paper cup with a small amount of the mixture in the bottom and invite them
to blow bubbles. Alternatively if you just want to give a demonstration – kits are
available on-line (search under soap bubbles) as well as advice on solutions etc.4

Explore:
Ask students to work in pairs and draw a free-body diagram for a stationary, spherical
bubble. If necessary, give them a hint by telling them to treat it like a pressure vessel.
Invite a pair to draw their result for the rest of the class. Discuss how the circumferential
stress in a solid pressure vessel can be replaced by the surface tension,  in the inner and
outer surfaces of the bubble. So that summing the forces in the horizontal direction in the
figure we obtain
2r
pr 2  2  2r
4 pr2
or p
r 2r

Explain:
Discuss that the surface of the fluid acts like a tensioned membrane. The bubble prefers
to form into a sphere because a sphere has the smallest surface area for a given volume.
So in a sphere the molecules of the fluid can be uniformly close to one another.
A bubble of pure water would be very unstable whereas the detergent is a surfactant that
decreases the surface tension. When a region of the surface of the bubble gets stretched
by an external force, the tension in the membrane increases. This causes detergent to flow
away, thus decreasing the concentration of detergent and raising the surface tension of the
fluid mixture which prevents the bubble from bursting.
Changes in the air temperature will cause expansion or contraction of the bubble and
disturb the equilibrium between internal pressure (increases with temperature) and
surface tension (decreases with temperature) so that it collapses.

4
http://www.bubbles.org/solutions/

6
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

Elaborate:
Pour a little pure detergent into a paper cup and, as you do so, point out to the students
the slow rate at which it flows compared to water. Explain that this is a result of the high
viscosity or internal stickiness of the detergent. Fluids which have complex molecules
that cannot slide easily past one another tend to have a high viscosity.
Consider liquid being sucked up a drinking straw (don’t try it with the water-detergent
solution!). The molecules in the fluid that are in contact with the inside surface of the
straw tend to get stuck in the surface roughness of the straw so that they move very
slowly relative to those along the center line of the straw. This creates a velocity gradient
in the fluid. When we consider a square element in the fluid, then the velocity difference
between the faces parallel to the inside surface of the straw can be described by v, and
after time t the element will be sheared such that the shear angle,  is given by
vt  v
  or 
y t y Element at time, t + t
vt
and in the limit as t → 0 and y → 0 so the rate of 
shear strain is
Element
dv
  at time, t
dy
For ‘Newtonian’ fluids, the shear stress is given by
y
dv
 
dy Wall of the straw

where  is known as the dynamic viscosity.


Note that if dynamic viscosity is normalized by the density it is referred to as kinematic
viscosity, 
Observe that the fluid mechanics has been discussed using analogies to solids and
employing similar language. Another term that can be taken from mechanics of solids is
modulus of elasticity. The bulk modulus of elasticity, B of a fluid relates changes in
volume, dV to the change in pressure, dp causing them, i.e.
dp dp
B or for constant mass, m V  B
dV V d 
and B is a measure of the compressibility of a fluid.

Evaluate:
Invite students to attempt the following examples:
Example 1.1
Demonstrate by analysis and by experiment that a paperclip will float in water at room
temperature.

7
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

Solution:
L L
Summing forces in the vertical direction:
mg  2 L
substituting for mass
 d 2 
 steel   Lg  2 L
mg
 4 

Assuming the density of steel,  steel  7850 kg/m3 and surface tension of water,
 H O  0.073 N/m
2

8 8  0.073
d   1.55  10 3 m
 steel g 7850    9.81

The paperclips on the editor’s desk have a diameter of about 0.75mm (=0.7510-3m) so
they should float based on this analysis.
If you try to float them from your fingers in a cup of water, then they will almost always
sink because you disturb the surface tension in process. However, balance the paperclip
on a thin piece of tissue and gently lower it to the water surface without touching the
surface with your fingers. Then gently push the paper underwater with a pencil without
touching the paperclip. The paperclip should be left floating.

Example 1.2
A fried egg of mass 65g sits in a frying pan with a 0.5mm layer of cooking oil between it
and the pan surface. If the oil has a viscosity of 0.05 Ns/m2, then how fast will the egg
slide across the pan if the pan is tipped to an angle of 20°. Assume that the egg is flat on
the underside, is approximately circular with a diameter of 12cm and neglect edge
effects.
Solution:
Equating forces on in the direction of sliding using the n
mgsi A
free-body diagram,
so mg sin   A
20° Rnormal
dv dv
and    so mg sin    A
dy dy
mg
dv v v
let  and mg sin    A
dy y y
mg sin  0.065  9.81  sin 20
rearranging v  y  0.0005  0.193m/s
A 0.05    0.12 2 4 

So your egg will be out of the pan pretty fast!

8
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS

2. Topic: Statics

Engage:
Take a basin of water and some apples into
class. Invite a couple of students to do
some apple bobbing, i.e. trying to grab the
apples with their teeth. You should
probably take some towels into class too!

Explore:
Ask the students who do some apple bobbing and observe how the apples behave. If you
can get hold of some small applies then you could pass around an apple in a cup of water
and students can experiment for themselves. Discuss the following with the students:
(i) when pushed down an apple experiences an upward force restoring it to the
surface; and
(ii) that most apples have a stable orientation.

Explain:
Remind the students that Archimedes principle defines the buoyancy force as equal to the
weight of the volume of water displaced,
FB  gV  displaced fluid

Note that, sometimes   g is used and is known as the specific weight of the fluid. So
to keep an apple submerged it is necessary to apply a force,
S = mg – FB
where mg is the weight of the apple.
When it is submerged, the apple experiences a force acting on its skin due the pressure of
the water. This force on the curved surface of the skin must act through the center of
curvature of the surface. The pressure is related to the depth in the downward direction, -
dz and density of the water,  such that
dp   g  dz
It would be appropriate to explain that absolute pressure is measured relative to absolute
zero pressure which could only occur in a perfect vacuum; however it is common
engineering practice to measure pressure relative to atmospheric pressure. A pressure
measured in this way is known as gage pressure. Standard atmospheric pressure is
defined as 14.7psi or 101kPa at sea-level.

9
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

Elaborate:
To elaborate on the stability of the apples it is preferable to simplify the situation to a
cylinder of uniform material of specific weight, cyl = 9000 N/m3, i.e. slightly less than
water, and of length and diameter 55mm. If we consider force equilibrium in the vertical
direction for the cylinder floating with its axis vertical, then the weight equals the
buoyant force, i.e.

F y 0

and mg   H Or 2 H
2

55mm
H G
or  cyl r 2 Lg   H Or 2 H

27.5mm
2 C1

where H is the submerged depth, L is the


length and r the radius of the cylinder.
55mm
 cyl L 9000
H   55  10 3   50.5  10 3 m
 H O 9810
2

Now consider the stability of the cylinder.


The buoyancy force, W, acts through the
centroid of the displaced volume of fluid, C1, M
which when the cylinder is rotated by an
external force moves to C2. The weight of
cylinder, W, always acts at its centroid, G, so
that the two forces W form a couple which
tends to return the cylinder to its original
GG
position if the original was stable or tends to CC1 1 C2
rotate it further if the original position was
unstable.
The lines joining the centroid of the cylinder, W
G, to the centroids of the displaced volume of W
water, C1 and C2, intersect at the metacenter,
M. It can be shown that the distance C1M is given by
IO
C1M 
V
where IO is the second moment of area of the water-line section about the axis through its
centroid and V is the submerged volume. Alternatively, given from the geometry that
C1G  GM  C1 M
IO
then GM   C1G
V

When the distance from the centroid of the cylinder to the metacenter, GM is positive,
the cylinder is stable.
So for the apple idealized as a cylinder,

10
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

  55  10 3 
4
d 4
IO    4.49  10 7 m4
64 64
and, from the diagram
50.5  10 3
C1G  27.5  10 3   2.25  10 3 m
2
IO 4.49  10 7
so GM   C1G   2.25  10 3  0.00149 m
 cyl d 2 L 9000   55  10 
3 3

H O 42
9810 4

Thus, the apple is stable in this orientation, with its axis of symmetry or stalk vertical.

Evaluate:
Invite students to attempt the following examples:
Example 2.1
Calculate the force needed to push up the 4cm diameterplug in a bath of water 20cm
deep, to let the water out, if the plug is a loose-fit in the plug-hole and the lever
mechanism that operates the plug provides a mechanical advantage of 3.
Solution:
Pressure on the plug,
2
p   H O gz  1000  9.81 0.2  1962 N/m
2

assuming atmospheric pressure on the surface at the surface of the bath water and in the
drain under the plug.
d 2   0.04 2
Force on plug, F  pA  p  1962  2.46 N
4 4
With a mechanical advantage of 3 the force required on mechanism will be 0.82N
(=2.46/3).

Example 2.2
When a car slides off the road into a river, which is
2.5m deep, it lands on its side at 45 degrees to the
vertical such that the passenger side doors are
2.5m

jammed into the soft riverbed. Calculate the force


required to open the driver’s door if the car remains 45°
watertight and the bottom of the door is just touching
the riverbed. Assume the door is a rectangle of
height 1.2m and width 1.1m weighing 33kg with the
handle on the opening edge.

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Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

Solution:
It can be shown that the force acting on an area, F  pC A
where pC is the pressure at the centroid on the area, A. In this case the centroid is located
at L 2cos 45 above the riverbed where L is the height of the car door. Hence, the
distance from the water surface to the centroid of the door,
1.2
h  2. 5  cos 45  2.08 m
2
Thus, the pressure, p   H O gz  1000  9.81  2.08  20,400Pa
2

And, the force acting on the door, F  pC A  20363  1.2  1.1  26,900N
This force will act at the center of pressure, which will be on the vertical center-line of
the door but below the centroid due to the pressure gradient. Assuming the force to open
the door, Fopen is applied approximately level with the center of pressure, then taking
moments about the hinge,
Fw mgw
  Fopen w  0
2 2
where w is the width of the door, thus
F mg 26879 33  9.81
Fopen      13601N
2 2 2 2
This is a huge force. It is probably a false assumption that the car will be watertight; but
nevertheless, if your car is immersed in an accident it will be extremely difficult, if not
impossible, to open a door.

Example 2.3
In your car you have a coffee cup of diameter 9cm at the rim and it is full to within 10mm
of the rim. When the cup is placed in a cup-holder, how fast can you accelerate without
spilling your coffee?
Solution:
Pressure in a fluid is gz L
zL zR
so the force on the left end of the
element of fluid in the diagram will be
FL  gz L A
Direction of
and for the right end, FR  gz R A travel


In these circumstances it is suggested that you should exit through a window. So, your first action on
realizing you are going to impact with the water should be to open a window since the electrics will fail
quickly on immersion. If you need to break a window, hit it in a corner with a sharp object.

12
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

so the net force in the direction of travel is


F  gA z L  z R 

and this must be equal to force due to the acceleration, i.e. F  ma thus substituting for
the mass of the element
gAz L  z R   ALa
g z L  z R 
or a
L
9.81 10  10 2 2
and using similar triangles a   2.45 m/s
9  10 2 2

This equivalent to 0 to 16mph in 3 seconds and is why we put lids on our coffee (or don’t
fill your cup too near the top)!

13
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

FLUIDS IN MOTION

3. Topic: Kinematics of fluid motion

Engage:
Take a flask of coffee, some cream or milk, a glass,
and some paper cups into class. Offer a free cup of
coffee to students as they come into class and ask
them to add the cream slowly and watch what
happens. Repeat the process yourself except use
the glass so that the students can see the mixing
process in three-dimensions.

Explore:
Show a video of How to Cream Coffee5 (search YouTube using the italicized words).
Explain that the cream shows us ‘streaklines’. A streakline is an instantaneous locus of
all particles originating from a common point. You might also like to show the video
coffee and cream mix slow motion6.
Show a video of the flow around a sphere (inH20) in a water tank in which red dye is
introduced on the upstream side of the sphere7.
Explain that the fluid dye shows us ‘streaklines’ in the same way as the cream in the
coffee. Define a pathline as a history of particle’s location, and lines that are tangential to
the velocity vectors of particles in the flow as streamlines. An example of streamlines
would be the lines left in a time-lapsed photograph by the headlights of a moving car.
For steady-flow streaklines, pathlines and streamlines are coincident. You could use a
video of flow in front of and behind a BMW 3series Convertible 1987 in the wind tunnel 8
to illustrate the difference between steady and unsteady flow. You could talk about the
distance between streamlines representing pressure and the relationship with increasing
and decreasing velocity.

Explain:
Highlight that when watching the coffee and cream or the videos our eyes tend to follow
the movement of the cream (or the smoke) in the flow and that this can be equated to the
Lagrangian approach to fluid mechanics.

5
www.youtube.com/watch?v=9EsZ7GSUcI4&NR=1
6
www.youtube.com/watch?v=M4vB6kAhuN0
7
www.youtube.com/watch?v=4zHIjyj-vEo
8
www.youtube.com/watch?v=XS3sbYJHkSw&feature=channel

14
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

Show the BMW convertible video again and use your laser pointer or the cursor on the
screen to highlight a single point. Explain that considering the fluid motion at a single
point in this way is an Eulerian approach to fluid mechanics.

Elaborate:
Continue the Eulerian approach and instead of considering a single point, expand it to a
box, through which the fluid is flowing. Explain that such a box is known as a control
volume in fluid mechanics. Discuss that in steady flow, the amount of fluid entering and
leaving the control volume at any instant in time is the same, i.e., the mass of the fluid in
the box is constant, which leads to the continuity equation,
1 A1v1   2 A2v2  constant  m
where  is the fluid density, v the fluid velocity and A1 and A2 are cross-section areas at
the entry and exit from the control volume, and usually considered to be connected by
pathlines, i.e., lines across which no particles flow.
In unsteady flow the mass of fluid in the control volume changes with time and hence the
continuity equation has to be modified as
dmcv
 m out  m in  0
dt
where the first term represents the accumulation of fluid in the control volume and the
last two terms represent the outflow and inflow rates across the surfaces of the control
volume.
Use the continuity equation to calculate the flow rates for the inlet and outlet ducts of the
air conditioning in the classroom. It is recommended that the air in a classroom should
be completely changed 12 times per hour9.
Estimate the volume of the classroom based on floor dimensions of 35ft (10.7m) by 25ft
(7.6m) and a ceiling height of 8ft (2.4m),
V  10.7  7.6  2.4  195.2 m3
So the volumetric flow rate required is 0.65m3/s  195.2  12  60  60  and if we
assume constant air density then
A1v1  A2v2  0.65m3/s
If the room has five inlet vents of dimensions 3ft (0.914m) by 6in (0.153m) and a 2ft
(0.610m) square outlet vent then
0.65
v1   0.93 m/s
0.914  0.153 5
0.65
v2   1.75 m/s
0.610 2

9
http://ateam.lbl.gov/Design-Guide/DGHtm/roomairchangerates.htm

15
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

Evaluate:
Invite students to attempt the following examples:
Example 3.1
It is recommended that bathrooms of 100sq.ft. or less should have a ventilation of 1 CFM
per sq.ft of area and no less than 50CFM10. This is usually achieved with a small fan that
extracts air. Estimate the volumetric flow rate for your bathroom and the velocity of air
flowing under the closed door to replace the air extracted by a fan.
Solution:
The editor’s bathroom is 8ft by 6ft hence
Volumetric flow rate = Floor area  1 = 8  6  48 CFM ≡ 0.023 m3/s
If the door is 3ft wide (0.9m) with a half inch (0.0127m) gap underneath it then the
velocity of the flow will be given by
0.023
v  2 m/s (~ 4.5 mph)
0.9  0.0127

Example 3.2
If a car tire with a slow puncture takes three days (72 hours) to decrease from its
recommended pressure of 35psi to 22psi at which the low pressure light activates on the
instrument panel, calculate the area of the hole, A, given the mass flow rate, m , from the
tire is given by
0.66 pA
m 
RT
where R is the gas constant, T is the absolute temperature and p is the tire pressure. You
may assume that the change in volume of the tire is negligible.
Solution:
Using the continuity equation:
dmcv
 m out  m in  0
dt
dVcv pA
so  0.66 00
dt RT
Applying the ideal gas law
d p  pA
Vcv    0.66 0
dt  RT  RT
assuming A, R (=587 J/kgK), T and V are constant and rearranging

10
www.hvi.org/resourcelibrary/HowMuchVent.html

16
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

1.52V dp
dt 
A RT p
Integrating and applying initial and final pressures as limits
1.52V p
t ln i
A RT pf
Now, the volume of the tire can be calculated by assuming the tire and wheel to be
concentric cylinders of outside diameters 0.6m and 0.4m respectively and thickness (= l)
0.18m (based on measurements taken from the editor’s car), thus
 
V d 2
tire  d wheel
2
 l  0.6 2
tire  0.4 2wheel   0.18  0.028 m
3
4 4
So, if the temperature is assumed to be 21C then
1.52V p 1.52  0.028 35
A ln i  ln  1.82  10 10 m2
t RT p f (72  60  60) 587  300 22

Assuming a round hole, it would have a diameter of 1.510-5 (≡ 15m) since


4A 4  1.82  10 10
d   1.5  10 5 m
 

17
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

FLUIDS IN MOTION

4. Topic: Dynamics of fluid motion

Engage:
Take a hair dryer and some table tennis balls into class.
Invite a couple of pairs of students to turn on the hair dryer,
point it upwards and balance a ball in the air-stream. Ask
them to describe what they feel when they try to remove the
ball from the air-stream (a force holding the ball in the air-
stream). There is a good video and explanation of this
experiment11.

Explore:
Show a video of flow around a tennis ball with vortex shedding, by searching in Youtube
using the words “Fluid Mechanics - Cool science experiment” 12, and discuss the
presence of areas of laminar and turbulent flow with vortices being formed downstream
of the ball. Vortices are low pressures zones formed downstream of blunt objects and the
ball tends to move towards the low pressure zone which is why the table tennis ball
bounces around in the flow from the air dryer.

(p+ p ds) dA
Explain: s a
v
Return their attention to the video and the laminar ds
flow region where the flow visualization with the dh
smoke represents streamlines. Using a Lagrangian
approach, consider a particle of fluid on a R pdA

streamline and apply Newton’s second law in the
direction of the streamline, i.e. resolve forces,
(g)dsdA
 p 
pdA   p  ds dA  g dsdA cos   as dsdA
 s 
where as is the acceleration of the particle along the streamline. For two points on the
streamline and assuming no viscous forces, it can be shown that
v12 p1 v2 p
  gz1  2  2  gz 2  gH
2  2 
which is known as Bernoulli’s equation and Bernoulli’s constant, H is constant along a
streamline.

11
www.efluids.com/efluids/gallery_exp/exp_pages/hairdryer.jsp
12
www.youtube.com/watch?v=7KKFtgx2anY

18
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

Note that Bernoulli’s equation can be expressed such that the terms have the units of
pressure by normalizing with density,  or of length or head by normalizing with
gravitational acceleration, g. Thus, piezometric head can be defined as  p g  z  ; total

head as v 2 2 g  p g  z  ; and stagnation or total pressure as p   v 2 2 . 

Elaborate:
Highlight that a vortex consists of a system of concentric circular streamlines in which
the fluid velocity is inversely proportional to the radius, i.e. vr = constant. When
Bernoulli’s constant, H is the same throughout the vortex it is known as a free vortex
with rotational flow in which fluid elements rotate in circles but do not deform.

Rotational flow without element deformation Irrotational flow with element deformation

In a free vortex, Bernoulli’s constant requires the pressure to drop as the velocity rises
towards the center of a vortex. The pressure drop causes:
o free surfaces to curve such in the bath around an open plug-hole;
o water vapor to condense, which generates the vapor streams behind aircraft as
vortices shed from the wings;
o low pressure in the center of tornadoes and hurricanes so that a secondary airflow is
established along the ground towards the center and then up into the core.
In practice, at the center of most naturally occurring free vortices the viscosity of the fluid
causes it to rotate as a solid body creating a compound or Rankine vortex.
A category five hurricane (e.g. Katrina in 2005) has wind speeds in excess of 155 mph.
When it is over the sea, the outer portion can be modeled as a free vortex so if the
maximum wind speed of 160mph (71.5m/s) occurs at 1 mile from the center then the
wind speed at 5 miles from the center will be given by
v5 r1
vr  C so   0.2 and v5  71.5  0.2  14.3 m/s (32mph)
v1 r5

Applying Bernoulli’s equation through the hurricane

19
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

v12 v2
p1    p5   5
2 2
So the pressure difference between the two locations at the same height ( z1  z 5 ) is

p5  p1  v
2
1  v52  
1.29
71.52  14.32   3165 Pa
2 2
This is a large pressure difference and helps to explain the catastrophic damage caused by
a category five hurricane, which is the most intense category of storms.

Evaluate:
Invite students to attempt the following examples:
Example 4.1
Calculate the force on your hand when you hold it as far out of the car window as you
can reach, palm against the wind, when the car is travelling at 70mph.
Solution:
Measure the area of your hand. For the editor’s hand, the area is approximately 0.018m2.
Apply Bernoulli’s equation for point  some distance in front of your hand and for point
 just in front of your palm such that both points are on the same streamline,
v12 v2
  p1  gz1   2  p 2  gz 2
2 2
The air velocity at point  is 70mph (~31m/s = v1) and zero at your palm (v2 =0). The
gage pressure at point  will be zero (p1=0) and there is no height difference between the
points if you are on a level road so z1  z 2 . Thus, with air= 1.29 kg.m-3
v12 v2 312
p2   air so p2   air 1  1.29  620 Pa
2 2 2
Now, F  pA  620  0.018  11.2 N

Example 4.2
If a vacuum cleaner hose is to be able to pick-up a layer of dust 0.5mm thick from a
height of 3cm, calculate the maximum average velocity that needs to be achieved at the
inlet to the hose.
Solution:
Let’s assume the dust is dry sand for which density data is available, i.e.  = 1600 kg/m3.
If the cross-section area of the hose is A, then the force required to lift the area of sand
covered by the hose is
F  mg  Atg and the pressure at the hose, p  F / A  tg

20
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

where t is the thickness of the layer of sand. Applying Bernoulli’s equation for a point on
the surface of the sand  where the static pressure and velocity are zero and at the hose
 so
v22
gh1    p 2  gh2
2

or v2  2 g h1  h2   2tg  2  9.81 0.03  2  0.0005  9.81  0.76 m/s

21
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS

5. Topic: Momentum

Engage:
Take a hairdryer, stand and clamp, some balloons, and
paperclips into class. Set up the hairdryer with the stand
and clamp so that it is blowing vertically up on its cold
setting. Blow up a balloon and place it in the air-stream
and it will probably be pushed up to the ceiling.

Explore:
Capture the balloon and attach a paperclip to the neck of the balloon and again place it in
the airstream. As you add more paperclips the balloon will float lower and lower in the
airstream. To save time you could use a series of balloons inflated to the same diameter
with various numbers of paperclips attached. There is a nice video of school kids
performing this experiment13.

Explain:
Explain that when the balloon hovers at a stable height, based on Newton’s second law
applied to the balloon, the force on the balloon from the jet of air is equal to the weight of
the balloon.
We can draw a cylindrical control volume around but not including the balloon and
equate the change in momentum to the external forces on the control volume, i.e.
 F  m (v2 – v1)
In this case the external force is the weight of the
balloon. Sometimes it is easier to consider three
scalar components of this vector expression, i.e.

F x 
 m v2 x  v1x 
F y 
 m v2 y  v1y 
F z 
 m v2 z  v1z 

13
www.planet-scicast.com/view_clip.cfm?cit_id=2709

22
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

Elaborate:
Consider the cylindrical control volume around the balloon. Assume that the velocity of
the airstream leaving the hairdryer is a uniform 50m/s and that all of air leaves the control
volume at the same speed but at an angle,  = 30° from the horizontal.
In practice this angle will vary from about zero close to the bottom of the balloon and
approach 90° close to the horizontal diameter of the balloon.

The mass flow rate at entry, m   air Av  1.2   0.06 2  50  0.17 kg/s
4
Assuming the hairdryer has a circular nozzle with an outlet diameter of 6cm. The
momentum of the fluid crossing AB will be
m v AB  0.17  50  8.48 N
And in the y-direction for cylindrical surface, given that continuity demands the total
mass flow across the surface equals that across AB,
m v AD sin   0.17  50 sin 30  4.24 N
So, applying the momentum equation,
W  m v AB 1  sin 30   4.24 N
This hair dryer could keep a balloon and tail of paperclips weighing 4.24N (=0.42kg) in
the air. The airstream is slowed down by entrapment of the surrounding air and so the
nozzle velocity will not be achieved at all heights above the hairdryer, which is why the
balloon sinks down as it is loaded with paperclips.

Evaluate:
Invite students to attempt the following examples:
Example 5.1:
Calculate the force exerted by the water from the tap in your kitchen sink on a coffee cup
held in the flow when the tap is open to its maximum.
Solution:
Estimate the water flow by how long it takes to fill a
measuring jug. In the editor’s kitchen it took 5
seconds to fill a 1 liter measuring jug, so the mass
flow rate is
 H OV 1000  0.001
m  2
  0.2 kg/s
T 5
C A B C
The diameter of the orifice in the tap is 17mm and so
the velocity of the flow is

23
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

m 0.2
v   0.88 m/s
A    0.017 2 
1000   
 4 
Hence, the momentum of the water leaving the tap at AB is
m v AB  0.2  0.88  0.176 N
The water is turned through 180° in the cup and so emerges with a momentum of equal
and opposite sign so that the total change in momentum is 2m v AB  0.352 N.
This is about one third of the weight of the editor’s best porcelain coffee cups.

Example 5.2
Calculate the force required to hold an umbrella against a 30mph wind. Assume the wind
is blowing horizontally so you are holding your umbrella head into wind, i.e., the handle
is parallel to the wind direction and the umbrella deflects the wind to leave at an angle of
45°. The umbrella is symmetrical about the handle with a projected area perpendicular to
the wind, which is a circle of diameter 1.2m.
Solution:
A Force, F
Consider a control volume such that wind
enters at AB with a velocity of 13.4 m/s (≡
wind

30mph) and leaves at 45° to this along BC.


um

y
br
ell

We can apply the momentum equation in the


a

x
direction of the wind such that

F x 
 m v2 x  v1x  B
C

 1.2 2
and x
 x x

F    air Av1 v1 cos 45  v1  1.29 
4
 13.412 cos 45  1  76.8 N

If you were walking into the wind, then it would be necessary to construct velocity
diagrams for the wind velocity at entry and exit to, what would become, a moving control
volume.

24
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS

6. Topic: Energy

Engage:
Take a portable forced air heater into class. The type most
students have in their rooms. Set it up on the desk at the
front of class and make a show of warming your hands in
front of it. Ask students, working in pairs, to identify the
energy transfers being made to the air passing through the
fan-heater and then to incorporate them into a control volume
diagram.

Explore:
Invite one group to list the energy transfers that they identified. Discuss how these
transfers relate to the first law of thermodynamics, i.e., conservation of energy with
electrical energy being converted into heat energy and mechanical energy then the later
being transferred as kinetic energy to the air.
Invite a second group to sketch their
control volume on the board for the
class to see. Discuss how we can W v2, p2
include energy flows as well as
mass flows. In this case,
mechanical work, W, via the fan and v1, p1
Q
heat transfer, Q, from the heating
elements.

Explain:
Explain that there is energy contained in the mass flows into and out of the fan-heater, so
that these represent energy transfers across the control volume boundary as well as the
mechanical or shaft work and the heat transfer from the heater. The energy of a mass of
fluid has three components:
a. internal energy due to the activity of the molecules;
b. kinetic energy due to the motion of the fluid; and
c. potential energy of the fluid as a result of its position (height).
Expand on this by explaining that the first law of thermodynamics can be employed to
track or account for these energy transfers and that in this context it is known as the
steady flow energy equation. It can be stated in words as ‘for any mass system, the net
energy supplied (in) to the system equals the increase of energy of the system (stored)
plus the energy leaving (out) the system’, i.e.

25
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

E  Q  W
where Q is the net heat transfer into the system, W is the net work supplied to the
system, and E is the increase in energy of the system. The Steady Flow Energy
Equation (S.F.E.E.) can be derived from this expression by substituting for the three
components of the energy (internal, kinetic and potential) in the mass flow to give
m h2  h1   12 v22  v12   g z 2  z1   Q  W

Elaborate:
Apply the SFEE to the fan-heater to find the enthalpy (internal energy) change
experienced by the air. Assume the fan-heater converts 1000W of electrical energy into
heat and work to drive the shaft, i.e.
Q W  1000 J/s.
If the change in elevation between the center of the inlet and the center of the outlet is
100mm, then
g  z2  z1   9.81 0.1  0.981 J
Now if the inlet and outlet ports are the same size, then mass continuity demands that
v1=v2 so 1
2 v 2
2 
 v12  0
If the fan is 110CFM (1100.000472 = 0.052 m3/s), then the mass flow rate will be 0.062
kg/s (=1.20.052)
Thus rearranging the SFEE to obtain
 
h2  h1   Q  W  12 v22  v12   g z 2  z1  
1000
 0  0.981  16049  16 kJ/kg
m 0.062
This is the energy available to warm the room for you.

Evaluate:
Invite the students to attempt the following examples:
Example 6.1
A new design of hand-dryer generates two 400mph sheets of air at approximately room
temperature and about 30cm above the air intake. The mass flow rate is 68 CFM and its
manufacturers claim it will dry your hands in 12 seconds. Calculate the work done by the
dryer to dry your hands.
Solution:
Apply the steady flow energy equation and assume an ideal gas
  
m h2  h1   12 v22  v12  g z2  z1   q  w 

26
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

The flow is adiabatic in the dryer (no heat source) so q  0 and the air inlet and outlet are
at atmospheric pressure so h1=h2. The mass flow rate is given by
m  1.268  0.000472   0.0385 kg/s
Assume that the air intake is large and so the velocity approximates to zero then:
178.82 
w  m v
1
2
2
2  g z 2  z1   68  0.000472   9.81  0.3  513 J/kg
 2 
Over a 12-second period the total mass flow will be 0.462kg (=12  0.0385); and hence,
the work done will be 237J (=0.462  513) which is 0.000066 kWh. This compares to
the manufacturer’s claim of 0.00468kWh per dry!

Example 6.2
The total force opposing the motion of a cyclist is given by14
C d v 2
R A  C r mg
2
where v is the rider’s speed through the air of density , A is the projected frontal area of
the rider and bicycle who have a mass, m, and a drag coefficient of Cd=0.9. Typical
values for the product ACd are of the order 0.39. Cr is the rolling coefficient and is
typically 0.003.
For a rider and bike of combined mass 84kg, calculate the work-rate required to maintain
a steady speed of 30mph on a level road; then assuming about 18% of energy obtained
from food is converted to mechanical energy, estimate the food intake required for a 90-
mile bike ride.
Solution:
Take the cyclist and bicycle as the moving control volume, then the SFEE reduces to
Q W  0
Because there is no change in elevation (z1=z2), no change in velocity (v1=v2), and no
change in enthalpy (h1=h2) across the control volume.
The work-rate is the resisting force multiplied by the velocity (13.41 m/s) so,
ACd v 3 1.2  0.39  13.413
w   Cr mgv   0.003  84  9.8113.41  597 J/s
2 2
Now from SFEE we have q  w so the combustion of calories equals the work-rate once
w 597
the metabolic efficiency is accounted for, i.e., q    3319 J/s or about 2880
 0.18
Calories per hour.

14
Grappe, F., Candau, R., Belli, A., Rouillon, J.D., Aerodynamic drag in cycling with special reference to
the Obree’s position, Ergonomics, 40(12):1299-1311, 1997.

27
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

MODELING

7. Topic: Similitude and dimensional analysis

Engage:
Take your toy boats from the bath into class. If
you don’t have any, then you could either
borrow or buy some; or at the end of the
previous class invite students to bring in their
own bath toys.
Show them a video from YouTube of a ship in rough seas (search using ‘Abeille Flandre’
and show the clip of this name15.

Explore:
We have all played with boats in the bath. Discuss whether the behavior of toy boats will
provide a good model for predicting the behavior of full-scale ships at sea. We could get
out of the bath and conduct the experiment in the controlled environment of the
laboratory; but would the behavior in the laboratory be a good prediction of the
performance on the high seas?
Ask students to construct a list of factors that could differ between the lab and the ocean
and then construct a master list on the board.

Explain:
You should have ended up with a long list of factors that could vary between the lab and
the full-scale performance at sea. Explain that it is advantageous to group variables such
as pressure, density, length, viscosity, velocity into non-dimensional groups and then to
conduct experiments to establish the functional relationship between the groups rather
than the variables. This considerably reduces the amount of experimentation required
and can also help in ensuring similitude between experiments and the prototype or full-
scale version.

Elaborate:
An American physicist, Edgar Buckingham (1867-1940), showed that the number of non-
dimensional groups required to correlate the variables in a certain process is given by n-m
where n is the number of variables to be grouped and m is the number of basic
dimensions included amongst the variables. So we might expect the force, F, acting on
our ship, and toy boat, would be a function of fluid density, ρ; dynamic viscosity, μ;
gravity, g; the speed of the ship, v; and a characteristic dimension of the ship, l.
15
www.youtube.com/watch?v=3408T5A-ApU

28
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

So, F  f  ,  , g , v, l 
The fundamental dimensions of these quantities are
F N ( = kg m s-2) MLT-2
 kg m-3 ML-3
 N s m-2 ML-1T-1
g m s-2 LT-2
v m s-1 LT-1
l m L
So we have six variables and three basic dimensions (M: mass, L: length, and T: time)
and thus we will need three (  6  3 ) non-dimensional or Pi groups (hence the name
Buckingham-Pi approach). This means we can reduce the number of variables from six
to three.
To find the first group, 1, we can select the dependent variable, F, and form a non-
dimensional group by introducing variables with the appropriate dimensions in such a
way as to create the non-dimensional group. If a dimension exists on its own as the only
dimension of a variable, then it should be considered last. So in this case starting with
[M] we can introduce  and then v2 to have [T-2] but then we have [L-3][L2] = [L-1] and
we need [L] so we must introduce l2. So
F
1 
v 2l 2
This is effectively the ratio of the shear force on the hull to the inertia forces. The
process can be repeated choosing  to form the second group

2 
vl
Note that the same repeating variables are used to achieve the non-dimensional group.
This group is the Reynolds number and describes the ratio of the inertia to shear forces in
the fluid. And finally for third group using g we can obtain
gl
3 
v2
This is the Froude number and describes the ratio of inertia to gravitational forces for a
fluid with a free surface. So the functional relationship for the behavior of the ship either
as a model (toy boat) or full-scale in the ocean is
F   gl 
   , 2 
v l
2 2
 vl v 
In order to achieve similitude between a model and a prototype Pi groups are made
equivalent. So, for instance, if a tug boat in your bath is 6cm long and an ocean-going
tug is 32m long then 3 above would imply that

29
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

glbath glocean v2 l 0.6 1


2
 2 or 2bath  bath  
vbath vocean vocean locean 32 533

And the speed of your model needs to be 1/23 (= 1 533 ) of the speed of the ocean-going
tug, which is just as well since a typical speed for the ocean version is 11 knots or 5.6
m/s. The model would have to move at 0.24 m/s (=5.6/23), or about 9 inches/sec, which
is quite fast for the bath.

Evaluate:
Ask the students to attempt the following examples:
Example 7.1
The suction of a vacuum cleaner can be equated with the pressure drop across its fan, p
which is in turn related the fan diameter, D; its axial length, l; the rotational speed, ; the
inlet and outlet diameters, d1 and d2 and the air density, . Find the functional
relationship between these groups.
Solution:
p  f D, l ,  , d1 , d 2 ,  
We can express the dimensions of the variables as follows:
p Pa (N m-2) ML-1T-2
D m L
l m L
 rad s-1 T-1
d1 m L
d2 m L
 kg m -3
ML-3
There are seven variables and three basic dimensions so there will be four non-
dimensional groups. The repeating variables are D,  and . The first group can be
formed around p and we obtain
p
1 
 2 D 2
For the second group use the next non-repeating variable and so on to give
l d d
2  ,  3  1 and  4  2
D D D
p  l d d 
and   , 1 , 2 
 D
2 2
D D D

30
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

Example 7.2
In order to study the interaction of a micro-surgery device and the flow in an artery, a five
times scale model of an artery is to be constructed. The volume flow rate, Q, in the artery
is believed to be a function of frequency of the heart beat, ; artery diameter, D; the fluid
density, ; viscosity, ; and the pressure gradient, p/l. Identify the dimensional groups
and estimate the volume flow rate required if saline is used as the work fluid instead of
blood.
Solution:
 p 
Q     , D,  ,  , 
 l 
We can express the dimensions of the variables as follows:
Q m3s-1 L3T-1
 s-1 T-1
D m L
 kg m-3 ML-3
 N s m-2 ML-1T-1
p/l Pa/m (N m-3) ML-2T-2
There are six variables and three basic dimensions so there will be three non-dimensional
groups. The repeating variables are f, D and . The first group can be formed around p
and we obtain
Q
1 
D 3
Then taking each of the non-repeating variables in turn
 p l
2  and  3 
D 
2
D 2
So, if the working fluid is changed from blood to saline, 2 equivalence must be
maintained so
 s  b Db2 2  10 3 1060  1
s       0.11b
 b  s Ds2 b 4  10 3 1200  2 2 b
assuming the saline is formulated to give approximately the same viscosity as blood, the
model heart beat needs to be about 1/9th of the natural heart rate. Now for flowrate
equivalence of the first Pi group is required so
Ds3 s 23 1
Qs  Q  Qb  72Qb
Db3b
b
1 0.044

Hence, the volume flowrate would need to be about 70 times the natural value in the
body.

31
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

FLOW

8. Topic: Viscous flow in pipes (internal flow)

Engage:
Take a vacuum cleaner into the class and clean up after the
previous class using one of the tools attached to the pipe. It
should attract the attention of the students! Ask them to
vote on whether the flow in the pipe is laminar or turbulent.
You can use a YouTube video16 to illustrate ‘laminar flow
in pipe’ and a corresponding video17: ‘turbulent flow in a
pipe’ by searching with the words in italics.

Explore:
Estimate the Reynolds number of the vacuum cleaner pipe:
 air vD
Re 
 air

The density and viscosity of air at 20°C are 1.2 kg.m-3 and 19.810-6 Pa.s respectively. if
the radius of the pipe is approximately 15mm and 150CFM (≡0.0706 m3s-1) is a typical
airflow capacity. Thus
 0.0706 
1.2   2 
 0.03
   0.015 
Re   181,597
19.8  10 6
Fully turbulent flow occurs with Re>2,300 so those that voted for turbulent flow were
correct.

Inviscid core Boundary layer


r
D

le
Fully developed flow

16
www.youtube.com/watch?v=KqqtOb30jWs
17
www.youtube.com/watch?v=NplrDarMDF8&NR=1

32
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

Explain:
Explain how with no tool fitted to the pipe of the vacuum, the air enters with a nearly
uniform velocity across the section. As the air moves along the pipe, viscous effects
cause it to adhere to the pipe wall creating a boundary layer in which viscous effects
dominate. In the central section, beyond the boundary layer viscous effects are
negligible; however, with distance along the pipe the boundary layer grows and
eventually occupies the whole cross-section. The non-dimensional entrance length, le D
correlates well with Reynolds number.

Elaborate:
Explain that for laminar pipe-flow it can be shown that the velocity profile is described
by

 pD 2    2r  
2

u r     1    
 16 l    D  
where the first term is the center-line velocity of the fluid. This expression describes a
parabolic distribution. By integrating over the cross-section of the pipe the flowrate, Q,
can be obtained as
pD 4
Q
128l
which is known as Poiseuille’s law.
The viscous effects at the pipe wall are responsible for energy losses, which are known as
head losses, hL. It can be shown that
4l W
hL 
D
where  W is the wall shear stress. The resultant pressure drop is given by
8vl
p 
r2
where r is the radius of the pipe.
In turbulent flows the velocity approaches a uniform distribution across the pipe with
only a small viscous sub-layer close to the pipe wall. A number of empirical expressions
exist to describe the shear stress and the velocity profile. A reasonable approximation is
obtained using the inviscid Bernoulli equation and assuming a uniform velocity profile.
Losses in turbulent flow are assumed to arise from viscous effects in straight pipes and
are known as major losses, hLmajor : and those from head losses in pipe components, known
as minor losses, hL .
minor

33
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

By non-dimensional analysis, it can be shown that the pressure drop along a pipe
containing turbulent flow is given by
p  vD l  
   ' ' 
2 v   D D
1 2

where  is a measure of the roughness of the pipe wall. If we assume the pressure drop is
proportional to pipe length, which is supported by experimental evidence, then
v 2 l
p  f
2 D
where f is the friction factor and
  
f    Re, 
 D
And, by substitution in the SFEE, it can be shown that
l v2
hLmajor  f
D 2g
For minor losses a loss coefficient, KL, is usually defined such that
hL minor p
KL  
v 2
2g  1
2 v 2
Finally for the vacuum tube we can estimate the head losses as follows: for a plastic tube
the relative roughness can be taken as zero, and so using a Moody diagram18 for a
Reynolds number of 1.8105 we find a friction factor of about 0.0155, hence the pressure
drop due to major losses is
2
 0.0706 
1.2   
v 2 l    0.015 2  1
p  f  0.0155  3092 Pa/m
2 D 2 0.03
And for minor losses assuming a 90° flanged elbow in the pipe for which KL=0.319
2
 0.0706 
1.2   
   0.0152 
p  2 v K L 
1 2
 0.3 =1796Pa.
2

18
www.ecourses.ou.edu/cgi-bin/view_anime.cgi?file=d06123.swf&course=fl&chap_sec=06.1
19
For example: www.engineeringtoolbox.com/minor-loss-coefficients-pipes-d_626.html

34
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

Evaluate:
Ask the students to attempt the following examples:
Example 8.1
3mm 40mm
Investigate the mechanism in a spray bottle and Return
Spring
identify the size and shape of the fluid pipes though
which the liquid is drawn up and then squirted.
Spray
Non-return
10mm valve
Estimate whether the flow will be turbulent or
laminar and then calculate the pressure drop due to Force

head losses during squirting.


Solution:
We need to estimate the Reynold’s number,
 H O vD
Re  2


for the pipe to the spray nozzle, D 3mm and
assuming we are spraying water so  = 1000 kg/m3
and  = 1 10 3 Pa.s. Let’s say it takes 250 squirts to empty an 8oz (236,584mm3) spray
bottle then it dispenses 946mm3 (=236,584/250) at each squirt. You can check this by
estimating the stroke volume for the piston; if the piston is of radius 5mm then it would
require a stroke of 12mm (=946/(52)) which seems reasonable. If a squirt takes about
1 second, then the velocity will be 134mm/s (=946/(1.52)). So substituting for the
Reynolds number
1000  0.134  0.003
Re   402
1 10 3
This is sufficiently low for the flow to remain laminar. The return of the piston is
generally slower so the flow will also be laminar.
Consequently the pressure drop can be estimated from
8 H O vl 8  0.001 0.134  0.04
p  2
2
  19 Pa
r 0.0015 2
This pressure plus the spring stiffness equates to the force needed to squirt the liquid.

Example 8.2
Estimate how hard you would need to pump to induce turbulent flow in the tube
connecting a hand-pump to your bicycle tire. For these circumstances estimate the
pressure drop due to major and minor losses.
Solution:
For the onset of turbulence a Reynolds number of more than 2300 is needed and for fully
developed turbulent flow Re>10,000.

35
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

vD
Re 

Everything is fixed except the velocity of the air, which is controlled by your pumping,
so for a tube of internal diameter 3mm
Re  2300  19.8  10 6
v   12.65 m/s
D 1.2  0.003

  0.0032 3
which requires a volume flow rate, Q  vA  12.65   8.94  10 5 m /s
4
If the internal diameter of the pump is 30mm, then you will need to move the piston at
Q 8.94  10 5
v   0.1265 m/s
4  0.03
 2
Apiston

The pressure drop resulting from major losses can be estimated using
v 2 l
p  f
2 D
For a plastic tube it can be assumed to be smooth, and from a Moody chart for Re=2300,
the friction factor, f = 0.03. Hence for a pipe of length 0.125m
v 2 l 1.2  0.1265 2 0.125
p  f  0.03   0.012 Pa
2 D 2 0.003
The only significant minor losses are in the valve and a typical loss coefficient is KL = 2,
so
1.2  0.1265 2
p  12 v 2 K L   2  0.0192 Pa
2
Thus, in this case, the head loss due to the minor losses is greater than that due to major
losses occurring from viscous effects, which is actually more common.

36
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

FLOW

9. Topic: Flow over bodies (external flow)

Engage:
Wear a swim cap into class – this is bound to engage the
students’ attention. Ask them why competition
swimmers wear caps and suits [Answer: to reduce drag].
Ask students to estimate whether the flow associated
with a swimmer is laminar or turbulent.

Explore:
Estimate the Reynolds number for a competitive swimmer. The world record for 50m
freestyle is about 20s; so v  50 20  2.5 m/s hence for a swimmer of height 1.8m
vL 1000  2.5  1.8
Re    4.5  106
 110 3

So the flow is turbulent. You could show some video footage of freestyle swimmers
from Youtube20 by searching for video “Total Immersion Swimming Freestyle Demo by
Shinji Takeuchi”21. To illustrate the separation of the boundary layer show again the
video of separation around a tennis ball from lesson 422.

Explain:
Explain that swimmers experience two forms of drag: frictional or skin drag and pressure
or form drag. Also that drag due to pressure is almost always greater than drag due to
skin friction. Swimmers believe that their swim suit and cap decrease skin drag by
reducing the boundary layer. This is important because an increase in turbulence in the
boundary layer increases the eddies in the boundary layer, which consume energy
reducing the kinetic energy and speed of the swimmer23. At slow speeds for a well-
streamlined body the flow will be laminar and frictional resistance will dominate. At
higher speeds, the boundary layer grows and pressure resistance increases. This occurs
because the separation of the boundary layer from the body moves closer to the front
further increasing the pressure drag but reducing the drag due to skin friction which gives
an overall increase in total drag. The pressure resistance force is given by

20
www.youtube.com/watch?v=rJpFVvho0o4
21
Alternate is http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AInQMmn-0Nw&feature=related) or search for a video
entitled: ‘How to improve your freestyle’
22
www.youtube.com/watch?v=7KKFtgx2anY
23
Zatsiorsky, V.M., Biomechanics in sport: performance enhancement and injury prevention, IOC Medical
Commission, International Federation of Sports Medicine.

37
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

v 2
F  CD S M
2
where SM is the maximal cross-sectional area interacting with the water and CD is the drag
coefficient. Typical values for a swimmer of CD are 0.58 to 1.04 compared to between
0.05 and 0.08 for a dolphin23. A dolphin has a better streamlined body without the local
pressure resistance centers formed by the head, shoulders, buttocks, knees, heels, etc in a
human.

Elaborate:

Explain that a body immersed in and moving relative to a fluid interacts with the fluid
and experiences a resultant force in the direction of the upstream flow, known as drag,
and a force normal to the flow, known as lift. A simple explanation of lift is given in a
short video entitled ‘The Magic of Airfoils’24 (search in Youtube using italicized words)
you might also want to show a video of a basic student experiment, for example search
on YouTube for ‘Wind Tunnel Basic Airfoil Test’25.

It can be shown that


lift, L   dFy     p sin  dA    W cos dA v

and pdA
wdA
drag, D   dFx    p cos dA    W sin  dA y
dA

So that lift and drag coefficients can be defined as x

L D
CL  and C D  1 2
1
2 v A
2
2 v A

Return to the tennis ball video and highlight that inviscid flow around it are symmetric
about the x-axis and so the lift and drag are zero in these conditions. However, if the
sphere is spinning about the z-axis, then the rotation will drag some fluid around so that
the flow is no longer symmetric and both lift and drag are created.
Ask the students for examples of the application of this phenomenon [answer: curved
balls, floaters and sinkers in baseball, hooking or slicing a golf ball, and curving a ball in
soccer]. You could show the ‘Best Curve in Soccer History’ search for this title on
YouTube26.
For horizontal flight, the lift generated by spinning of the ball must equal the weight of
the ball, so for a soccer ball of mass 450g, diameter 22cm traveling at 30ms-1
mg  L  12  H 0 v 2 ACL
2

24
www.youtube.com/watch?v=yp7w3p0P2tw
25
www.youtube.com/watch?v=1PXJ3HhV2mE
26
www.youtube.com/watch?v=-jLD_2ULFxc

38
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

mg 0.45  9.81
or CL    0.215
1
2  H O v 2  4 d 2
2
1
2  1.2  30 2  4  0.22 2

Empirical data suggests that this can be achieved with


d
 0. 9
2v
0.9  2v 0.9  2  30
So    245 rad/s  2343 rpm
d 0.22
It would be relevant to discuss that external flows, such as those discussed above become
turbulent when the Reynolds Number, Re > 5105 (this compares to fully turbulent flow
at Re > 4000 and fully laminar flow at Re < 2300 for internal flows).

Evaluate:
Invite the students to attempt the following examples:
Example 9.1
Blood cells are damaged by turbulent flow. Estimate the maximum size of a device that
could be introduced during surgery on the aortic valve without creating turbulent flow
around it.
Solution:
The flow velocity through the aortic valve is typically 6m/s27 and the density28 and
viscosity29 of arterial blood is 1050kg/m3and 410-3 Pa.s respectively. For laminar flow
to be maintained Re < 1000 and
vL
Re 

Re  1000  4  10 3
so L <  6.35 10 4 m or 0.6mm
v 1050  6

Example 9.2:
When you take a job delivering pizzas you are expected to fit a sign 0.8m  0.3m to the
top of your car. If you drive at an average of 30mph (≡ 13.41ms-1), calculate the added
cost of fuel used per hour. Assume the car is 30% efficient. The drag coefficient for a

27
Mohiaddin, RH, Firmin, DN, Longmore, DB., Age-related changes of human aortic flow wave velocity
measured non-invasively by magmetic-resonance imaging, J. Appl. Physiology, 74(1):492-492, 1993.
28
Kenner, T., The measurement of blood density and its meaning, Basic Res Cardiology, 84:111-124,
1989.
29
Dormandy, JA, Influence of blood viscosity on blood flow and the effect of low molecular weight
dextran, British Medical J., 4:716-719, 1971.

39
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

long flat plate is 1.9830. If you lived in area with some long empty roads so that your
average speed increased to 45mph, what would be the cost of the extra fuel?
Solution:
The definition of the drag coefficient is
D
CD  1
2 v 2 A
so, the force (=drag) required to move the sign is
D  12  air v 2 AC D  12  1.2  13.412  0.8  0.3  1.98  51.3 N

Thus, the power required is


P  Fv  51.3  13.41  687 W
This needs to be generated by the combustion of fuel in the engine
P 687
Q   7.16 10 8 m3/s
E 0.3  32 109
where E (J/kg) is the energy content of gasoline ( 32MJ/liter31  32,000MJ/m3). And
this quantity is equal to 0.068 gallons/hr or 24cents/hr if the price of gas is $3.50/gallon
(as it was at the time of writing in Michigan).
For an average speed of 45mph (20m/s), D = 114N, P=2280, Q=2.37510-7 and the
cost is 79 cents/hr; so a 50% increase in average speed costs three times as much.

30
See for example: http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/drag-coefficient-d_627.html
31
http://bioenergy.ornl.gov/papers/misc/energy_conv.html

40
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

FLOW

10. Topic: Flow in open channels

Engage:
Show a video clip of the ultimate waterslide
by searching on YouTube32 for ‘Barclay card
advert- waterslide 2008 [HQ]’. Ask students,
working in pairs, to identify the two essential
differences between open channel flow and
flow in a pipe.

Explore:
Invite a couple of pairs to present their
conclusions. Discuss the obvious one that the
presence of the free surface and highlight the
perhaps less obvious one that the flow is
driven by gravity. It cannot be driven by a
pressure difference (e.g. from pump) because
of the negligible inertial and viscous effects
Photograph © BLcarnut/John Clouston33
of the atmosphere above the liquid.33
The free surface of the fluid in the channel allows waves to exist and the Froude number
characterizes their motion. For instance when a stone is thrown into a slow flowing canal
the resultant waves ripple out more or less equally in all directions, including upstream.
This is termed sub-critical flow for which flow velocity, v < wave velocity, c. However,
when a stone is thrown into a fast flow river, waves only propagate downstream because
v>c and the flow is termed supercritical. The ratio of the flow and wave speed is the
Froude number
v v
Fr  
gy  c
2

where y is the mean depth and g is gravitational acceleration.


The behavior of subcritical (Fr<1), critical (Fr=1), and supercritical (Fr>1) flow can be
very different.
We have probably all thrown a stone in a river but there is videoclip of ‘Yosemite
National Park water ripples in slow motion’, which can be found by searching on
Youtube34 using the title.

32
www.youtube.com/watch?v=1WlRcXIO5ik
33
www.flickr.com/photos/58017169@N06/5360523177/in/photostream/
34
www.youtube.com/watch?v=T0tGXxF15-I

41
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

Explain:
Explain the flow down a water slide. For uniform flow in the slide the gravitational
forces would have to equal the frictional and viscous forces associated with the walls of
the slide that are dependent on the wall shear stress, W, which is proportional to v2,
roughness, and Reynolds number. Reynolds number for open channel flow is defined as
vRh
Re 

where Rh is the hydraulic radius of the channel, defined as the ratio of the cross-sectional
area of the flow to the wetted perimeter. Generally, open channel flow is laminar when
Re < 500 and turbulent when Re > 12,500.
At the entrance to the water slide when the velocity is low, the frictional forces will be
smaller and the fluid will accelerate under the larger gravitational force until a terminal
velocity is reached when the gravitational and frictional forces are equal.

varied flow uniform flow

y1
v1

y2 v
p1/g+z1

B gALsin
2 L
F1 C
p2/g+z2

A F2
gAL
Datum D

The requirement of continuity in a slide of constant cross-section implies that the depth of
water must decrease as the velocity increases. Thus the entry to the slide is characterized
by varied flow (changing depth and velocity) prior to the uniform flow region. In the
uniform flow region, applying the momentum equation we have
F1  F2  gAL sin    W PL  0
where F1 and F2 are the hydrostatic forces acting on the end planes of the section ABCD,
and P is the wetted perimeter. If the velocity is constant, then based on continuity so is
the depth and assuming the pressure is given by gz where z is depth below the surface,
so the mean pressure on AB and CD is gz 2 , and hence
gyA
F1  F2 
2
and for small slopes ( = sin) the momentum equation reduces to

42
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

P W
g   W 
A m
where m (  A P ) is known as the mean hydraulic depth. By definition, the friction
factor,
W
f 
2 v
1 2

fv 2 2g
so g  and v  m  C m
2m f
where C is known as the Chezy coefficient (after Antoine Chezy (1718-1798) and is
dependent on the friction factor. A civil engineer, Robert Manning (1816-1897) found
that the coefficient was also dependent on the hydraulic mean depth so he proposed the
empirical relationship
1
C  Mm 6

where M is known as the Manning constant. Note that in some US texts the Manning
constant is defined as n  M 1 and that M has basic units of [L3T-1] so it important to take
care when using it. Note that M=1.486/n where the units on left side are [m1/3s-1] and on
the right, feet and seconds.
Now, applying this analysis to a water slide with an approximately rectangular cross-
section of width, 0.4m in which we wish to maintain a maximum water depth of 2cm.
For plastic pipe, n =0.0135 and
Flow cross-section area = width  depth = 0.4  0.002 = 0.0008m2
Wetted perimeter = width + ( 2 depth) = 0.4 + 0.004 = 0.404m
A 0.0008
And, mean hydraulic depth, m   0.00198 m
P 0.404
Now combining the Chezy and Manning equations to give
v  n 1m 3
2 1
2

So Q  Av  An 1 m   AMm 
2 1 2 1
3 2 3 2

And assuming an angle of slope for the slide of about 20 degrees ( ≈0.35 rads), then
Q  AMm   0.0008  148.6  0.00198  0.35  1.1 10 3 or about 66 liters/min.
2 1 2 1
3 2 3 2

Finally, it is possible to generate discontinuities in open channel flow with or without a


change in the channel geometry. A hydraulic jump involves a change in depth from y1 to
y2 such that
y2 1
 y
  1  1  8Fr12 for 2  1 and Fr1  1 .
y1 2 y1

35
www.engineeringtoolbox.com/mannings-roughness-d_799.html

43
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

You can show a video of this occurring without a change in channel geometry by
searching in YouTube for ‘Water Engineering II S1 - Hydraulic Jump Practical’36 or
with a geometry change by searching in YouTube for ‘Hydraulic jump over weir’37.

Evaluate:
Invite the students to attempt the following examples:
Example 10.1
During a rain storm water flows along the edge of road. The cross-section of the flow
forms a triangle with a base of length 100mm on the surface and base to apex depth of
15mm. If the road is concrete with a gradient of 1 in 25 in the direction of the flow (and
traffic), calculate the discharge rate along the curbside gutter.

45°
15mm

100mm

Solution:
0.10  0.015 3
Cross-section area of flow, A  12 bh   7.5  10 4 m
2
Wetted perimeter, P = (21.2 + 80.2)  10-3 = 0.101 m
A 7.5  10 4
So the Mean hydraulic depth, m   7.4  10 3 m
P 0.101
Manning Constant for finished concrete, n = 0.01238 so M = 1.486/0.012=124
Flowrate, Q  AMm   7.5  10 4  124  0.0074  tan 1 1 25  7.06  10 4 m3/s
2 1 2 1
3 2 3 2

Or 43 liters/min or 650 gallons/hour.

Example 10.2
A drainage ditch for a local sports field consists of an excavated earth channel with a
gravel lining, which gives a Manning constant, M=40. After some time the channel
becomes weedy and the Manning constant is reduced to, M=33. If the ditch is semi-
circular in cross-section with a diameter of 1.2m and on a gradient of 1 in 20, calculate
the reduction in flowrate caused by the weeds when it is full.
36
www.youtube.com/watch?v=kM2XAsS4RVo
37
www.youtube.com/watch?v=cRnIsqSTX7Q
38
www.engineeringtoolbox.com/mannings-roughness-d_799.html

44
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

Solution:
d 2  1.2 2
Area of flow, A   0.565 m2
8 8
d  1.2
Wetted perimeter, P d   1.2  3.08 m
2 2
A 0.565
Mean hydraulic depth, m   0.183 m
P 3.08
Difference in Flowrate:
dQ  dM Am   ( 40  33)  0.565  0.183  tan 1 1 20  0.284 m /s
2
3
1
2
2
3
1
2 3

or 17.5% (= 40  33 40 ) less capacity.

45
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

FLOW

11. Topic: Compressible flow

Engage:
Show a news-clip entitled ‘Bull leaps into crowd in Tafalla
Northern Spain 30 hurt’ by searching for this title on
YouTube39. Run the clip once (it is only 29 secs) and then a
second time pausing it at about 6 seconds and discuss how
the crowd is reacting to the bull. They are moving away;
the bull is slowed down by the fence and so people have
time to get out of the way. The speed of signaling (about
the danger) through the crowd could be considered to be
faster than the speed of the bull.
Then let the clip40 run to about 10 seconds and pause it again. Discuss the difference in
crowd behavior. Now the bull has got up some speed and the people in the crowd cannot
react faster enough so the bull runs into them. The speed of signaling through the crowd
could be considered to be slower than the speed of the bull.
If you feel students need to be convinced that crowds can behave in an analogous way to
fluid flow, then you might find the following videos useful:
a. a flock of sheep flowing around a stationary car (search on YouTube for ‘A
sheep dog herds sheep near Wanaka, New Zealand’41); and
b. a flock of sheep parting to allow a car through which is analogous to sub-sonic
flow with some signaling moving through the flock faster than the motion of
the car (search on YouTube for ‘New Zealand in 56 secs’42).

Explore:
Discuss how the signaling mentioned above is achieved in air with an airplane moving
through it at subsonic speeds, i.e., that pressure disturbances caused by the plane’s
motion are propagated in all directions at the speed of sound and at some distance are
attenuated by the viscosity of the air. Ahead of the plane they act as a signal to the air
that the plane is coming and the air begins to move out of the way of the plane so that
smooth flow is achieved around the plane. This can occur if the speed of the plane, v is
slower than the speed of signaling, i.e., the speed of sound, c.

39
www.youtube.com/watch?v=2ksQZmxI_Nw
40
An alternative but longer video can be found at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SWTiHCK5ZpM or
by searching on YouTube using ‘Bull goes on rampage through crowd’. The corresponding pause points
are about 8 seconds and 12 seconds respectively.
41
www.youtube.com/watch?v=sYJaMGcrtWE
42
www.youtube.com/watch?v=WT3dk7HOi1A

46
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

You can see this happening using smoke in a wind tunnel, e.g., search on YouTube for a
video entitled ‘How wings work? Smoke streamlines around an airfoil’43.
Now, ask the students to consider what will happen if v > c?
This is analogous to the bull running into the crowd. The air ahead of the plane has no
warning and so does not move out of the way. The bull is brought to a stop by the group
of compressed people and he moves off to one side; but the plane is not brought to a stop,
so what happens?
A shock wave forms just ahead of the plane. Let us consider shifting our frame of
reference to that of the pilot, i.e., a stationary plane with supersonic air moving towards it
(v > c). As the air passes through the shock wave its velocity is reduced so that v < c and
the air has time to part and flow around the plane. This transition across the shock wave
not only involves a deceleration of the air but also an increase in its static temperature,
pressure and density. For a good illustration of this search on Youtube44 for a video
entitled: ‘F18 Supersonic flyby with sonic boom on CVN69 USS Eisenhower’.

Explain:
Explain that we can analyze the region around a shock wave by enclosing it in a control
volume. Applying the momentum equation to the control volume,
p1 A  m v1  p2 A  m v2 control
volume
Continuity of mass flow requires,
T1 T2
1v1 A   2v2 A
v1 v2
so p1  p2   v   v 2 2
2 2 1 1
1 2
Assuming an ideal gas both sides of the shock so that p1 p2
p1, 2
1, 2  shock
RT1, 2
wave
and substituting
p2v22 p1v12  v12   v22 
p1  p2   
or p1 1   
  p2 1  RT 
RT2 RT1  RT 1  2 

v v Cp
Now defining the Mach number, Ma as M a   where k  so
c kRT Cv


p1 1  k M a 2

2


p 2 1  k M a 12 
Note that when Ma<0.3 incompressibility can be assumed.

43
www.youtube.com/watch?v=6UlsArvbTeo
44
www.youtube.com/watch?v=9lu9o6pCHlM

47
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

Thus, since M a 2 >1 and M a 1 <1, p2>p1 and static pressure increases across the shock
wave.
Assuming adiabatic conditions for the control volume so that the stagnation temperature
is constant, i.e. T0 1  T0 2 it can be shown that

T2 T2 T0 2  M a 1 k  1
2

  
T1 T0 T1 2  M a 22 k  1

Thus, again, since M a 2 >1 and M a 1 <1, T2>T1 and temperature increases across the
shock wave.
Returning to mass continuity for the control volume,
1v1 A   2v2 A
p1, 2 v v
And substituting 1, 2  and M a   we can obtain
RT1, 2 c kRT

T2  p2 M a 2 
2

 
T1  p1 M a 1 
Equating this with the previous expression for the temperature ratio we can obtain

2  k  1M a 1
2

M a 2 
2k M a 1  k  1
2

Elaborate:
Introduce the idea that can produce supersonic flow for testing shapes in a wind tunnel
using a convergent-divergent nozzle, known as a Laval nozzle, connected to a large
reservoir of gas for which p0, 0, T0 and v0 are zero. Highlight that the Laval nozzle is the
same shape as the exit of a rocket engine.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation for any section of the nozzle,
v2  k 
  RT0  T 
2  k 1 
v Laval nozzle
And normalizing by c   kRT
Ma

v 2  2  T0  Large
   1  M a
2
Ma<1 Ma=1 Ma>1 Test section
 k  1  T reservoir
2
c 
T0  k 1 2
so  1  M a
T  2 

48
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

T2 T2 T0 2  M a 1 k  1
2

and, recall that   


T1 T0 T1 2  M a 22 k  1

Tt Tt T0 2  k  1M a2
hence, for conditions at the throat, t   
T T0 T k 1
 k 1 k  k 1
T0  p0   
Now, for isentropic flow,     0 
T  p    

 t  2  k  1M a2 
1
k 1
and hence 
  k 1


Applying mass continuity for the nozzle, vA  t vt At

v v At  T 
so with M a   we can obtain    M a
c kRT A  t  Tt 
And substituting the values for the density and temperature ratios,
k
 k 1
At  k 1 
 Ma  2 
A  2  k  1M a 
i.e., for k=1.4 and a Mach number of 3, the ratio of the throat diameter to the section
diameter has to be
k 1 1.4
2  k 1
 k 1   2.4  0.8
At  M a  A  3 A  0.68 A
 2  0.4  3 
2  2 
 2  k  1M a 

Evaluate:
Invite students to attempt the following examples:
Example 11.1
In a laboratory, if a supersonic wind tunnel has a Laval nozzle with a throat area of 3cm2
and is supplied from a large reservoir at a pressure of 20kPa and temperature 20°C,
calculate the mass of air required to run the tunnel for 30secs.
Solution:
The mass flow rate through the throat will be given by
m   t At vt

  2  k  1 
1
T 2 k 1
and in the throat Ma =1 so vt  kRTt also t  and t   so
T  1   k  1 
1
 k 1
 2  2kRT0
m   0   At
 k 1 k 1

49
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

p0
and substituting the ideal gas equation,  0 
RT0

Ap
m  t 0
k 2 
 k 1
2  k 1

3  10   2  10 
6 4
1.4  2 
 2.4 
0.8
 1.86  10 4 kg/s
   
T0 R  k 1 293 287  2.4 

So for 30s we will need 0.0056kg or about 0.0067m3 (=0.00561.2).

Example 11.2
An explosion occurs in a processing works and generates a shock wave that propagates
outwards radially. At some distance from the works the shock wave has a Mach number
of 1.5. Calculate the pressure and velocity just behind the shock wave and comment on
its effect.
Solution:
Assume atmospheric conditions: T1=21°C and p1 = 101kPa.
Velocity ahead of the shock wave v1  2 kRT  2 1.4  287  294  344 m/s

2  k  1M a 1 2  0.4  1.5 2 


2

M a 2  
2.8 1.52   0.4  0.7
Now,
2k M a 1  k  1
2

2  M a 1 k  1 2  1.5 2  0.4 
2

hence, T2  T1   294   388 K


2  M a 2 k  1
2
2  0.7 2  0.4 

and p2  p1 
1  k M    10110
2
a 1 5 1  1.4  1.5 2 
 249  10 5 Pa
1  k M   2
a 2
1  1.4  0.7 2 

v v
Finally, M a   so v2  M a 2 kRT  0.7 1.4  287  388  276 m/s
c kRT
So the pressure rises to more than twice atmospheric pressure with winds speeds of 68m/s
 v1  v2  344  276 or 152 mph. These values will cause extreme damage!

50
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

APPLICATIONS

12. Topic: Turbomachines

Engage:
Take a pack or two of ‘Propeller
Balsa-Wood Model Planes’ into class
and share them around the students45.
Invite the students, working in pairs, to
put them together, wind up the
propeller and let the planes fly around 
the room.
x x
dr
Explore: vt=r
When they have had some fun, ask them to work on r
a velocity diagram for an element of the blade and
determine the velocity of the air relative to the
blade. Probably, you will have to get them started D
by drawing the sketch opposite and the section XX. 2
Invite a pair to draw their velocity diagram for the
rest of the class:

v0 – airplane
 vt=r velocity

v0

vt=r Section XX

The angle of the airflow is given by


v0
  tan 1
r
and its speed is given by r cos  . The angle,  is known as the pitch angle and the
difference between  and  is the local angle of attack,       .

Explain:
Tell the students that it can be shown by dimensional analysis that

45
At the time of writing a pack of 12 were available from Amazon.com for $12.99. Try searching
Amazon.com using the words in italics above.

51
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

FT  v0 D 2 
   ' 
 2 D 4  D  
where FT is the propeller thrust, D is the propeller diameter,  is the rotational speed, v0 is
the plane velocity, and  and  are the air density and viscosity respectively. The -
group on the left is known as the thrust coefficient, CT and the first one on the right as the
advance ratio. In most applications the Reynolds number is high and so the thrust
coefficient is largely independent of Reynolds number, so
v0
CT 
D
The advance ratio is related to the relative velocity of the air at the propeller tip by
2v0
  tan 1
D
A similar analysis can be performed for the power, P, in which case everything is
unchanged except the -group on the left becomes the power coefficient,
P
Cp 
n3 D 5

Elaborate:
Discuss how pumps are characterized and selected. An axial flow pump or fan is
essentially a propeller and the thrust coefficient can be redefined in terms of the pressure
change, p or head difference, H, since
FT   pA    HA
and so
HA gH
CT  
 D
2 4
4 2 D 2
but it is more usual to use the head coefficient,
4 gH
CH  CT  .
  2D2
Q
A discharge coefficient can be found by dimensional analysis to be CQ 
D 3
Axial-flow pumps are better suited to applications involving high discharge, Q and low
head, H; while radial-flow pumps, such as centrifugal pumps, are more appropriate for
low discharge, high head applications. A -group known as the specific speed, ns is used
when selecting the best pump for an application from a range of geometrically similar
pumps.

52
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

1 1
CQ2 Q 2

nS  
gH 
3 3
CH4 4

1 3

(Note: in the US it is common to use N S  NQ H , which is not non-dimensional,


2 4

since N is in revolutions per minute, Q in gallons per minute and H in feet. The specific
speed is closely related to the susceptibility to cavitation on the suction side. Cavitation
should not occur, otherwise damage may be incurred in the blades of the pump. Usually,
the specific speed is modified by replacing the pressure head by the difference between
the pressure on the suction side of the pump and the vapor pressure of the liquid being
pumped, which is called the net positive suction head, NPSH, so
1
Q 2

nSS 
g 4  NPSH 4
3 3

where nSS is known as the suction specific speed and in the US is modified to
1 3
N SS  NQ 2 NPSH 4 and a critical value of NSS is 8500.

Evaluate:
Invite students to attempt the following examples:
Example 12.1
The water pump in a car is of the centrifugal type and sucks water from the radiator at
about 15psi and 140°F before pumping it into the engine block. If the coolant flow rate
required is 100 gallons per minute, calculate the maximum speed the pump can run at to
avoid cavitation.
Solution:
The pressure head, p in psi can be converted to the pressure head, h in feet using
2.31 p
h
 SG

where SG is the specific gravity or relative density of the fluid. Thus, for the radiator
2.31 p 2.31 15
h   34.7 ft
 SG 1

Vapor pressure of water at 140°F is 2.9psi46 which can also be converted to give
2.31 2.9
 6.7 ft
1
So the Net Positive Suction Head, NPSH  34.7  6.7  28 ft
1 3
N SS  NQ 2 NPSH 4  8500

46
From for example http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/water-vapor-saturation-pressure-air-d_689.html

53
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

3 3

8500  NPSH 4
8500  28 4

thus N 1  1  10,300 rpm


Q 2
100 2

Example 12.2
If the tip speed of a propeller a 2m diameter is not too exceed a Mach number of 0.5 in
ambient conditions, calculate the maximum speed of rotation. Then if the local angle of
attack is to be zero for a forward velocity of 200mph, find the pitch angle as a function of
distance along the blade from the tip.
Solution:
v v
Ma   so vˆt  M a kRT
c kRT
D
and vt  r so vˆt 
2
D
equating M a kRT 
2

2 M a kRT 2  0.5  1.4  287  293


and    171 rad/s or 1640 rpm (=17160/2).
D 2
v0 89 1
For local angle of attack,   0      so     tan 1  tan 1  tan 1
r r  171 2r
or about 30° at the tip and approaches 80° towards the hub (r = 0.1m) at the center.

54
Real Life Examples in Fluid Mechanics

NOTES

55
Sophomore Fluids Course: Suggested exemplars within lesson plans

NOTES FOR INSTRUCTORS ON EXAMPLE APPLICATIONS


Prepared as part of the NSF-supported project ( #0431756) entitled:
“Enhancing Diversity in the Undergraduate Mechanical Engineering
Population through Curriculum Change”

Edited by Eann A Patterson, University of Liverpool

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