Materials For Earth DAM

Water Resources - National and International
Water is probably Man's most vital commodity; its optimum utilization will be of prime
importance in our expanding civilisation. Planning is therefore essential on a geographically
wide scale and over a long period of time. The greatest obstacle is usually the unavailability
of finance for comprehensive investigations.
It would be desirable from the engineering viewpoint to start development high up in a river
and then progress downstream. This would improve quality and gradually increasing control
of the river would facilitate and lower the cost of the downstream stages. However there is
usually less potential, difficult access and hence construction costs are higher, and therefore
the benefit to cost ratio is generally lower.
For example the Hoover Dam, used to prevent floods, generate electricty and provide
irrigation has two mighty spillways, which due to subsequent development upstream will
probably never be used. Such occurences are unavoidable when only part of a river system is
developed, i.e. when the economy requires the 'best' damsites be exploited first.
On a larger scale the major rivers of the world often form international boundaries or they rise
in one country and flow through several others. International agreements may exist between
countries with regards the usage of the river for example. For the satisfactory allocation of
costs a basic programme for the full development of the river basin must be evolved and
accepted.
Reservoir Utilisation
Single Purpose Reservoirs
Mainly for industry, such as mining where the life of the dam depends on the mines resources,
town water supply or for beautification and recreation.
Multipurpose Reservoirs
1. Water supply (requires a high reservoir)

2. Irrigation
3. Silt retention
4. Transportation
5. Electricity generation
6. Recreation and beautification (requires a constant reservoir level)
7. Flood mitigation (requires a low reservoir)
Life of a dam
Many dams are in existence that are over 1000 years old. Gravity and rockfill dams must
qualify for long structural lives wheras thin arches, multiple arches or buttress dams have
more limited lives, especially if they retain aggresive water.
It is usual to finance the building of a dam on the basis of repayment of its cost over 50 or 60
years. After this the only cost will be maintenance. The life of a dam may be prejudiced by the
amount of silt carried by the river, since the reservoir loses capacity. It is possible to raise the
dam by building up, but at a considerable expense.
Examples of reservoir estimated lives due to siltation; (Snowy Mountains Project)
Collected by: r. yusuf DAM ENGINEERING 1 from167

Reservoir Estimated years
Eucumbene 10,000
Tantangara 10,000
Tumut Pond 4,000
Tooma 4,000
Environmental Implications
1. Land inundation - creation of a reservoir will inundate frequently good land, and may
cause people to be displaced. These factors lead to loss of productivity and personal
hardship.
2. Dislodgment of people.
3. Wildlife - some species being destroyed is almost inevitable.
4. Archaeology - inundation of items of value.
5. Beauty - areas of beauty will be destroyed.
6. Silt - retention of silt from the lower valley which would normally enrich the land.
7. River Regime - a period of dry river bed below the dam will occur.
8. Flood Warnings - alteration of natural flow can be serious to inhabitants and wildlife.
9. Effects of Storage on Quality of Water
10. Eutrophication
11. Thermal Stratification
12. Fish - Nitrogen Problem
13. Water-bourne diseases
14. Requirement of fish ladders for fish to continue spawning
15. Induced Earthquakes consequent to filling large reservoirs
16. Climatological Change
17. Access roads during construction destroying the natural environment
18. River pollution from
o Waste water from excavations
o Construction and removal of cofferdams
o Wash water from concrete and aggregate plants
o Oil leakage and waster disposal
o Sewage and stormwater
o Hot water effluents
o Soil erosion during reservoir cleaning
19. Fire Risks
20. Aesthetic appearance of final dam
21. Air pollution
22. Noise pollution
23. Dust pollution
Multidisciplinary Approach
We have reached an era when the Engineer must cooperate with members of other disciplines
if a project is to be completed for optimum benefits and minimum adverse effects.
An example of the number of disciplines involved, relative to the Auburn Dam project;

Civil Engineering Sanitary Engineering Hydraulic Engineering
Structural Engineering Electrical Engineering Illumination Engineering
Air Pollution Engineering Acoustic Engineering Demography
History Landscape Planning Traffic
Landscape Architecture Transportation Ecology
Geography Environmental Engineering Geomorphology
Geology Hydrology Hydrography
Meteorology Soil Agricultural Economics
Biology Forestry Range Management
Fish Wildlife Legal
Photogrammetry Cartography Systems Programming
Mathematical Programming Construction Methods Analysis Remote Sensor Interpreting
Appurtenant Features
Coffer Dams - Coffer dams usually are temporary structures built upstream from a dam to
prevent stream flow around the excavation for a dam. In valleys of steep profile diversion
commonly is accomplished by a tunnel or tunnels in the walls of the valley. Commonly the
diversion tunnels are put to further use to control flow from the reservoir either for drainage
of the reservoir or for flow under pressure into a hydroelectric generating plant. In valleys of
low profile diversion is by tunnels, canals, or by conduits which subsequently are buried by
the dam. It is not unusual in embankment dams to incorporate the coffer dam into the larger
embankment structure comprising the designed dam.
Fish ladders - dams constructed on
streams that are the migration paths for
spawning fish commonly make
provisions for movement of the fish up
or in the vicinity of the downstream
face of the dam. The facility that
permits fish migration is usually called
a fish ladder. See figure.
Gates - gates are devices installed in

the tops of spillways to control the
flow of water over the spillway.
Figure showing fish ladders.
(C) Thomas, Henry H. The Engineering of Large Dams
Hydroelectric power plants - many dams are constructed to generate hydroelectric power.
The powerhouse is located at,or in the vicinity of, the toe of a dam or at some distance
downstream. Flow of water into the powerhouse is controlled by valves upstream from the
dam, within the dam downstream, or in valve vaults excavated in rock outside of the dam.
Locks - locks are movable dams or portions of dams utilized in navigation along rivers and
canals.

Penstocks - a penstock is a sluice or conduit used for control of water flow, especially into a
hydroelectric power plant.
Spillways - a spillway is designed to contain and control overflow of reservoir water when
the reservoir is full. Spillways are, or should be, designed to accommodate flows during
maximum flood stage so as to prevent damage to the dam and appurtenant features. Their size
and location with respect to the dam is determined by the size and kind of dam, local
topography, geology, and a careful review of the History of stream flow at the site of the dam.
Loading and Factor of Safety - Introduction

A dam is a three dimensional structure and despite assumptions, it is not homogeneous and its
integrity is in the hands of the constructors.
 The foundations are neither isotropic or truly elastic.
 Concrete and rock are brittle, although elastic theories are applied in stress
calculations.
 The dam and foundation will become saturated with varying effects on the materials.
 The dam will be subjected to water load, daily and seasonal temperature cycles.
 It will be subjected to random events such as : Floods, Waves, Seiche Effects,
Earthquakes, Ice Formation and other natural phenomena.
The factor of safety must relate to the strength, stability and durability with consideration to
magnitude of economic and personal loss that would result from its failure.
The aim of the Engineer must be to reduce the number of uncertainties, both as regards
loading on the dam and in the means by which the dam and the foundations withstand such
loads. The Engineer must also be satisfied that there is no feasible mechanism that could
result in failure.
Loading and Factor of Safety - Static Loading

Horizontal Loads
Headwater (H1) - For the basic calculation of stability the level in the reservoir will be
assumed at or above the level required for the passage of the design flood. In many instances
the dam is designed for the highest level of water tightness, e.g. a concrete parapet.
Silt (H2) - A changed land usage as a result of a dam may well result in increased erosion,
causing a deposition of silt. Unless very deep deposits of silt are likely it is adequate to
assume a triangular load allotting an appropriate relative density to the fluid. This would have
a maximum value of 1.4.
Reservoir Behaviors (H3) - Wind and other natural causes will induce movement in the
reservoir as waves, reservoir set-up or seethe effect.
Ice Loading (H4) - It is assumed that ice will not form and exert pressure on the dam at times
of maximum flood. The slope of the upstream face of the dam as well as the slope and
roughness of the valley walls will influence the magnitude of ice loading. Even wind blowing
down the reservoir at 50 km/hr may increase the ice loading by 4-5 t/m of exposed face.
Tailwater (H5) - In some cases water is ponded downstream from the dam. Assistance from
this may be assumed but it must not be overlooked that, in the case of an overflow dam, flood
waters passing over the dam might well evacuate such water from the face of the dam.
Seismic Force (H6) - Force acting on dam in horizontal plane.
Seethe effect (H7) - Is an undulation in the reservoir water due to natural causes, intermittent
wind, variation in atmospheric pressure, earthquake and motion of the Earth. Usually less than
0.5 m, though levels of 2 m have been reported in Lake Geneva.
Vertical Loads

Weight of Dam (V1)- The unit weight of material in the dam should be determined as
accurately as possible. An underestimation by 1% will represented a considerable additional
cost on the dam.
Vertical Water Loading (V2) - Imposed on any sloping surface of the dam, usually the
upstream face, but also on the downstream for overflow dams.
Uplift (V3)- Hydrostatic forces acting within a dam and its

foundations including interstitial or pore pressures. Some
Engineers rely on drainage to prevent occurence of uplift,
assuming the drainage will be effective for the entire life on the
dam, therefore some inclusion for uplift must be included in the
design. See diagram for distribution of pressure. [k values vary
between 0.25 to 0.50 depending on conditions.]
Seismic Force (V4) - Force acting on dam in vertical plane.
Other loads on the dam
Water Density - Some rivers carry very heavy silt load in seasons which changes the density
of the reservoir.
Reservoir set-up - The result of continuing wind causing one end of the reservoir to be at a
higher level. Calculations for a large reservoir in which the fetch is 38km would indicate the
following values:
Return Period Wind Speed Set-up

(years) (km/h) (m)
1000 160 0.75
100 125 0.45
10 95 0.26
5 88 0.22
2 77 0.17
Thermal Effects - Concrete dams will be subject to loading from temperature variation within
the dam caused by hydration of the cement and due to seasonal variations. Water as depth
doesn't vary, but towards the surface it varies with season. A skew loading is used to describe
solar and air temperature effects.
Construction Loads - Concrete dams of cupola and buttress shape offer good resistance to
water loading when complete but during construction it is necessary to control the rate of
construction and to include reinforcement in overhanging sections.
Direction of Forces - At certain locations it may be appropiate to increase the radius of an

arch dam and accept higher stresses within the dam in order to ensure better angle of
incidence of the resultant thrust with the abutment. The direction of resultant forces is
important for gravity and buttress dams - especially on stratified rock.

Hydrostatic Loading within the Foundation or Abutment - Faults, cracks and joints are present
in most damsites. Forces due to a large dam may cause cracks to appear in the rock upstream
from the dam, this may cause jacking loads that could cause failure. To avoid this, careful
surveys should be made of the orientation and inclination of faults, joints and cracks.
Tectonic Forces - Besides seismic effects, there may be significant tectonic forces on the
Earth's crust at the site and these may be upset by deep excavation or saturation due to the
filling of the reservoir.
Loading and Factor of Safety - Dynamic Loading

The Earth's crust is in a state of stress. When the stress is great enough, and the crust is weak
enough, adjustments may occur. These adjustments will release energy in the form of shock
waves, propagated from an epicentre. These waves will vary in wavelength and frequency.
Short-period waves have predominant frequencies within the range of natural frequencies for
dams, they are apt to produce conditions of resonance in the dam. Engineers are therefore
more concerned with the possibility of moderate earthquakes occurring within 80 to 120 km
of the dam than larger earthquakes occurring outside this limit.
For gravity dams a horizontal coefficient is adopted and applied as an additional static load.
For arch dams the dynamic effects receive greater attention with both model tests and in situ
testing by vibrating the dam. For embankment dams additional horizontal static loads are
considered and a dynamic analysis has been developed with close attention being paid to the
characteristics of fill material.
In October 1969 the Committee on Earthquakes of the International Commission on Large

Dams (ICOLD) summarized 1969 practice :
 Design
o For gravity dams a horizontal coefficient was generally adopted and applied as
an additional static load. Vertical effects were taken into account in very few
circumstances and dynamic analysis was used by very few.
o For arch dams the dynamic effects received greater attention in model tests and
in situ testing by vibration of the dam.
o For embankment dams additional horizontal static loads were considered;
dynamic analysis was being developed and closer attention was being given to
the characteristics of fill material.
 Zoning - Many countries were adopting the principle of seismic zoning.
 Seismic Coefficients - A coefficient of from 0.1 to 0.2 was commonly used.
 Seismic Waves - Analyses had been made by applying sinusoidal or modified
earthquake records - but actual earthquake records had only been applied in rare cases
for dynamic analyses.
 Properties of Materials - Different mechanical properties of various materials when
subjected to static and dynamic loading.
 Loads Considered - For dynamic water pressure the formulae of Westergaard, Zanger
and the USBoR were in use.

 Allowable Stresses - In many cases the permissible compressive stress under dynamic
loading was increased by up to 30% above the permissible static stress. Factors of
Safety for arch dams were usually 4, based on compressive stress and 1.2 minimum
for fill dams.
 Deformations - An embankment dam which employed dynamic analysis was assumed
to suffer 5% axial strain.
 Models - These were popular for arch dams and were used for some gravity dams.
There was a tendency to employ model tests for fill dams.
 In Situ Tests - Some arch dams were shaken by vibrating machines to study natural
frequeny and modes of vibration.
 Seismographs - In a majority of large dams seismographs were used.
Factor of Safety - Gravity Dams

A gravity dam must be designed to safeguard against overturning and sliding. For the former
it is usual to design the dam so that the resultant of all forces intersects the base within its
middle third. This will provide a factor of safety in excess of 2.
The ratio of the sum of the horizontal forces to the sum of the vertical forces is referred to as
the sliding factor (Fss). This is usually about 0.75 but must not exceed 0.90 under extreme
loading. These figures represent the range of the coefficient of static friction normally
encountered at the site of a gravity dam.
At or in the foundations, the horizontal loading will be resisted by cohesion and friction. The
ratio of the total resistance by cohesion and friction to the horizontal load is termed the shear
friction factor (Fsf). Most countries accept 4 as a minimum value. In practice the foundation is
usually prepared in steps or is sloped upward in a downstream direction to provide resistance
to failure far in excess of the above figure.
Range of shearing resistance parameters.

Location of plane of shearing/sliding Cohesion (c) Friction tan ø
mass concrete intact 1.5-3.5 1.0-1.5
mass concrete horizontal construction joint 0.8-2.5 1.0-1.5

conrete/rock interface 1.0-3.0 0.8-1.8
rock mass sound 1.0-3.0 1.0-1.8
rock mass inferior <1.0 <1.0
Recommended shear friction factors, Fsf (USBR 1987)
Load Combination
Location of sliding plane Normal Unusual Extreme
dam concrete, base interface 3.0 2.0 <1.0
foundation rock 4.0 2.7 1.3
Factor of Safety - Concrete Arch Dams

The factor of safety for an arch dam is the ratio of the compressive strength of concrete to the
maximum calculated compressive stress in the dam. The compressive strength is usually
referred to as the strength of concrete at the age of 91 days when tested in 150 mm x 300 mm
cylinders.
The design criterion adopted by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation is for a factor of safety of 4
based on the strength of concrete at 1 year. Except for extreme loading combinations the
maximum compressive stress is usually limited to 6.9 MPa.
Factor of Safety - Embankment Dams

The minimum factors of safety for embankment dams would be:
Upstream Slope
Immediately after completion with full construction pore pressure 1.3-1.5

Following rapid drawndown (slip circles between high and low water levels) 1.2-1.3
Downstream Slope
Earthquake and Reservoir Full 1.2

Reservoir full - steady seepage 1.5
In an area subject to earthquakes the following factors are indicative of acceptable values:
Seismic coefficient 0.1 FoS 1.8

Seismic coefficient 0.3 FoS 1.15
Factor of Safety - Abutments and Foundations
The dam foundations and abutments should be thoroughly investigated for any possible
mechanism of failure. This would involve identification of joints, faults and any other forms
of weakness.
A reasonable factor of safety is

- the ratio of shearing resistance to the maximum shearing stress predicted; the lowest value
of the ratio in the foundation being the factor of safety of the foundation.
SITE INVESTIGATION CONTENTS

Site Investigation Introduction
Most failures are due to lack of appreciation of how the particular dam site would react to the
superposition of the dam and reservoir. It is therefore essential that a detailed site
investigation takes place and the results are appropriately used by Engineers.
In the planning stage possible dam sites will have been chosen from contour maps and aerial
photography, selected primarily on topography. A narrow gorge is best, hoping for minimum
quantities in the dam and a valley opening upstream to provide the required storage. There
maybe alternative sites along the length of a river and hence further investigation has to be
done to ascertain the best possible position.
See the GeoCAL package for further information on general site investigation. Link to
GeoCAL homepage
Time and Money for Investigation

The amount of money required to investigate a damsite will depend upon the site and the type
of dam. An experienced department of engineers, hydrologists, geologists and surveyors may
produce sufficient information for an outlay of 2-3% of the dam cost. This figure could reach
6% in remote locations where basic information is not available.
It is not unusual to spend 3 years on site investigations, this will depend on the location and
size of the dam, but time must not be underestimated. To meet stringent requirements for
environmental studies and public opinion polls could add 2 years to the time and several
percent to the cost.
If, as a result of the site investigation another site is to be chosen, the same time and money
must be spent investigating the new site. Adequate time and money must always be available
to all disciplines to give them the opportunity to investigate and report.
Site Investigation - Desk Study

Initial desk study can be done by researching from these sources of information -
1. Ordnance Survey Maps or equivalent
2. Admiralty Charts
3. Geological Maps and Memoirs
4. Old OS Maps or equivalent
o Past users of site
o Concealed mines and adits
o Infilled pits
o Original topography and drainage conditions
o Changes in stream and river courses
o Changes in landslide areas, fence lines, path lines
5. Aerial Photography
o Landsat Images
o Colour and infra red photography
6. Previous Site Investigation Reports
7. Local people and authorities

Site Investigation - Preliminary Investigation
Aerial Reconnaissance - An initial comissioned flyover is essential, providing the Engineer
with an idea of the topography and enabling him to form an opinion of the probable
hydrological characteristics of catchment.
A Geologist will assist the Engineer in the selection of the damsite, and a construction
Engineer will study the access and possible sources of materials.
Ground Reconnaissance - Features that should be sought during early reconnaissance

include old and potential land slides, geological faults and major joints parallel with the
valley.
 The joints may be open or in filled with products of decomposition, they present
construction hazards and possible leakage paths around the dam.
 Examination along the beds of the river and tributary streams will indicate the strike
and dip of rock formations.
 Any springs or underground water should be identified since they provide leakage
paths from the reservoir.
 The depth of alluvium or soil should be determined to indicate the excavation required
and the probable quantity of material required for the dam.
At this stage, the preliminary geological data should be assessed and enhanced by mapping
and modeling. This can help to highlight important considerations about which type of dam
may be most appropriate, and any problems which may be encountered, before extensive
drilling or exploratory works are performed. Assessment of preliminary data will assist in the
choice of exploratory methods and in the design of the exploratory program as a whole.
Check list for Site Investigation
Check List for Site Investigation
1. Topography - Flat, gently undulating, rolling, sharp hills, mountains, difference

between highest and lowest areas.
2. Sharp breaks in topography - Ridges, canyons, depressions.
3. Surface soil - Loose, hard, moist or dry, boulders and gravel (scattered or in zones),
topsoil and organic matter.
4. Rock outcrops - Surface, highway and railroad cuts, hillsides, weathered and
unweathered.
5. Drainage pattern - Dendritic, lattice, parallel, water gaps, waterfalls, direction of
primary drainage.
6. Surface water - Stream, seasonal or perennial, fluctuations, floods, lakes, marshes,
disappearing rivers.
7. Ground water - Wells, seeps, springs, artesian wells.
8. Erosion - Severe or moderate, U or V shaped cross section, steep or gently sloping
heads of gullies.
9. Land use - Cultivated or barren, type of crop or vegetation, good or poor quality.
10. Existing structures, recollections of old residents.
Site Investigation - Geophysical Investigation

Geophysical methods provide an indirect evaluation of certain underground conditions.
Several procedures have been developed, all of which measure some force pattern in the
earth.
Refraction Seismic - Click Forward Once

Electrical Resistivity - Click Forward Twice
Advantages of Geophysical Methods - They permit a rapid coverage of large areas at a

relatively low cost which is useful in selecting possible dam sites during reconnaissance
phases. They are also not hampered by boulders or coarse gravel which interfere greatly with
the direct methods such as boring and sampling.
Limitations of Geophysical Methods - There is difficulty in correct interpretation when the

strata are not well defined and horizontal. For this reason it is imperative that all geophysical
work is confirmed by borings and other direct observations.
Site Investigation - Exploratory Investigation Methods

Purpose - to secure accurate information about the soil and rock stratification, the
composition of the materials and the location of ground water.
Boring and Sampling
 Auger Boring - Generally limited to firm soils, above the watertable. Gravel larger
than about a third of the diameter of the hole cannot be drilled but very hard soil and
soft rock can often be penetrated if sufficient power is available.
 Test Boring -
 Core Drilling -
 Diamond Drilling -
 Short Drilling or Calyx Drilling -
Programme of Exploration Work for Foundations

 Boring layout
 Procedure
 Laboratory testing
 Correlation of results
Planning and Conducting Borrow Pit Explorations

 Field Work
 Testing and Correlation
Site Investigation - Evaluation of Selected Site

At this stage, potential hazards and problems should have been identified. However, it is still
necessary to remain alert for indications of hazardous o
r problematic features which were not identified during the earlier stages of the investigation.
The main effort is directed in producing parameters for the final design. This would involve
high quality boring and drilling, with particular attention being paid to sample quality and
high core recovery, careful logging of trenches, shafts and adits, in situ testing such as plate
loading tests and in situ shear tests in adits, trial embankments, grouting trials and so on.
Foundation testing
 Undisturbed Sampling
 Pit Sampling
 Thin-walled Samplers
 Foil Samplers
 Rotary Samplers
 Laboratory Testing

 Correlation of Test Results
Field testing
 Test Pit
 Plate Load Test
 Seepage Test
Borrow pit investigations
 Sampling
 Test Strip
Site Investigation - Detailed Investigation

The evaluation of preliminary desk and field work should assess the potential for major
hazards and qualitatively assess the likelihood of encountering any more hazards. This should
allow a ranking of the potential sites in order of their probable suitability.
Following the desk study and preliminary field work, it may be necessary to establish a
pattern and base level of seismicity for later evaluation of induced seismicity. If potential
active faults are identified, seismic arrays should be installed to monitor these. This will help
assess the need for criteria changes should seismic activity occur after the feasibility stage has
been completed and the design is well advanced.
The next stage is to produce a detailed investigation of the chosen site.
Site Investigation - Monitoring

Monitoring during construction will include the work of an engineering geologist on site, who
will examine all excavations to see whether the expectations of the preceeding investigations
have been realised. The identification of exceptions may then lead to an early diagnosis and
redemption of any problems.
For the post-commissioning stage, monitoring will involve regular reading of installed
instrumentation to check performance against design criteria. This should serve as an 'early
warning' system which will initiate a contingency programme, thus minimising the delays
which would result from the development of an adverse situation.
GEOLOGY CONTENTS
Geology Introduction
The geological services required for the engineering of a large dam are in the following areas;
 The safety of the dam on its foundations;
 The water tightness of the reservoir basin;
 The availability of natural materials for its construction.
The engineering geologist is a key member of an engineering team, since he will ensure the
feasibility of the project, continuing through the design stage and terminating only when
construction has either proved that geological conditions revealed are in conformity with the
premises adopted in design, or he has made possible proper evaluation of any conditions not
foreseen in the earlier stages.

The safety, viability and cost of a dam are all dependent upon geology. Most rocks have
adequate strength but their weakness is in the orientation and dip of discontinuities relative to
the loading from the dam, as well as the infilling material in, and depth of, weathering in such
discontinuities.
It is necessary to investigate both the regional geology and the specific local geology to
ensure a global picture is developed.
Geology Terminology
1. Bedding planes - The planes marking the termination of one sedimentary deposit and
the beginning of another; they usually constitute a weakness along which the rock
tends to break.
2. Foliation - In rocks that have been subjected to heat and deforming pressures during
regional metamorphism, some new materials such as muscovite and biotite mica, talc
and chlorite may be formed by recrystallisation. These new minerals are arranged in
parallel layers of flat or elongated crystals - the property of foliation.
3. Joints - These are fractures along which no movement has occured. All rocks are
jointed to some extent and weathering occurs in these joints. They offer pathways for
water, any clay infilling offering little resistance to sliding.
4. Faults - These are fractures along which movement has occured. They may range
from rather inconspicious zones hundreds of metres wide and many kilometres long.
The movement may have formed a zone that is so crushed and chemically altered as to
be unable to support any weight. The presence of faults may be recognised from such
physical features as;
o Offset of beds, dykes or veins;
o Slickensides;
o Gouge;
o Brecciation or crushing;
o Topographic features like escarpments, linear trenches or sag valleys.
5. Weathering - The following definitions appeared in the Quarterly Journal of
Engineering Geology, UK, 1970.
Fresh Rock No visible signs of weathering

Penetrative weathering developed in open discontinuity surfaces but only
Slightly Weathered
slight weathering of rock material.
Moderately
Weathering extends throughout the rock mass, but the rock is not friable.
Weathered
Weathering extends throughout the rock mass, but the rock material is
Highly Weathered
partly friable.
Completely Rock is wholly decomposed, and in a friable condition but rock texture and
Weathered structure are preserved.
A soil material with the original texture, structure and mineralogy of the
Soil
rock completely destroyed.
Classification of rocks
1. Uniaxial Compressive Strength
o Weak - less than 35MPa
o Strong 35-115MPa
o Very Strong - greater than 115MPa
2. Prefailure Deformation

o Elastic
o Viscous
3. Failure Characteristics
o Brittle
o Plastic
4. Gross Homogeneity
o Massive
o Layered
5. Continuity in Formation
o Solid - joint spacing greater than 2m
o Blocky - joint spacing 1-2m
o Broken - fragmented
Types of Rock
Granite
 Can bear great pressures
 Generally watertight
Investigation must be made for

 Fissures
 Disintegration due to weathering
 China clay
Caution must be taken when large masses of china clay appear, for it is not
feasible to anchor pre-stressed cables in china clay.
Example: The Sarrans dam had a broad foundation of 11,000 sqm of decomposed granite. To
improve the strength, and bearing capacity and to reduce seepage of the foundations and
abutments a grouting programme was undertaken. This involved 691 tonnes of cement in 81
boreholes which had an aggregate length of 2800 m or 240 kg per m.
Gabbros, Andesites, Dolerite and Basalt
 These types of rock cannot be trusted for dams and reservoirs.
 Porphyritic rocks need careful grouting.
Example: The Rieutord dam which is on a tributary of the Loire, necessitated a considerable
amount of grouting. Conversely, the Tirso multiple arch dam in Sardinia is founded on
trachytes and volcanic tuffs with little grout.
Amphibolites
 Gneiss, mica schists and associated rocks are considered to be satisfactory for
sustaining bearing pressure and for water-tightness. However, gneiss and particularly
mica schist are less favourable due to the mica which may facilitate slipping.
 Where gneiss and mica schists are associated, a very weak zone of disintegrated rock
may be found at the junction of these two rocks.
Example: the Forks dam, California, founded on gneiss and mica schists, had to be abandoned
in 1929 because of bad foundations which occurred at the junction of these two rocks which,
in themselves, were quite sound.

Metamorphic Rocks
 Metamorphic and intrusive igneous rocks are to an extent unpredictable.
 However, many satisfactory dams have been constructed on them particularly in
Scotland (for example Pitlochry, Errochty, Shira), but grouting of the foundations is
generally essential. The usual types of dams constructed are gravity, buttress and
rockfill.
 Where the rock is weathered at the surface, an investigation is usually required since
weathered formations may prove exceptionally difficult when the foundations are dug
out.
Example: The Lavaude-Gelade dam in the Central Massif, Creuse, France was founded on
altered granulite. The alteration in the granulite was found to persist to a depth of 20m, in
addition to being broken and fissured. The site required an extensive grouting injection with
cement, clay and bentonite.
Limestone
 Limestone dam sites vary widely in their suitability. Thickly bedded horizontally lying
limestones which are relatively free from solution cavities afford excellent dam sites.
On the other hand, thin bedded, highly folded, or cavernous limestones are likely to
present serious foundation or abutment problems involving bearing capacity and water
tightness.
 Concrete dams have been constructed on Jurassic limestone at Castillon, where slips
and leakage problems have occurred. These have been surmounted by an extensive
grouting scheme.
Sandstones
Sandstones have a wide range of strength depending largely upon the amount and type of
cement matrix material occupying the voids of the rock. Generally sandstones do not
deteriorate rapidly on exposure to the surface with the exception of shaly sandstone. As a
foundation rock sandstone is not susceptible to plastic deformation, even with poorly
cemented sandstones. However, sandstones are susceptible to erosion due to the scouring and
plucking action from the overflow of dams and so have to be adequately protected by suitable
hydraulic structures.
Sandstones are frequently interbedded with shales. The sandstone-shale contact may allow
seepage of water and may cause potential sliding. Severe uplift pressures may also develop
beneath beds of shale in a dam due to the swelling characteristics of shales.
Many dams in the English Pennines have been constructed on Carboniferous sandstones
interbedded with shales, most of them as earth embankments.
Example : Longdendale, Langsett, Scar House reservoirs and Ladybower reservoir on the
Sabden shales in the Derwent valley.
Clays
Clay formations are often thick and massive and are frequently associated with thin seams of
sandstone or limestone. Earth dams or rockfill dams are usually constructed on clay
foundations because clays lack the load bearing properties necessary to support concrete
dams.

Example : The embankments of the Staines, Chingford, and other reservoirs in the Thames
and Lee valleys may be cited as reservoirs wholly in London Clay ,whilst the Cheddar
reservoir near Bristol lies on Keuper Marl.
Gravel, Sands and Boulder Clays

Gravels, sands and boulder clay of glacial origin are notoriously variable in composition both
laterally and vertically. As a result dam sites in glaciated areas are among the most difficult to
appraise on the basis of surface evidence. Generally, earth dams are constructed in areas of
glacial deposits.
Example : Selset reservoir in the North East of England is founded on Boulder Clay.
Rock Properties
The following properties must be examined to ensure the dam will be stable and the reservoir
watertight -
 Crushing strength
 Shearing strength
 Elasticity of rock
 Deformability of the rock mass
 Tectonic stresses
 Field Testing
Crushing Strength
In general the compressive load from a dam on to its foundations will not exceed 10 MPa.
The strength of a rock will depend upon its -
 Quality
 The degree of weathering
 Presence of micro-cracks
The strength of a rock mass will depend upon -

 The number of cracks and joints
 The nature of their infilling material
 Whether there are any rock-to-rock contacts across the joints
 Planarity and continuity of seams and foliations
Table - Unconfined compressive strength of rocks

Rock type Strength (MPa)
Siltstone 24-120
Greywacke 20-30
Shale 35-110
Sandstone 40-200

Limestone 50-240
Dolomite 50-150
Granite 90-230
Basalt 200-350
Dolerite 240-320
Gneiss 80-330
Shearing Strength
The minimum angle of friction for sound rock is 55°.
Table - Angle of internal friction of rock
Rock Tangent of Angle of Internal Friction

Tuff 0.9
Schist Biotite 0.5
Limestone 0.6
Limestone (med. grained) 0.5
Granite (weathered) 0.8
The shear strength of a rock mass may be seriously affected by saturation since both the
cohesion and angle of friction will decrease.
Elasticity of Rock
It is not appropriate to classify rocks by elastic constants alone, since many rocks are
nonelastic. Elasticity refers to the property of reversibility of deformation when subjected to a
load. Many fresh, hard rocks are elastic when considered as laboratory specimens. But on the
field scale rocks can be expected to contain fractures, fissures, bedding planes, contacts, zones
of altered rock and clays with plastic properties.
Therefore, most rocks do not exhibit perfect elasticity. The extent of irrecoverability of strain
in response to load cycles may be important for the design and can be determined by the slope
of the load/deformation curve.
Table of Modulus of Elasticity of Rock

Figure - Load/deflection paths for an arch dam
For example, as the reservoir behind the arch dam rises, the rock under the arch responds
along curve 1.
The concave upward curvature of this load/deflection path is typical for fractured rocks on
first loading because the fractures close and stiffen at low loads. When the reservoir is
lowered, the rock unloads along path 2, with a permanent deflection.
The dam will try to follow the loading, but since it is often more elastic than the rock, it will
move away from the rock on unloading. This could open joints in the rock or concrete or
simply lower the compressive stress flowing through the structure. Repeated cycles of loading
and unloading in response to cyclic operation of the reservoir would produce the series of
loops ('hysteresis').
Some sites have been considered unacceptable for concrete dams because of large hysteresis
even though the modulus of elasticity of the rock itself was considered reasonable.
Table of Modulus of Elasticity

Rock Type Modulus of Elasticity
(MPa x 1000)
Limestone 3-27
Dolomite 7-15
Limestone (very hard) 70
Sandstone 10-20
Quartz-sandstone 60-120
Greywacke 10-14
Siltstone 3-14
Gneiss - fine 9-13
Gneiss - coarse 13-23
Schist - Micaceous 21
Schist - Biotite 40
Schist - Granitic 10
Schist - Quartz 14

Granite - very altered 2
Granite - slightly altered 10-20
Granite - good 20-50
Quartzite - Micaceous 28
Quartzite - sound 50-80
Dolerite 70-100
Basalt 50
Andesite 20-50
Amphibolite 90
The large ranges emphasize the need for testing at each site.
Deformability
The modulus of elasticity of rock is normally adequate, but due to the existence of joints,
faults amd seams in the rock mass - sometimes open and sometimes filled with products of
decompostion, the modulus of deformation may be inadequate.
The capacity of a rock to strain under applied loads or in response to unloading on excavation
is known as deformability. The strains present in rock concern engineers even when there is
little risk of rock failure, because large rock displacements can raise stresses within structures.
For example a dam founded on varying rock types of different deformability properties will
develop shear and diagonal tension stresses due to the unequal deflections of the foundations.
The deflections can be handled by structuring the dam correctly, if the rock properties are
known and the variation of properties within the foundations are determined.
Tectonic Stresses
The fact that rock may be in a state of high internal stress is often overlooked. It is common to
assume a vertical stress field due to the weight of overlying rock. The corresponding
horizontal stress will vary with the rock and the rock formation. Frequently one horizontal
principal stress will equal or exceed the vertical stress, the other being much lower -
indicating the existence of large shearing stresses.
Crustal horizontal stress increases with depth. As excavation proceeds and loading on the
strata is reduced, there will be upward changes in level. As a result of the reduction in vertical
restraint the strata can no longer transfer the horizontal forces, but buckle upwards with
horizontal cracking. This deformation reduces the horizontal load on the layer so that the
underlying strata tend to carry the horizontal tectonic stress. As a result the strata down to
considerable depths suffer disturbance to their equilibrium.
If horizontal cracks are caused then erosion can occur and resistance to sliding will be
decreased.
Laboratory Testing
Compressive strength

 Unconfined compression
 Triaxial compression
 Splitting tension (Brazilian)
 Four-point flexure
 Ring shear
Shear tests
 Direct shear
 Triaxial shear
Field Testing
In-situ shear tests
Commonly carried out on 'undisturbed' specimens in the galleries of the dam. Disturbance of
the specimen should be kept to a minimum as the specimen is exposed from the parent rock.
The specimen is then protected and loaded in two directions. It is important that the axes of
the jacks pass through the centre of the zone under test. A normal load is applied and held
until any displacements have stabilised, the tangential load is then applied in steps and
displacements measured. By repeating the test with different normal loads, values of cohesion
and angle of friction can be derived.
Techniques for measurement
 Hydraulic Fracturing
 Flat Jack Method
 Overcoring
Surface Features of Valleys

The shape of a valley and the rock with which it is formed affect the type of dam and its
dimensions.
Type Chord-height ratio Diagram
Gorges Under 3
Narrow Valleys 3-6
Wide Valleys Above 6 or 7
Flat country plains -
This section is based upon Walter, R. C. S (1962) Dam Geology.

Dams in Gorges - Cupola or Dome
When the crest chord-height ratio is under 3 and the rock is capable of withstanding high
pressures, not being able to fail by shearing, thin arch or thin cupola dams are the most
successful and the most economical.
Soundness of the foundation is of paramount importance for all arch and cupola dams.
Dams in narrow valleys

Narrow valleys have a chord-height ratio of between 3 and 6. Gravity arch dams are normally
constructed in narrow valleys providing that the foundations are suitable.
Example : Piave di Cadore dam (Italy) was constructed as a thick arch dam with a chord-
height ratio of 5.5. It's thickness was less than a gravity dam but more than a thin arch dam.
If the narrow valley is filled with permeable and compressible material, for example from a
glacial origin, the dam engineer has two choices:
 To increase the depth of excavation to bedrock

 If the depth of material is economically unfeasible to remove, then redesigning the
dam to an earthfill or rockfill design may be the only option.
More and more thick arch dams with a thickness of less than the gravity section will be
constructed in the future as more confidence is gained in:
 The reliability of new models confirm and even supplant the mathematical
analyses.
 The experience of strengthening weak foundations to carry heavier unit pressures
which are to be sustained compared with the gravity section.
Dams in wide valleys
Wide valleys may be defined where the chord-height ratio of the dam is above 6 or 7. In a
wide valley nearly every type of dam can be constructed, except a thick or thin arch dam. The
most influential factors in a wide valley in determining the type of dam are:
 The geology of the site.
 The proximity of materials from which the dam is to be made.
Many different types of dams have been built in wide valleys;
Gravity Dams : there are many examples of masonry and concrete gravity dams in wide
valleys, especially where the bedrock is close to the surface. The earliest large example in
Great Britain is the Vyrnwy dam (masonry), which supplies water to the city of Liverpool.
The chord-height ratio of the dam is 7.
Earthfill Dams : because there are a great many wide valleys in England, there are a number
of examples of earthfill dams. These dams are most suitable if the foundation is soft
compressible sedimentary strata.
Rockfill Dams : the wide valley is suitable for all forms of rockfill dams.
Buttress Dams : with suitable foundations capable of withstanding direct pressures and
resistance to sliding, the buttress dam can usefully be adopted in a wide valley.
Example : Scotland, the Errochty and Shira dams are situated in wide valleys and have chord-
height ratios of 10 and 15 respectively.
Dams in Country Plains

Normally, dams are associated with valleys and are not built on level ground in the middle of
sandy plains. However, examples of dams on plains are to be found on the Rhone diversion
canals, the Rhone being diverted by means of gate-control barrages, into canals. These canals
are some 30 miles in length and lead the water from the Rhone to normal gravity section
dams, built several miles away on alluvial permeable strata.

Other types of dams constructed on flat country and which may certainly be considered dams,
are the embankments of the large reservoirs of the Metropolitan Water Board, and the large
reservoirs at Cheddar, Bristol. There are also many instances of what might be considered to
be dams; the embankments of which are measurable in terms of kilometres in length and
which retain water well above ground, such as the man-made levees on the Mississppi River.
Excavation and Filling of Valleys

Introduction
Valleys have been formed or have been modified by downward and lateral erosion of running
water and/or ice, and commonly contain unconsolidated deposits transported by water, ice, or
wind. The individual characteristics of a valley are a function of the topography, climate, rock
type and geologic structure.
Artificial reservoirs are usually created by construction of a dam or dams in a large or small
valley, commonly in a constriction. Correct interpretation of the various physical aspects of a
valley reveals much concerning the characteristics of bedrock beneath a dam site and beneath
the floor and sides of the reservoir basin above the dam site.
Erosion, transportation, and deposition by running water
Running water erodes the materials in the bottom and sides of the channel by corrosion,
corrasion and cavitation.
Corrosion - is a chemical process whereby materials are taken into solution so as to become
part of the dissolved load of a stream. Limestone is very susceptible to this process.
Corrasion - is a mechanical process that causes materials to wear away and includes abrasion
by solid particles carried by the stream, and evorsion, which wears down compact materials
by the impact of clear water carrying no suspended load.
Cavitation - requires high velocities in running water and results first from formation of
vapour bubbles because of pressure decrease associated with velocity increase in accordance
with the Bernoulli theorem, and then explosive collapse of the bubbles where the velocity
diminishes.
Deposition of the solid load is a consequence of a decrease in the stream gradient, volume or
velocity. Features of deposition in a stream are alluvial flood plains, deltaic deposits and
alluvial fans.
When considering the construction of a dam and reservoir in a valley the concern generally is
with only a relatively short segment of the total length of a stream, and particular attention is
given to whether in the floor of the valley erosional features on the average dominate or are
subsidiary to depositional features.
Glaciated Valleys
Streamcut valleys that have been modified by glaciers moving through them are of interest.
The figure shows an idealised plan and sections of a stream and glacier eroded valley with
two stages of glacier advance and retreat and prior and intervening periods of stream erosion.
Morainal ridges formed by deposition of glacial till along the sides of the glacier are called
lateral moraines. Stationary moraine is termed end or terminal moraine.

Shear failure and slope stability of valley sides
See Slope Design Web Pages by H. Connolly
Gravity slip dislocations in steep-walled valleys
The alluvial, glacial, and landslide deposits on the floors and sides of valleys generally have
locations, configurations, and physical properties that are identified in the field with relative
ease. During planning, design, and construction of a dam and reservoir an assessment of these
deposits can be made without difficulty, and appropriate measures can be taken for their
removal or stabilization.
In many steep-walled valleys, stream-cut or glaciated a relatively inconspicuous kind of slope

failure is present, especially in highly competent, crystalline igneous and metamorphic
bedrocks. Although they may not be easily observed, gravity-slip surfaces may be present in
bedrock as indicated in the figure below and contribute to the instability of the foundation and
abutments of a dam that might be constructed at the site.

Obstructions in Stream Valleys
The two major consequences of impounding water in a natural or artificial reservoir are -
 Deposition of all or much of the suspended and traction load transported by the
stream;
 Increase in downward and lateral erosion by clear or desilted water downstream from
the obstruction.
Attempts to control the rate of filling of reservoirs by sediment may include construction of
dams and reservoirs to intercept sediment upstream from a major facility, such as a large dam
for electric power generation, and regional programs for soil stabilization and conservation in
upstream drainage basins.
Based on Dams, Dam Foundations and Reservoir Sites by E.E.
Wahlstrom
Topographical and Geological Conditions for Different Types of Dams
When the size of the dam has been determined, the type of dam envisaged requires certain
geological and topographical conditions which, for the main types of dams, may be stated as
follows.
Concrete Dams Embankment Dams
 Gravity Dams
 Rockfill Dams
 Buttress Dams
 Hydraulic Fill Dams
 Multiple Arch Dams
 Earthen Embankments
 Thick Arch Dams
 Composite Dams
 Thin Arch Dams
Gravity Dams
 Hard rock at or near the surface.

 Depth of soft material above the rock should not exceed 7-10 m thereby avoiding
excavation.
 Materials for concrete, i.e. aggregate, stone and sand should easily be accessible
within 5-10 miles.
 Gravity dams are suited when the length of the crest is five times or more than the
height of the dam
Buttress Dams

 The buttress dam is suitable where the rock is capable of bearing pressures of 2 - 3
MPa.
 Buttress dams require between a half and two thirds of the concrete required for a
gravity section, hence making it more economical for dams over 14m.
 Additional skilled labour is required to create the formwork.
 Threat of deterioration of concrete from the impounded water is more likely than from
a thick gravity section.
 There is also an elimination of a good deal of uplift pressure, the pressure resulting
from the water in the reservoir and possibly of water from the hillside rocks gaining
access through or under any grout curtain and exerting upwards underneath the mass
concrete dam.
An arch dam utilises the strength of an arch to resist loads placed upon it by 'arch action'. The
foundations and abutments must be competent not only to support the dead weight of the dam
on the foundation but also the forces that are directed into the abutments because of arch
action in response to the forces acting on the dam. Therefore, the strength of the rock mass at
the abutments and immediately downvalley of the dam must be unquestionable and its
modulus of elasticity must be high enough to ensure deformation under thrust from the arch is
not so great as to induce excessive stresses in the arch.
Multiple Arch Dams
 The multiple arch concrete dam is a variety of buttress dam.

 The chief geological criterion is that the rock must be absolutely reliable to bear 2-3
MPa or more without any appreciable settlement (<8mm)
 There is some saving in concrete compared with buttress dams.
 In respect of uplift, corrosion and economy the two types are very similar.
Thick Arch Dams
 The thick arch dam can be built where the crest chord-height ratio is between 3 and 5.
 The chief geological criterion is that the rock must be absolutely reliable to bear 3.5
MPa or more without any appreciable settlement.
 A substantial saving in material compared with that of gravity dams.
 Thick arch dams are difficult to design on paper but are well determined from trials on
models.
Thin Arch Dams
 Thin arch dams require valleys to have a crest chord-height ratio of under 3, with a
radius of under 150m.
 The pressure exerted on the valley sides is between 5.5 - 8 MPa
 Where there is a vertical radius of curvature as well as a horizontal, this is known as a
cupola or dome type.
 Used where cement is expensive and labour is cheap.
Rockfill Dams
Rockfill dams can be built where the following conditions exist -

 Uncertain or variable foundation which is unreliable for sustaining the pressure
necessary for any form of concrete dam.
 Suitable rock in the vicinity which is hard and will stand up to variations of weather.
 An adequate amount of clay in the region which may be inserted in the dam either as a
vertical core or as a sloping core.
 Accessibility of the site and the width of the valley is suitable for the manipulation of
heavy earth-moving machinery, caterpillar scrapers, sheepfoot rollers and large
bulldozers.
Hydraulic Fill Dams
 Suitable in valleys of soft material and are constructed by pumping soft material duly
consolidated up to moderated heights up to 30m.
Earthen Embankments
 Near the site there must be clay to fill the trench and embanking material capable of
standing safely, without slipping, to hold up a clay core.
 An advantage of earthen embankments is that troubles due to the deterioration of the
structure by peaty waters of low pH do not arise.
Composite Dams
 Not only can different types of dam can be built in the same valley, but the same dam
can be of different types owing to the varying geological and topographical features of
the dam site.
 Many buttress dams also join up with gravity mass concrete dams at their haunches at
the sides of the valley, and again at the centre have a mass concrete gravity dam to
form a suitable overflow or spillway.
Seismic Activity
An engineer is interested in two aspects of seismic activity:
1. Whether natural earthquakes are likely to occur in close proximity to the dam and
would they be of an intensity to cause damage to the dam or appurtenant structures.
Natural Events
2. Whether filling of the reservoir might induce earthquake activity, with the possibility
of damage to the dam or liability for damage to other structures or persons. Although
the magnitude of the shocks maybe low, the proximity of the epicentres could make
the effects more serious.
Triggered Events
Seismic Activity - Natural Events

Preliminary investigations should include researching the earthquake history of the region.
This should involve investigating official records and local newspapers which often reveal
shocks felt by people in centres remote from any seismographs. If no evidence of earthquake
activity in the region is apparent, it would be unwise to assume nothing could happen in the
future. Field surveys should include the recording of all faults in the region and the
installation of seismographs in the region.

The scope of the seismic investigation is decided by the engineer. The engineer must consider
the probable cost in comparison with the cost of conservative assumptions in design, the
effect of such extra cost on the viability of the project, and the damage that might occur by
neglect of such investigations.
Appraisal of the seismicity of the site should be undertaken at the earliest possible date.
Seismographs should be installed to establish the magnitude of all natural events, their
epicentres and depths of focus. Background noise, such as quarry blasting should be filtered
out of the records. Records should be continued for at least 5 years after filling of the
reservoir, and preferably to cover periods of large drawdown and refilling of the reservoir.
Seismographs - For large dams the installation of seismographs is not expensive. These
seismographs will be triggered to record major events of a predetermined magnitude. It is
usual to install such instruments on rock at the base of the dam, on the crest of the dam and
preferably on rock at a short distance from the dam.
The magnitude of an earthquake is an indication of its absolute size, or total energy release. It
is measured by the Richter Scale which is an arbitrary logarithmic scale. It defines the
magnitude in terms of the maximum amplitude of a standard seismometer at a distance of 100
km from the epicentre.
The intensity of an earthquake
Preliminary investigations should include researching the earthquake history of the region.
This should involve investigating official records and local newspapers which often reveal
shocks felt by people in centres remote from any seismographs. If no evidence of earthquake
activity in the region is apparent, it would be unwise to assume nothing could happen in the
future. Field surveys should include the recording of all faults in the region and the
installation of seismographs in the region.
The scope of the seismic investigation is decided by the engineer. The engineer must consider
the probable cost in comparison with the cost of conservative assumptions in design, the
effect of such extra cost on the viability of the project, and the damage that might occur by
neglect of such investigations.
Appraisal of the seismicity of the site should be undertaken at the earliest possible date.
Seismographs should be installed to establish the magnitude of all natural events, their
epicentres and depths of focus. Background noise, such as quarry blasting should be filtered
out of the records. Records should be continued for at least 5 years after filling of the
reservoir, and preferably to cover periods of large drawdown and refilling of the reservoir.
Seismographs - For large dams the installation of seismographs is not expensive. These
seismographs will be triggered to record major events of a predetermined magnitude. It is
usual to install such instruments on rock at the base of the dam, on the crest of the dam and
preferably on rock at a short distance from the dam.
The magnitude of an earthquake is an indication of its absolute size, or total energy release. It
is measured by the Richter Scale which is an arbitrary logarithmic scale. It defines the
magnitude in terms of the maximum amplitude of a standard seismometer at a distance of 100
km from the epicentre.
The intensity of an earthqu

Geological Hazards
Valley Wall Stability
A gorge wherein the side slopes are equal to or steeper than the angle of repose of loose rock
is attractive as a damsite, however, in such a gorge instability of the slopes can pose serious
problems.
Landslips are a common feature of valleys in mountainous areas and large slips often cause
narrowing of a valley which may then look topographically suitable for a dam. Unless they
are shallow seated and can be removed or effectively drained, it is prudent to avoid land slip
areas in dam location, because their unstable nature may result in movement during
construction or subsequently on drawdown.
Valley Bulging
Valley bulges consist of folds formed by mass movement of argillaceous material in valley
bottoms, the argillaceous material being overlain by thick, competent strata. These features
cause stress-relief, that is, as stream erosion occurs within the valley the excess loading on the
sides causes the argillaceous material to squeeze out towards the area of minimum loading.
This causes the rocks in the valley to bulge upwards.
The valley movement of argillaceous material results in cambering of the overlying

competent strata, blocks of which become detached, and move down the hillside. Fracturing
of cambered strata produces deep debris-filled cracks which run parallel to the trend of the
valley.
Valley Bulging and Cambering

Mining
The existence of a mine either under a reservoir or a dam will present many problems such as:
 Possible subsidence of the foundation of the dam
 Loss of water from the reservoir

 Flooding of the mine
 Excessive hydrostatic pressure at faces in the mine
When the mine is under a reservoir there is the possibility that sufficient water could pass
through the intervening rocks to flood the mine, or at least increase drainage problems. Even
if the rock series were sufficiently impermeable to impede the flow of water, there is the
possibility that excessive interstical pressure could build up - with the danger to mine faces. If
the mine is above and adjacent to the reservoir, saturation of the hillside and change in the
water table could lead to potential instability. Seismic effects from blasting within the mine
might then be sufficient to trigger a landslide.
Any site investigation must include both existing mines and potential mines, for matters of
liability.
HYDROLOGY CONTENTS
5. FLOODS
1. INTRODUCTION
6. HYDRODYNAMIC FLOW NETS
2. HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
7. ANISOTROPIC BEDROCKS
3. STORAGE CAPACITY
4. FREEBOARD
8. FILLED RESERVOIRS
Hydrology Introduction
Hydrology is a science of prediction - the likelihood of recurrence of natural events.
Mathematicians may try to predict events based on past history but Nature is unpredictable as
to time and magnitude of occurence.
Based on past information the low flow characteristics of the river will control the storage
required and hence the normal full supply level of the reservoir. High flow records and flood
forecasting techniques provide the basis for design of the spillway, and hence the flood
storage required above normal full supply level.
Meteorology - Weather forecasting is important to the dam engineer because future seasonal
weather could influence the decision as to which type of dam is built. For example, too short a

dry season may preclude the economical construction of an earthfill dam. A weather station
should be established at a proposed dam site at the earliest possible date. Records of
temperature, humidity, rainfall, wind and air pressures can materially assist the meteorologists
in synthesising storm patterns and is one step in the process of maximum flood estimation.
Whatever dimensions the Engineer selects for the dam and spillway there will always be some
risk, assessment of the acceptable risk is the art of dam engineering.
Hydrological Cycle
The cyclic movement of water from the sea to the atmosphere and thence by precipitation to
the Earth, where it collects in streams and runs back to the sea, is referred to as the
hydrological cycle. The cycle is not as simple as that, firstly, precipitation may fall at all
stages, secondly, there is no uniformity in the time a cycle takes, thirdly, the intensity and
frequency of the cycle depend on geography and climate.
Water in the sea evapourates under solar radiation, and clouds of water vapour move over land
areas. Precipitation occurs as snow, hail, rain and condensate in the form of dew, over land
and sea. Snow and ice on land are water in temporary storage. Rain falling over land surfaces
may be intercepted by vegetation and evaporate back to the atmosphere. Some of it infiltrates
into the soil and moves down or percolates into the saturated ground zone beneath the water
table, or phreatic surface. The water in this zone flows slowly through aquifers to river
channels or sometimes directly to the sea. The water that infiltrates also feeds the surface
plant life and some gets drawn up into this vegetation where transpiration takes place from
leafy plant surfaces.
The water remaining on the surface partially evapourates back to vapour, but the bulk of it
coalesces into streamlets and runs as surface runoff to the river channels. The river and lake
surfaces also evapourate, so still more is removed here. Finally, the remaining water that has
not infiltrated or evapourated arrives back at the sea via the river channels. The groundwater,
moving much more slowly, either emerges into the stream channels or arrives at the coastline
and seeps into the sea, and the whole cycle starts again.

Man can exercise some control only when the rain has fallen on the land and is making its
way back to the sea.
Storage Capacity
The storage capacity required in a reservoir may be determined in a number of ways. In
tropical regions it may be decided to store the whole runoff from precipitation in one season.
Whether this would ensure continuity of flow would depend upon the season selected and the
seasons occurring later. It may be decided to provide sufficient storage to ensure continuity
based upon a repetition of past history.
In evaluating storage requirements a hydrologist would use various hydrological tools such as
cumulative mass curves, runoff, estimation of flood design, flood routing and other factors.
The storage capacity of a reservoir is defined as the

volume of water which can be stored. Initial estimates of
storage capacity can be made from topographic maps or
aerial photographs.
The reservoir volume can be estimated by planimetering

areas upstream of the proposed dam site up to the
proposed top water level. The mean of the two
successive contour areas is multiplied by the contour
interval to give the interval volume, the summation of
the interval volumes provides the total volume of the
reservoir site.
The figure shows a typical mass curve.
Freeboard
Freeboard - 'The vertical distance between the top of the dam and the full supply level on the
reservoir.'
The top of the dam is the level of water tightness of the structure and may be the top of a
parapet that is watertight throughout its length. Full supply level is the level adopted in design
for the maximum operation of the reservoir.

To determine a value for freeboard the following must be considered;
 Flood Surcharge
 Seiche effects
 Wind set-up of the water surface
 Wave action
 Run-up of waves on the dam.
 Inaccuracy of data;
 Large risks if breached;
 Type of dam.
Floods
Estimation of design flood
There are two methods now commonly used;
 The statistical analysis of past floods with extrapolation to estimate the magnitude and
probability of occurrence of future floods, and;
 The estimation of probable maximum precipitation on to the particular catchments
under the worst meteorological conditions likely to occur over the catchments,
followed by an estimation of the run-off that would result from such a storm.
The determination of probable maximum precipitation for a particular drainage basin requires
comprehensive study of major storms on record and is a job for experts. One is limited by the
lack of data, records usually do not go back more than 50 years, which makes prediction of
more than the 100 year flood impossible. As it is, 50 years of data will predict a 100 year
flood to within 25%, and 115 years will predict it to 10%.
The Engineer is faced with conflicting requirements in terms of safety and economy, he is
therefore obliged to use to the best advantage the data and procedures that are available;
 Statistical analysis of past flow records at the site - and extrapolation;

 As above, but with extension of the flow records by correlation with flows from
adjacent catchments;
 Statistical analysis of rainfall records and extrapolation;
 As preceding, but with extension of data by correlation with other stations;
 Correlation studies including both rainfall and flow records;
 Estimation of 'maximum possible' rainfall by Meteorological Services and application
of such data to the estimation of 'probable maximum flood' from catchments;
 Comparison with known events and other designs adopted for the region by the use of
such means as the Creager coefficients.
Flood Routing

When a flood enters a reservoir it will cause the water
level to rise, with consequent discharge over the spillway.
The reservoir level will continue to rise until the free
discharge over the spillway equals the inflow at time 'X'
on the figure. Spillway discharge will then exceed inflow
until the reservoir level falls to spillway crest level.
If spillway gates are installed they can be opened in

advance of peak of the flood. The rate at which they can
be opened will usually be governed by permissible river
rise conditions downstream. There is the danger that the
flood inflow will not reach the volume anticipated and the
water will be wasted or a flood of unjustifable size will be
created downstream of the dam.
Hydrodynamic Flow Nets

Flow of water through permeable materials is directional and is in response to head
differentials. Flow can be graphically portrayed by hydrodynamic flow nets, which are drawn
in vertical section parallel to the general direction of flow. A flow net consists of two sets of
lines, flowlines and equipotential lines. Flowlines or streamlines are the loci of the paths of
flow of individual water particles. Equipotential lines pass through points of equal pressure.
All intersections between the streamlines and equipotential lines are at right angles.
(C) Wahlstrom, Ernest Dams, Dam Foundations and Reservoir Sites

Symmetrical hydrodynamic flow net beneath a dam with its base at ground level
When the base of the dam figure 2, is set below ground elevation and a cut-off is constructed
there is a change in flow net compared to figure 1, that results in the following advantages:
1. The uplift pressure at the heel of the dam is reduced and the total uplift pressure
downstream from the cut-off has been diminished. Accordingly, the moment of uplift
forces tending to lift the dam has been reduced.
2. The danger of piping and erosion at the toe of the dam has been reduced or eliminated.
3. The longer flow paths along the streamlines below the cut-off causes a notable
decrease in the exit velocities downstream in the proximity of the dam and reduces
total seepage under the dam.

Hydrodynamic flow net beneath a dam with its base below ground level and with an
impermeable cut-off near the heel of the dam
Hydrology of Anisotropic Bedrocks
Almost an infinite number of possibilities exists with respect to the magnitude and space
distribution of zones of potential seepage in bedrock in the vicinities of dams and in the
reservoirs behind the dams. A few of the many possible configurations of zones of potential
are shown below;
Idealised cross sections of dams showing various kinds of zones of potential seepage in
bedrock.
Brittle, fractured sandstones in horizontal sedimentary sequence

beneath dam present a potential seepage.
Dam is situated on basltic lava flows and interlayered pyroclastic

deposits. Lava flows are fractured, brecciated at their tops, and
contain lava caves.
A brittle layer of quartzite in tightly folded metamorphic rocks is

likely to contain numerous intersecting fractures.
Sandstone layers alternating with shale layers in a syncline

contain fractures associated with development of a syncline.

A fault provides access of water to brittle sandstone layers which
dip upstream.
A fault provides egress for water moving through inclined, brittle

sandstone layers.
Brittle sandstone layers have been extensively fractured during

development of an anticline.
Fractured sandstones in folded rocks are intersected by a fault

zone which expedites groundwater movement to the surface
beneath the dam.
Faults in brittle crystalline rock provide channelways for

groundwater circulation.
Fractured sandstones, a weathered zone on granite beneath the

sediments, and a fault zone create channelways for subsurface
circulation of water.
Extensively jointed crystalline rocks are permeable to

groundwater flow.

A closely jointed igneous dike intersects a sedimentary sequence
and provides a channel for groundwater movement.
Idealised cross section of valleys at dam and/or reservoir sites.
Jointed sandstones present potential for seepage around dam

abutments when reservoir is full.
Basaltic lava flows and layers of pyroclastic rocks create

potential for seepage. Lava flows are jointed, have breccia tops,
and contain lava caves.
Fractured sandstones in a strike valley are prone to seepage.
A subsided block (arrow) has created an open channelway in a

massive horizontal sandstone layer.
Gravity-slip faults and fractures formed by elastic rebound

produce potential zones for groundwater movement in a glaciated
valley.
A strong fault system renders crystalline rocks permeable on one

side of a valley.

A wide fault zone promotes deep circulation of water beneath
dam.
Fractured sandstones and a weathered zone beneath an angular

unconformity enable easy circulation of groundwater.
Fractured sandstones in an anticline create a permeable zone

parallel to the valley.
Folded, jointed rocks and a strong fault create a potential for

groundwater flow.
A sheeted, jointed zone in crystalline rocks create a permeable

zone.
Joints in a brittle quartzite layer and a fault produce channelways

for underground water circulation.
Hydrology of Filled Reservoirs

Failure of slopes on sides of reservoirs frequently during drawndown when the reservoir is
nearly empty doesn't produce unmanageable problems. However, of more concern is when
rock and earth slides into a full reservoir causing sudden destructive overflow of the dam.
Filling of a reservoir causes adjustments in the groundwater table in adjacent materials. Over
a period of time when the reservoir is full a new groundwater table is established with
coincides with the elevation of the water surface. The groundwater surface is a free surface in
contact through unfilled pore spaces with the atmosphere, changes in atmospheric pressure are

accompanied by changes in pore pressure in the saturated zone. Wave action also undercuts
the slopes and oversteepens them.

Figure 1 - Glacial till deposits in a glaciated canyon in crystalline rocks
A reservoir is located in an extensively glaciated valley in crystalline rocks. Lateral morraines,
consisting of a jumbled mixture of large and small boulders, gravel, and rock flour have been
deposited by the glacier that occupied the valley high on its sides. Filling of the reservoir
causes an elevation of the water table in the rill in the moraines, and because of the cross-
sectional configuration of the valley, considerably increases the possibility for sudden
downslope movement of the moraine material. Failure of the slopes might occur at any time.

Figure 2 - Tilted alteration of sandstone and shale
The bedrock profile of a canyon eroded by a stream in a tilted succession of sandstones and
clay-rich shales. Unconsolidated materials in rock slides and stream deposits are not shown.
Water from the reservoir, by seepage through the sandstones, comes into contact with the
shale layers for a considerable distance into the canyon walls, and by slow penetration of the
shales, greatly reduces their strength. Under these circumstances, a highly unstable condition
is created, especially where the sedimentary layers dip into the reservoir.

FOUNDATION CONTENTS
Foundation Introduction
The foundations of a dam must be able to withstand without unacceptable deformation the
loads imposed upon it by the structure, both immediately after filling the reservoir and in the
long term.
With time, deterioration by saturation and percolation of water can occur, whilst soft rocks
and clays usually exhibit lower residual strengths under sustained loading than under rapid
testing. It is the 10-20m of rock immediately below the dam that is of greatest importance.
Terzaghi's advice might well apply to foundation testing - "...because of unavoidable

uncertainties involved in the fundamental assumptions of the theories and the numerical
values of the soil constants, simplicity is of much greater importance than accuracy." The
Engineer must use all the available resources, concentrating on the zones of foundation that
appear weak and that will be subject to stresses once loaded.
Foundation Preparation
Introduction
If it is economically feasible, all material under the base of a proposed dam which could cause
excessive settlement and leakage should be removed. If this cannot be done, the dam design
should be modified to take account of such material. Sometimes it may be necessary to
remove material to considerable depths in isolated areas of the foundation. This is known as
dental work. The general overall removal of material is termed stripping, whereas the removal
of loose masses of rocks on the abutments is termed scaling. The engineering geologist has to
determine the expected depth of weathered or unsound rock or overburden that must be
removed in advance of construction.
Foundation programme
A planned programme of foundation excavation should be initiated with the view that the
volume of excavation and configuration of the excavation will approximate reasonably to the
plans and specifications established. It is the responsibility of the construction engineer to
ensure slopes for excavations will be permanently stable or will not fail during construction.
In earth materials slopes of 1.5:1 to 2:1 are excavated in permanent cuts and slopes of 1:1 are
established in temporary cuts, except where unusual conditions are anticipated. In bedrock
that is not closely fractured or does not contain inclined planes of potential slippage, such as
bedding planes in weak rocks, slopes are excavated at angles up to the vertical.

Problematic foundation materials
In foundations in unconsolidated material excavation of natural deposits may reveal

inadequate localised or widespread foundation materials that require special treatment or total
removal. Unacceptable or inadequate materials rich in organic substances such as topsoil,
swamp muck or peat, loose deposits of sand or silt, talus accumulations and plastic, active,
sensitive, or swelling clays.
Poor foundation conditions in rocks are associated with close fracturing, weathering or
hydrothermal alteration, or poorly indurated sedimentary rocks.
Excavation in bedrock
The objective of excavation is the preparation of a clean surface that will provide optimum
contact with the dam materials, whether earth or concrete is to be placed on that surface.
Therefore excavations in bedrock should extend into firm, fresh rock. Any closely fractured
zones extending downward, especially if containing soft altered materials such as clay gouge
or other products of weathering, should be removed if feasible.
Prolonged exposure of both earth and rock foundations to the atmosphere or to water
frequently results in deterioration by hydration, dehydration, frost action, shrinkage, and
expansion with changes in temperature. It is good practice to protect reactive surfaces that
will be exposed for long periods of time with bituminous materials. Alternatively, original
cover is not removed until final cleanup and just prior to placement of the dam.
Construction on unconsolidated deposits
At an ideal site, excavations in unconsolidated deposits should extend to solid bedrock for the
full width of the dam, whether it is constructed of concrete or earth/rock fill. However, there
are many locations where the depth of the valley fill is so great that dams must be constructed
in part or entirely on unconsolidated deposits. Where this is the case steps must be taken to
improve the engineering properties of the foundation materials and to reduce subsurface
seepage to allowable levels.
Except for low dams of small gross weight, concrete dams are not built on unconsolidated
deposits because of their generally low bearing strength. Larger dams constructed in whole or
in part on unconsolidated deposits should without exception, be earth or rockfill dams with
the capacity to adjust to settlement in the foundation materials.
CONCRETE
Preparation of foundations - the extent of the work that will be necessary in the foundations
for a concrete dam will be determined by two main factors, their strength to sustain the loads
that will be imposed by dam and the reservoir water, and the effect of water entering the
foundations under pressure from the reservoir.
Generally the quality of foundations for a gravity dam will improve with depth of excavation
however the abutments for an arch dam often do not improve with distance excavated into the
sides of the valley. Deterioration of clay could endanger the dam and/or lead to collapse of
abutments downstream from the dam.
Frequently the course of the river has been determined by geological faults or weaknesses;
proving of the river bed is therefore of first importance in the investigation stage. The depth to

be excavated will depend upon the nature of the infilling material, the shape of the excavated
zone, and the depth of cutoff necessary to ensure an acceptable hydraulic gradient after the
reservoir is filled.
Concrete dams may be constructed on foundations other than massive rock, i.e. shales, glacial
deposits or even sand for river works. Each case must be examined relative to permeability,
settlement, and load-carrying capacity (vertical and horizontal).
The final preparation of the foundation should be undertaken just prior to the placement of
concrete. It should include the removal of loose rock and all debris, roughening of smooth
rock surfaces, washing down of all surfaces, and the removal of excess water from pools to
leave a clean damp surface to receive the concrete.
Foundation Design
Construction of a dam and filling of the reservoir behind it create load stresses on the floor
and sides of a valley that did not exist previously.
The kinds and distributions of imposed stresses created by a dam on its foundation depend on
the shape of the dam and the materials used in its construction.
Dams built of masonry or concrete can be considered to behave as cohesive, rigid,

monolithic structures. The stresses acting on the foundation is a function of the gross
weight of the dam as distributed over the total area of the foundation on which the
dam rests.
Earth and rock fill dams exhibit gross semiplastic behaviour, and the pressure on the
foundation at any point depends on the thickness of the dam above the point.
The pressures exerted by earth and rock-fill dams resemble in some respects those exerted by
the water in a reservoir, but pressure distribution is modified by the fact that the materials of
construction have some inherent strength, and fail only after some threshold stress has been
exceeded. Pressures exerted by water in the reservoir behind a dam are hydrostatic and
increase linearly with depth.
Figure 1 - Pressures due to water in a reservoir
The pressures are hydrostatic and increase with depth. On the assumption that the pressures
are directed normal to the floor and sides, they are shown as vectors of increasing magnitude
with depth.

Figure 2 - Pressures from the weight of a rigid concrete dam
The deadweight load of a concrete dam is distributed over the total area of the foundation and
is shown by vectors normal to the surface beneath the dam. The figures are essentially static,
and depend only on the weight of the dam and the area of the foundation.
Water exerts hydrostatic pressures not only on the floor and walls of a reservoir but also on
the upstream face of a dam. D is the depth of water in a reservoir, P is the hydrostatic pressure
per unit area acting on the vertical face of a concrete dam assumed to behave as a rigid body.
The change in pressure with depth (in the y direction) is given by dP/dY=þg in which þ is the
density of water and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
Figure - Forces acting on a rigid dam owing to hydrostatic pressures
Torque about 0 = þgD³/6
Resultant Pressure = þgD²/2

In calculations of the stability of the dam the torque tending to rotate the dam about 0 should
be added to the tendency of the dam to be rotated in the same direction about the same point
by uplift forces related to seepage beneath the dam.
Figure 1 illustrates an earth dam, a nonrigid structure that under stress behaves
semiplastically. Because of relatively easy internal adjustments to loads, the pressure exerted
on the foundation are approximately equal to the weight of overlying prisms of material of
different heights. Pressures exerted on the dam by water in the reservoir tend to cause greater
adjustments near the base of the dam than at shallower depths.
A cross section of a concrete gravity dam, presumed to behave as a rigid body. When the
reservoir is empty, the weight of the dam is directed vertically downward. When the reservoir
is full, a combination of hydrostatic pressure on the upstream face of the dam and the weight
of the dam produces a force vector inclined downstream away from the vertical force vector,
and there is a tendency for the dam not only to be displaced downstream but also to rotate
about the downstream toe of the dam because of a torque.
These figures show force vectors for empty and filled reservoirs behind concrete arch dams.
Unlike gravity dams, arch dams because of the egg-shell effect tend to resist downstream
dislocation and the displacing forces, instead, are transmitted laterally through the dam and
toward the abutments.
Figures (C) Wahlstrom, Ernest Dams, Dam Foundations and Reservoir Sites
Mechanisms of Foundation Failure

In general, failures in flat, nearly horizontal foundations of earth and rock-fill dams are not the
result of shearing dislocations owing to the load of the dam. Instead, foundations give way
because of inadequate treatment for seepage, either within the dam or beneath it, or as a
consequence of construction of a dam on a foundation which slopes steeply upstream or
downstream.
The figure below shows a mechanism of foundation failure under load that has been widely
employed in the analysis of bearing strengths of soils. This mechanism responds to analysis
by application of Mohr's thoery of shear failure called the plastic method of analysis of
bearing capacity.

Figure 1 - 'Plastic' Mechanism for shear failure of foundation materials; Load is directed
vertically
For a load directed vertically downward it is assumed and born out by model studies that a
symmetrical wedge is formed by shear dislocation. Extension of the shear surfaces bounding
the wedge, first as curved surfaces, and then as planar surfaces intersecting the earth's surface,
provides a mechanism for shear failure along symmetrically disposed surfaces beneath the
dam.

Figure 2 - 'Plastic' Mechanism for shear failure of foundation materials; Load is directed
asymmetrically
Figure 2 shows the consequences of application of an inclined load, either because of an
inclined surface at the base of the dam or because of an interaction between the load
component acting vertically due to the weight of the dam and the pressure exerted on the dam
by the hydrostatic pressure of the water in the reservoir. The result is a tendency to shear
along a single surface that intersects the earth's surface downstream from the dam. If pre-
existing planes of weakness of appropiate orientation exist in the foundation materials, it
should be expected that the shear surfaces will deflect into them.
Geologic Conditions Promoting Foundation Failure


The geologic conditions in foundations for concrete dams that should be avoided are indicated
below.
Brittle, fractured sandstones rest on a weak shale

layer dipping upstream.
Horizontally layered limestones rest on a weak shale

layer which extends downstream to a steep slope in
the valley floor.
Fractured crystalline rocks lie above a flat fault

containing sheared, gougy materials of very low
strength.
Intersecting strong conjugate joints have attitudes that

promote easy mass shear dislocations.
Sedimentary rocks dipping downstream are

intersected by a fault dipping upstream and
containing materials of low strength.
Folded rocks containing thin, weak layers of shale

present a potential for foundation failure.
Slope failures toward abutments (in direction of the dam axis) which disturb or dislocate the
abutments are rare. In concrete dams in which slopes in the abutment areas maintain
themselves during excavation for the foundation, the possibility of downslope movement
along surfaces that intersect the foundation of the dam is remote because of the added stability
provided by the weight and strength of the dam. However, the possibility that slopes above
the dam, especially in deep valleys, may fail and bury surface structures with rock and/or soil
debris.

Figure - Conditions promoting possible slope failure beneath abutments of an earth or rock-
fill dam along curves shear surfaces. Shale beneath a sandstone layer has been weakened by
infiltration of water from the reservoir.
Bearing capacity
To avoid shear failure, the foundation pressures used in design should have an adequate factor
of safety when compared with the ultimate bearing capacity of the foundation. If failure is to
be avoided, then a factor of safety must be applied to the ultimate bearing capacity, the value
being obtained being the safe bearing capacity. The ultimate bearing capacity is defined as the
least pressure which would cause shear failure of the supporting soil immediately below and
adjacent to a foundation. However, this value still may mean risk of excessive settlement or
differential settlement. Thus the allowable bearing capacity which is used in design will take
into account all possibilities of ground movement and so its value will normally be less than
the safe bearing capacity.
Seepage - Introduction
Seepage under an embankment is much more dangerous than that for a concrete dam, since
embankments are usually built on soft material which is liable to be scoured out and it is also
vulnerable to influx of water; whereas a concrete dam is usually built on rock which is not
worn away so rapidly by the scouring action of water; and even then a defective dam will not
necessarily be endangered by passage of water through it or even under it.
Basic seepage problems
Stored water behind dams, gives rise to three basic seepage problems, which can lead to
difficulties and in serious cases to total failure:
1. Piping occurs when water picks up soil particles and moves them through unprotected
exits, developing unseen channels or pipes through a dam or its foundation.
2. Heave or slope failures caused by seepage forces.
3. Excessive loss of water.
Three basic methods for controlling seepage are:
1. Use of filters to prevent piping and heave

2. Seepage reduction
3. Drainage

Prevention of Piping Failures
Piping failures
Water that percolates through earth dams and their foundations can carry soil particles that are
free to migrate. The seepage forces tend to cause the erodible soil or soft rock to move
towards the downstream face of the dam. That is if the seepage forces are large enough and
the pore spaces in the material are large enough. Along the unprotected discharge face AB, the
soil will heave if the gradients are large enough.
Every seepage discharge surface, both internal and external, which could be susceptible to
piping or heave must be covered with filters that permit water to pass but will hold the soil
particles firmly in place.
Filter criteria
Since the core is stabilised with rock or gravel zones, it is necessary to prevent the fine core
material being sucked into the upstream shell material during rapid drawdown of the
reservoir, or forced into the downstream shell by seepage water under reservoir head.
Transition or filter zones must therefore be provided on each side of the core.
The upstream filter, if non-cohesive and of proper grading, can serve a valuable service by
providing material for induced self-healing should a transverse crack appear in the core.
Selection of the best material for this purpose is well justified. Although its prime function is
to retain the core material against movement into the rockfill, the downstream transition
material should be selected and placed so as to inhibit the propagation of a core crack into the
compacted rockfill. It is good practice to widen the transition zones towards each abutment,
i.e. where tension and oblique cracking may occur.
To prevent migration of fines from the core:
D15/D85 < 4-5

(filter)/(zone being filtered)
D50/D50 < 25
For sufficient permeability:

D15/D15 > 4-5
To prevent segregation of the filter:

D60/D10 < 20
(filter)/(filter)
Problems associated with natural formations
The foundations and abutments of dams are usually stable under the influence of the natural
groundwater flow. However, reservoir filling greatly changes the groundwater regime and
may lead to piping and internal erosion. The potential for internal erosion and piping may
occur at joints in rock, beds of gravel and in cavities left by rotting roots, animals burrows or
other buried organic matter.
Recommendations for preventing piping in natural formations
Field exploration and geological mapping for dam projects should identify the important soil
and rock formations that could cause failure by internal piping or heave. The geotechnical
properties of these materials should be thoroughly investigated. If the materials are proven to
be unsuitable then remedial action should be taken to improve their geotechnical properties.
All new dams and reservoirs should be carefully observed and monitored once in service to
detect the development of unsafe conditions. If seepage quantities increase or if there is an
unexplained change in seepage conditions then protective measures should be put into action.
Such actions should include lowering the reservoir and placing weighted filters over areas
where seepage discharges occur.
Seepage Reduction
Basic considerations
Seepage-reduction methods make use of impermeable cutoffs, grout curtains, and upstream
blankets, which consume energy at locations within cross sections where large water
pressures and seepage forces have no detrimental effects. The net result of these methods is
that water pressures and seepage forces are reduced in the downstream region. These seepage-
reducing features are usually combined with properly designed filters and drainage features,
since seepage reduction can only be partially effective by itself.

Foundation grouting
Further details on grouting click on Foundation Improvements page.
Foundations Improvement
Pre-Consolidation
Pre-consolidation is a useful foundation treatment method in compressible soils, depending on
the rate of consolidation. If the rate is rapid (one to two months for 50%) it will be possible to
pile up the soils removed from stripping and scaling of the abutments to form an artificial
surcharge.
If the rate is slower (one to two years for 50%) the dam weight can be used to consolidate the
soil and increase it's strength. It would be necessary to control the rate of construction so that
the weight applied does not exceed the ability of the foundation to support the structure safely.
It may, however, be necessary to increase the length of the construction period to obtain a
sufficient gain in strength. Drainage of the foundation can also help to accelerate
consolidation.
Densification of cohesionless soils

Densification of cohesionless soils is carried out using shock and vibration. Vibroflotation is
used to improve poor foundations. The process may reduce settlement by more than 50% and
the shearing strength of treated soils is increased substantially. Vibrations can convert loosely
packed soils into a denser state.
A vibroflot can be used to penetrate the soil and can operate efficiently below the water table.
The best results are obtained in coarse sands which contain little or no silt or clay, since both
reduce the effectiveness of the vibroflot.

Dynamic compaction
Dynamic compaction improves the mechanical properties of the soil by repeated application
of very high intensity impacts to the surface. This is achieved by dropping a weight, typically
10 to 20 tonnes, from crawler cranes, from heights of 10 to 20 metres at regular intervals
across the surface. Passes should be repeated over a site, although several tampings may be
made at each imprint during a pass. Each imprint is back-filled after tamping. The first pass at
widely spaced centres improves the bottom layer of the treatment zone and subsequent passes
consolidate the upper layers. In finer materials the increased pore water pressures must be
allowed to dissipate between passes, which may take several weeks.
Grouting
1. Grouting Operations in Bedrock
2. Dam Construction on Unconsolidated Deposits
3. Grout
4. Types of Grouting
5. Pattern Grouting
6. Blanket Grouting
7. Curtain Grouting
8. Off-pattern, Special Purpose Grouting
9. Grouting Consistency and Grouting Pressure
Grouting Operations in Bedrock

The goal of foundation and abutment grouting in bedrock is improvement of strength and
bearing capacity and the filling with grout of underground channelways that have a potential
for impermissible seepage. The most general technique uses drilling and pressure grouting,
either with water-cement mixtures or with other types of sealants.
Preliminary geological and geophysical investigations usually reveal only the general
characteristics of the bedrock, it is not until the keyway for the dam has been excavated and
the bare rock can be examined. This is a critical time because the constructor is eager to
proceed with the dam construction, however this is the last chance to ensure that all the
fissures are sealed to prevent water loss at a later stage and must be extensively treated to
assure ultimate safety of the dam.
Although grouting of a rock foundation may be conducted with meticulous care, the possibiliy
always exists that some channelways of underground water circulation remain and that flow
through these chanelways will accelerate as the reservoir is filled. If the volumes are
excessive then remedial steps must be taken, otherwise the flows may be intercepted and
diverted by drain holes or porous prisms.
Dam Construction on Unconsolidated Deposits

There are many locations where the depth of valley fill is too great to remove and so the dam
or parts of it may have to be built on unconsolidated deposits. Cross sections of several earth
and/or rockfill dams constructed at least in part on unconsolidated subsurface deposits are
shown below. It is clear that considerable information as to the distribution and permeabilities
of subsurface materials is required prior to the design and construction of cut-off features.

Rockfill dam. Impervious membrane
(asphaltic concrete) extends to a grout cap
on bedrock.
Cut-off trench extends to bedrock
Cut-off trench penetrates impervious layer

in unconsolidated valley fill
Cut-off extends to layer of impervious

material in unconsolidated valley fill.
Grout holes extend through a limestone
layer in bedrock below valley fill.
A cut-off is provided by sheet piling driven

into an impervious layer in valley fill.
Flow beneath dam is reduced by a leyer of

impervious material placed upstream from
the dam.
Grout
Grout is a liquid, either a uniform chemical substance or an aqueous suspension of solids that
is injected into rocks or unconsolidated materials through specially drilled boreholes to
improve bulk physical properties and/or to eliminate seepage of groudwater.
There are three basic types;
1. Portland cement-base slurries

2. Chemical Grouting solutions

3. Organic resins, including epoxy resins.
Portland based are the most widely used.

Types of Grouting
In dam foundations three kinds of grouting programs are identified:
1. Shallow blanket or consolidation grouting over critical portions
2. Curtain grouting from a gallery or concrete grout cap
3. Off pattern, special purpose grouting to improve strength
Some cross sections of dams with rock foundations showing locations of drilled holes for
foundation treatment.
 A - Curtain grout holes
 B - Blanket grout holes
 C - Special purpose, off-pattern grout holes
 D - Drain holes
Rockfill dam with impermeable concrete face
Zoned earth and rock-fill dam
Zoned earth and rock-fill dam
Earth dam

Concrete gravity dam with 'C' holes intersecting a fault
zone
Concrete gravity dam with double grout curtain and 'C'

holes intersecting a permeable fault zone
Concrete gravity dam with special purpose 'C' holes
Concrete gravity dam wiht a porous filter to collect

seepage water
Hollow conrete gravity dam
Concrete buttress dam

Concrete arch-dam
Concrete arch-dam
Pattern Grouting
Plans for dams commonly include broad specifications for a systematic program of blanket
and/or curtain grouting. Grouting is an uncertain process, it is impossible to accurately
estimate the amount of grout required, and usually the 'take' amounts moderately to greatly in
excess of the estimate. 'Grouting is an art and not a science.'
Pattern grouting is grouting included in the plans and specifications for a dam and commonly
is the basis for estimation prior to construction of the total footage of grout holes and the
expected amount of grout consumption. It is general practice to lay out locations of grout
holes in the plans with a definite, systematic pattern, spacing and assumed depths.
Blanket Grouting
Blanket grout holes are usually shallow, not more than 6 - 9 m deep and are intended to
remedy flaws in the foundation, such as fractured rock, by reducing permeability and
increasing bulk strength. Although holes may be routinely drilled normal to the foundation
surface, there is considerable merit in directing the holes to intersect specific local features
identified in the dam foundation during excavation. Blanket grouting must be completed
before construction of a dam.

Locations of blanket grout holes may usefully be indicated on plans and specifications for
several types of dams. The drawings are entirely schematic, and no scale is shown, on the
assumption that the actual number of holes will be determined by the area and the cross-
sectional configuration of the excavation for the dam foundation.
Curtain Grouting
In earth / rockfill dams, curtain grouting is usually completed before a dam is constructed and
involves filling a narrow excavated trench in the foundation with concrete. The exception to
the timing of the grouting operation is grouting after construction for a grouting cap at the
upstream heel of a dam.
Curtain grouting of the foundations of concrete dams is most effective after completion of the
dam, at a time when the full load is being applied to the foundation. Under such
circumstances higher pressures may be used in grouting so as to assure maximum travel of
grout in all directions along flow paths intersected by grout holes.
In gravity and gravity arch dams of moderate to large size it is common practice to construct a
gallery inside the dam for drilling curtain grout holes and drainage holes. Foundations of
small gravity and thin arch dams are efficiently grouted from grout caps along the contact of
the upstream face of the dam with rock.
Where there are no geological controls the depths of curtain pattern grout holes are
determined by a formula. A frequently used formula is: the vertical depth of grout holes shall
be a third of the dam height at the location of the hole plus (15 - 20m).
Off-pattern, Special Purpose Grouting

During investigations prior to dam construction, or as unanticipated geological conditions are
exposed in foundation excavations, the need for 'off-pattern' grout holes may be required.
These holes are drilled and grouted to improve the strength and / or reduce the permeability of
rock masses that are not intersected by blanket or curtain grout holes.
The depths, directions and inclinations of the grout holes are determined by the three-
dimensional geometry of zones of incompetent and / or permeable rocks as revealed by field
examination of bedrock exposures in foundation and abutment excavations.

Inclined holes from the
surface and horizontal holes
from a shaft intersect steep
faults and associated
fractures at depth.
Inclined holes are drilled to

intersect sheeted zones in
crystalline rocks.
Dipping sedimentary layers

present a potential for
seepage under a dam.
Inclined holes are drilled to
intersect a limestone layer
and a brittle sandstone layer.
Inclined holes are drilled

into jointed and sheared
rock in crests and troughs of
folds.

Holes are drilled to intersect
a closely jointed igneous
dyke at depth.
Off-pattern grout holes

intersect a jointed,
weathered zone in
crystalline rocks below an
unconformity.
Grouting Consistency and Grouting Pressure

The ability of cement grout to penetrate interconnected open spaces is limited by the
dimensions of the open spaces and the amount and size of the cement particles suspended in
the water base. Openings of slightly greater than capillary size that may permit free
circulation of groundwater are quickly filled and obstructed by cement particles and lateral
and/or vertical travel of the grout suspension is greatly impeded or brought to a halt. In larger
openings, presupposing interconnecting avenues of circulation, grout suspensions move with
ease and in some instances travel surprisingly large distances.
If easy grout circulation continues with the progress of the grouting operation, the suspension
is gradually thickened and, if necessary, the pressure correspondingly increased until filling of
available openings is indicated by refusal of the grout hole to accept additional grout. Grout
leaks at the surface should be calked or otherwise sealed to promote confined subsurface
movement of grout suspensions.
The definitions of thin and thick are not precise, but generally thin mixtures are construed to
mean mixtures prepared by mixing 8-10 volumes water with one volume of cement. Thick
mixtures have volume proportions of cement to water of approximately 1:1, or thicknesses
that are not so great that the grout can not be pumped with reasonable ease. In highly
permeable materials thick grout mixtures are indicated with inert additives such as clay or
sand may be added to grout suspensions as inexpensive fillers.
If grout pressures exceed certain limits there is the possibility of foundation dislocation and
new channelways being created. Because of a wide range in complexity of patterns of
underground circulation it is not possible to establish a rigid formula for controlling grout

pressures at the top of a grout hole. For curtain grouting, a rule that is sometimes followed
states that pressure in an initially thin grout suspension is increased to a level which
establishes a free circulation (assuming channelways for circulation are present) but not in
excess of the calculated hydrostatic pressure of the filled reservoir at the elevation of the
collar of the grout hole plus 0.7-3.5 bar.
Premature thickening of grout or reduction of pressures to cause grout refusal in a grout hole
should be avoided unless it can be demonstrated that grout is escaping to the surface well
outside of the foundation area. So long as grout is circulating somewhere in the foundation of
a dam or in the near proximity of the foundation, it must be assumed that it is contributing to
an improvement of the engineering properties of foundation materials and to a reduction in
permeability to groundwater seepage.
Drainage Methods
Permeable downstream shells
At dam sites where there is an abundance of at least two different materials with significantly
different permeabilities, a zoned dam may be constructed. In such cases permeable material is
placed downstream of less permeable material, often with a transition zone between. For
example, in a zoned dam which has a thick impermeable core and rests on an impermeable
foundation, the flowpaths within the downstream portion of the dam will be low. Thus
seepage has a negligible effect on the stability of the downstream slope, which is the ideal
condition in zoned earth dams.
(C) Craig R, F Soil Mechanics
Internal drain systems
Purpose
A homogeneous dam with a height of more than about 6 m to 8 m should have some type of
downstream drain. The purpose of a drain is:
1. to reduce the pore water pressures in the downstream portion of the dam therefore
increasing the stability of the downstream slope against sliding.
2. to control any seepage that exits the downstream portion of the dam and prevent
erosion of the downstream slope: i.e. to prevent 'piping'.
The effectiveness of the drain in reducing pore pressures depends on its location and extent.
However, piping is controlled by ensuring that the grading of the pervious material from
which the drain is constructed meets the filter requirements for the embankment material.

Toe drains
The design of a downstream drainage system is controlled by the height of the dam, the cost
and availability of permeable material, and the permeability of the foundation.
For low dams, a simple toe drain can be used successfully. Toe drains have been installed in
some of the oldest homogeneous dams in an effort to prevent softening and erosion of the
downstream toe.

For reservoir depths greater than 15 m, most engineers would place a drainage system further
inside the embankment where it will be more effective in reducing pore pressures and
controlling seepage.
Horizontal drainage blanket
Horizontal drainage blankets are often used for dams of moderate height.
Drainage blankets are frequently used over the downstream one-half or one-third of the
foundation area. The Bureau of Reclamation's 45 m Vega Dam is a homogeneous dam which
has been constructed with a horizontal downstream drain. Where pervious material is scarce,
the internal strip drains can be placed instead since these give the same general effect.
Disadvantages of horizontal drainage blankets
An earth dam embankment tends to be more pervious in the horizontal direction than in the
vertical. Occasionally, horizontal layers tend to be much more impervious than the average
material constructed into the embankment, so the water will flow horizontally on a relatively
impervious layer and discharge on the downstream face despite the horizontal drain.,p>
Where this has occurred the downstream slope is prone to slipping and piping. Repairs can be
made by installing pervious blankets on the downstream slopes or constructing vertical drains
to connect with the horizontal blanket. Such vertical drains are normally composed of sand
and gravel.
Chimney drains

Chimney drains are an attempt to prevent horizontal flow along relatively impervious
stratified layers, and to intercept seepage water before it reaches the downstream slope.
Chimney drains are often incorporated in high homogeneous dams which have been
constructed with inclined or vertical chimney drains.
In some major dam projects, chimney drains have been inclined at a considerable slope, both
upstream and sometimes downstream. An upstream inclined drain can act as a relatively thin
core. In addition to controlling seepage through the dam and increasing the stability of the
downstream slope, the chimney drain is also useful in reducing pore water pressures both
during construction and following rapid reservoir drawdown.
Dimensions and permeability of drains
The dimensions and permeability of permeable drains must be adequate to carry away the
anticipated flow with an ample margin of safety for unexpected leaks. If the dam and the
foundations are relatively impermeable, then the expected leakage would be low. A drain
should be constructed of material with a coefficient of permeability of at least 10 to 100 times
greater than the average embankment material.
Settlement
All structures undergo some settlement, regardless of their construction or of the quality of
their foundations. Structures made of soil or founded on soil settle so much that their
performance is affected and their safety is compromised.
Concrete dams are almost always based on strong rock foundations where settlement of the
dam is kept to a minimum otherwise the dams would crack leading to serious structural faults.
Embankment dams can be founded on soft compressible materials and are able to withstand
large settlements.
 Causes of settlement
 Measurement of settlement
 Effects of settlement on structures
 Settlement due to changes in environment
Causes of settlement
1. Bearing capaicty failure or instability, including landslides.
2. Failure or deflection of the foundation structure.
3. Elastic or distortion of the soil or rock.

4. Consolidation (compression) of the soil or rock.
5. Shrinkage due to desiccation.
6. Change in density due to shock or vibration.
7. Chemical alteration of constituents, including decay.
8. Underground erosion.
9. Collapse of underground openings such as caves or mines.
10. Structural collapse due to weakening of cementation upon saturation.
Measurement of settlement
Measurement of settlement within a dam should illustrate the progress of consolidation in the
dam and point out whether addition of height will be necessary to maintain freeboard. In
embankment dams settlement measurements are helpful in computing the volume of material
placed in the dam from the dimensions of the completed structure and provide a check on
original design specifications.
Measurement of Crest Settlement
Crest settlement is measured by bench marks placed at intervals along the top of the dam.
Obviously these are tied to a reference bench mark on the abutment which is immovable.
Measurement of Internal Settlement
Measurement of internal settlement is made using settlement plates embedded in the dam or
the foundation.
Diagram of settlement plates -
Effects of settlement on structures

The settlement configuration of a uniform load on a thick deposit of compressible soil is a
saucer shaped depression which extends beyond the limits of the structure. If the loading is
irregular or the soil uniform, the saucer shaped curve is distorted. If the deposit is thin, the
'saucer' is flattened at the centre. The effect that the settlement has on a structure depends on
where the structure is located in the depression and on how the movements at that location
influence the performance of the structure.
 Total settlement

 Tilting
 Distortion
Total Settlement
The total amount of settlement a structure can undergo without damage is large provided it is
relatively uniform. However, with large amounts of settlement several forms of trouble
develop. In embankments and dams on earth foundations the result will be a lowering of the
crest. This is an insidious form of trouble since it usually develops slowly, often without the
operators of maintenance personnel being aware of the loss of height and free board.
Allowances must be made for settlement in the design height, and periodic measurements
should be taken to be sure that the proper crest level is maintained. A considerable part of the
settlement, both of the foundation and of the embankment, occurs during the construction
period. This can result in discrepancies in the computed volume of the structure unless it is
anticipated and careful records of the settlement are kept. With proper allowances,
embankment settlements of a few metres can be tolerated. Total settlement is not a serious
matter if it is anticapted and provisions made before hand.
Tilting
Tilting occurs in the parts of the structure that are outside the centre of the saucer-like
depression. It also takes place when the structure is unevenly loaded, or when the soils are
non-uniform. It is of importance mainly with tall structures such as large retaining walls,
transmission towers, water tanks, and smoke stacks. It is particularly serious in structures that
are inter-connected. The amount of tilt which can be tolerated depends on the height-width
ratio of the structure.
Distortion
Differential settlement which produces relative movement is known as distortion. The load of
an embankment on a uniform soil produces a settlement profile as shown below. There is also
a tendency for cracks to develop as indicated. These cracks may lead to accelerated seepage,
erosion, and even failure.
Figure 1 - The load of an embankment on a uniform soil produces a settlement profile as

shown and a tendency to develop cracks at the points indicated. Such cracks can possibly lead
to accelerated seepage, erosion and even seepage failure.
Figure 2 - The non uniform foundation thickness and the greater loading at the centre than at
the abutments brings about a sagging profile along the axis. Shear cracks tend to form as
shown. These are far more serious because they extend from upstream to downstream and
several dam failures have been attributed to such cracking.
Figure 3 - When a small portion of the embankment extends beyond the main section shear
cracks sometimes develop.
Figure 4 - Similar settlement adjacent to an overhanging abutment can create cracks at their
juncture.
Settlement due to changes in Environment

Changes in environment can bring about a reduction in void ratio in certain soils and a
corresponding settlement. Shock and vibration from earthquakes, blasting, and construction
machinery can cause loose cohesionless soils to densify. In addition, flow failure may
accompany the settlement if the soils are saturates. Detioration of cementing agents from

physical and chemical changes brought on by exposure and inundation can cause the collapse
of loose skeleton soil structures and settlement.
Bacteriological decay of organic materials can produce settlement accompanied by formation

of gas pockets. Such decay is inhibited by permanent submergence.
Exposure to soils to hot dry weather during construction can cause both settlement and
shrinkage cracking. A desiccated clay that is subsequently inundated may swell and damage a
superimposed structure or embankment by heave. Moreover, the cracked, swollen soil is
weakened and can be a cause of foundation failure.
CONCRETE DAMS
CONTENTS
GRAVITY DAMS ARCH DAMS BUTTRESS DAMS

1. Introduction 1. Introduction
1. Introduction
2. Design Concepts and Criteria 2. Concrete Slab Deck
2. Design concepts and criteria
3. Uplift 3. Massive Head Buttress
3. Abutments - Stability
4. Stresses 4. Multiple Arch Dam
4. Shell geometry
5. Contraction Joints 5. Buttresses
5. Contraction joints
6. Galleries 6. Uplifting and Sliding
6. Prestressing
7. Appurtenant Structures 7. Spill-over Buttress Dams
8. Prestressed Gravity Dams 8. Prestressing
Introduction to Gravity Dams
A concrete gravity dam has a cross section such that with a flat bottom, the dam is free
standing. That is, the dam has a center of gravity low enough that the dam will not topple if
unsupported at the abutments. Gravity dams require maximum amounts of concrete for their
construction as compared with other kinds of concrete dams, and resist dislocation by the
hydrostatic pressure of reservoir water by sheer weight. A favourable site usually is one in a
constriction in a valley where the sound bedrock is reasonably close to the surface both in the
floor and abutments of the dam. The availability of suitable aggregate for manufacture of
concrete is also an important consideration.
Masonry dams that relied upon their weight for stability against sliding and overturning date
back 3000 to 4000 years, both upstream and downstream faces were sloped and the base
thickness was many times the height. In 1872 Rankine proposed that there should be no
tensile stress in a gravity dam. In 1895 Levy proposed that the compressive stress in the
material of the dam at the upstream face should be greater than the water pressure at the
corresponding depth in the reservoir.

The danger from uplift had been recognised in 1882, and the danger of sliding was
highlighted by the failure of the Austin Dam, USA. The most recent advance has been in the
application of the finite element method of analysis.
Typical Section Example
Hoover Dam, Nevada-Arizona (221m)
Grand Coulee Dam, Washington State (168m)
Fontana Dam, Tennessee (137m)
Studen Kladenetz, Bulgaria (67.5m)
Sakuma Dam, Japan (140m)
Topolintza Dam, Bulgaria (85m)

Design Concepts and Criteria

A gravity dam shall be:
 Safe against overturning at any horizontal plane within the dam.
 Safe against sliding at any horizontal place within the dam.
 So proportioned that the allowable stresses in both the concrete and the foundation
shall not be exceeded.
Loading Criteria
See Loading and Factor of Safety Page
In 1940 Houk and Keener, listed twenty five basic assumptions that should be considered
relative to the design of important masonry dams.
1. The rock that constitutes the foundation and abutments at the site is strong enough to
carry the forces imposed by the dam with stresses well below the elastic limit at all
places along the contact planes.
2. The bearing power of the geologic structure along the foundation and abutments is
great enough to carry the total loads imposed by the dam without rock movements of
detrimental magnitude.
3. The rock formations are homogeneous and uniformly elastic in all directions, so that
their deformations may be predicted satisfactorily by calculations based on the theory
of elasticiy, by laboratory measurements on models constructed of elastic materials, or
by combinations of both methods.
4. The flow of the foundation rock under the sustained loads that result from the
construction of the dam and the filling of the reservoir may be adequately allowed for
by using a somewhat lower modulus of elasticity than would otherwise be adopted for
use in the technical analyses.
5. The base of the dam is thoroughly keyed into the rock formations along the
foundations and abutments.
6. Construction operations are conducted so as to secure a satisfactory bond between the
concrete and rock materials at all areas of contact along the foundation and abutments.
7. The concrete in the dam is homogeneous in all parts of the structure.
8. The concrete is uniformly elastic in all parts of the structure, so that deformations due
to applied loads may be calculated by formulae derived on the basis of the theory of
elasticity or may be estimated from laboratory measurements on models constructed of
elastic materials.
9. Effects of flow of concrete may be adequately allowed for by using a somewhat lower
modulus of elasticity under sustained loads than would otherwise be adopted for use in
technical analyses.
10. Contraction joints are properly grouted under adequate pressures, or open slots are
properly filled with concrete, so that the dam may be considered to act as a monolith.
11. Sufficient drains are installed in the dam to reduce such uplift pressures as may
develop along areas of contact between the concrete and rock materials.
12. Effects of increases in horizontal pressures caused by silt contents of flood waters
usually may be ignored in designing high storage dams, but may require consideration
in designing relatively low diversion structures.
13. Uplift forces adequate for analysing conditions at the base of the dam are adequate for
analysing conditions at horizontal concrete cross sections above the base.

14. Internal stresses caused by natural shrinkage and by artificial cooling operations may
be adequately controlled by proper spacing of contraction joints.
15. Internal stresses caused by increases in concrete temperature after grouting are
beneficial.
16. Maximum pressures used in contraction joint grouting operations should be limited to
such values as may be shown to the safe by appropriate stress analyses.
17. No section of the United Sates may be assumed to be entirely free from the occurrence
of earthquake shocks.
18. Assumptions of maximum earthquake accelerations equal to one tenth of gravity are
adequate for the design of important masonry dams without including additional
allowances for resonance effects.
19. Vertical as
well as
horizontal
accelerations should be considered, especially in designing gravity dams.

20. During the occurrence of temporary abnormal loads, such as those produced by
earthquake shocks, some increases in stress magnitudes and some encroachments on
usual factors of safety are permissible.
21. Effects of foundation and abutment deformations should be included in the technical
analyses.
22. In monolithic straight gravity dams, some proportions of the loads may be carried by
twist action and beam action at locations along the sloping abutments, as well as by
the more usually considered gravity action.
23. Detrimental effects of twist and beam action in straight gravity dams, such as cracking
caused by the development of tension stresses, may be prevented by suitable
construction procedure.
24. In monolithic curved gravity and arch dams, some proportions of the loads may be
carried by tangential shear and twist effects, as well as by the more usually considered
arch and cantilever actions.
25. The distribution of loads in masonry dams may be determined by bringing the
calculated deflections of the different systems of load transference into agreement at
all conjugate points in the structure.
Uplift
Two factors directly affect the design of a dam, the intensity of hydrostatic pressure at various
points within or under the dam and the area upon which pressure acts.
It is now accepted for design purposes that uplift pressures act on the full area of the section.
The intensity of pressure may be represented by the diagram showing the ideal case of
underflow conditions for an impermeable dam with a straight base on a homogeneous
isotropic foundation of unlimited depth and horizontal extent.

Headwater and tailwater depth are represented by h1 and h2, respectively. The concentric semi-
ellipses represent lines of flow of water passing through the foundation. The hyperbolas,
drawn normal to the lines of flow at all points, represent lines of equal hydrostatic pressure
within the foundation and at the base of the dam. This network of flow lines and pressure
lines is called a flow net. The diagram indicates an almost linear distribution of pressure on
the base, and this is the distribution for which the stability of the dam should be checked if no
drainage is provided. (or all drainage is blocked.)
Drainage is in the form of curtain of cored vertical holes 150 mm or more in diameter at 3-5
m spacing and located 304 m from the upstream face. A gallery runs from one end to the other
of the dam, above the tail water level. Drainage from the holes is led away via open gutters,
with measuring weirs installed to record the flow.
It is now general to adopt a distribution of uplift pressure as above, the value of factor k being
decided having due regard to the porosity of foundation rock and the existence of joints and
cracks therein. It is important to expend effort and money on a drainage system to ensure
satisfactory function over the entire life of the dam.
Variation in contraction joints and uplift.

Stresses in Gravity Dams

Considering vertical cantilever sections of unit width it is a simple matter to compute vertical
stresses on horizontal planes for the cases of reservoir empty and reservoir full. In general,
efforts are made to avoid tensile stresses in the concrete for normal loadings. Compressive
stresses are not usually high in gravity dams.
The usual analysis stresses normal to horizontal planes are assumed to have a linear
trapezoidal distribution. Finite element methods show the stress distribution to be as in the
figure.
It is significant that the maximum stresses do not occur at the downstream toe, and there may
be tension rather than compression at the upstream heel. However, there is similarity between
the two methods. It is important to check the distribution and intensity of stress around
galleries and other openings in the dam and to provide adequate reinforcement to prevent
propagation of cracks from points of high stress concentration.
Contraction Joints
Transverse Joints

It is good practice for normal methods of construction to provide contraction joints in gravity
dams. They are usually spaced about 15m apart, experience having shown that cracks are
likely to develop in monoliths much wider than this. It is however, essential to locate the
joints to best advantage relative to the shape of the abutments.
For example, in figure 1,

the protrusion of a rock
ledge into the monolith
would almost certainly
result in a crack in the
concrete; the second
arrangement would be more
satisfactory. Or the shaded
area should be placed
separately, and cooled or allowed to cool to rock
temperature. The monolith is then started from the
base AB as an old joint. All joints are grouted solid
eventually.
Longitudinal Joints
For large structures the problems of cooling large masses of concrete are enormous. Resulting
in limiting the dimensions of monoliths to 15m squares, keyed on all sides. There is now a
tendency to decrease the number of longitudional joints or even omit them all, since there are
doubts of the final behaviour of dams built in columns.
Galleries
The normal function of a gallery is to provide access for inspection purposes, to monitor the
behaviour of the dam, and to carry out remedial work if required. It must therefore be of
sufficient height to permit easy movement of personnel and minor equipment, commonly
2.13m but varied to suit construction methods. The width is usually 1.5m but should be
related to the function of the gallery. Wide opening induce quite high local stresses with
consequent cracking of the concrete. Spiral staircases can link other galleries, ventilation and
pipes in quite a small shaft.
Circular shafts are the most desirable, with a removable floor covering drainage, but it is
harder and more expensive to form. Rectangular galleries require greater amounts of
reinforcement. Galleries also should be well lit and ventilated.

Appurtenant Structures
(C) Kollgaard & Chadwick, Development of Dam Engineering in the US

Spillways
Go to Spillways Page
Power Station
At many sites a power station is embodied in the structure of the dam.
Prestressed Gravity Dams

Strengths of rocks in foundation and elements within concrete dams are increased by
installation of steel rocks or steel cables which are injected to tensioning. The procedure that
is followed is called prestressing.
The reluctance to use cables has been related to a lack of knowledge of steel cables when
embedded in concrete. It is however generally agreed that steel does not rust when embedded
in high quality concrete or cement grout in which there are no cracks or interconnected voids.
If prestressing is accepted in the design then it is prudent to make provision for retensioning if
required, replacement of bars or cables, or the installation of new cables. Serious corrosion of
cables can be detected by the regular measurement of their electrical resistance.
The actual behaviour of the dam will depend upon the nature of the foundation rock, any
initial stress in the rock and the effect of saturation of the rock mass.
For reasonable stress distribution the depth of the anchorage should be not less than the width
of the base of the dam. The advantages of wires over bars are:
 The allowable working stress in high tensile wires is usually greater than in bars
 Wire cables can be fabricated on site in one length, avoiding the use of couplers that
are necessary with bars and are a source of trouble

 Cables can be accomodated in drilled holes whereas bars with couplers usually require
larger pits
Calculating loads on a prestressed dam

Prestressed Gravity Dams 2
 From point B, the downstream corner of the foundation, draw an arc AC passing
through the anchorage point A.
 The position of point C will in general be outside the upstream foundation corner D at
which the highest tensile stresses tend to exist, but nevertheless the line AC will
correspond approximately to the possible crack location.
 Assuming this line to correspond to an open fissure, i.e. allowing full hydrostatic
pressure to be developed along it, compute the effective uplift forces U2 and U3 acting
along AB and AB respectively (for calculation of the latter a linear decrease of uplift
pressure between A and B can be assumed).
 Computing the remaining forces acting on the dam and the portion of the foundation
BAC, i.e. the external water pressure on the upstream face U1 and the weights of the
dam, W1 and the portion ABC of the foundation W2, the magnitude and position of the
resultant force R acting on the section AB can be determined.
 Clearly if this falls outside the point B reliance must be placed on tensile stresses
acting along AB and stability is therefore endangered.
 The only possibilty of resisting the overturning forces entirely by compressions is if
this reaction R falls within the length AB, even so admitting a certain amount of
cracking along this length if the reaction is close to the point B.
 To ensure a certain factor of safety it is necessary to arrange the anchorage at such a
depth that the reaction R passes well within the section AB.
 If the stresses occurring in the section AB are computed according to some reasonable
assumption, such as linear distribution, and the maximum value of the principal stress
is found to fall within permissible limits for the foundation material, an adequate
factor will be assured.
 In this calculation, no allowance should be placed on tensile stresses and the section
AB should be permitted to crack as far as is required.

Arch Dams - Contents

Introduction to Arch Dams
The ultimate complexity of design and analysis of stresses is attained in arch and dome dams.
These dams are thin, curved structures commonly containing reinforcement, either steel rods
or prestressed steel cables the volume of concrete required is much less than for gravity and
gravity arch dams, but the competency of bedrock in foundations and abutments to sustain or
resist loads must be of a high order.
Arch dams are usually built in narrow, deep gorges in mountainous regions where access and
availability of construction materials pose especially acute problems.
Arch dams are of two kinds.
Constant radius arch dams - commonly have a vertical upstream face with a constant radius
of curvature
Variable radius dams - have upstream and downstream curves (extrados and intrados curves)
of systematically decreasing radii with depth below the crest.
When a dam is also doubly curved, that is, it is curved in both horizontal and vertical planes,
it is sometimes called a dome dam. Some dams are constructed with two or several
contiguous arches or planes and are described as multiple arch or multiple dome dams.
Analysis assumes that two major kinds of deflections or dislocations affect the dam and its
abutments. Pressure of water on the upstream face of the dam and uplift pressures from
seepage beneath the dam tend to rotate the dam about its base by cantilever action. In addition
the pressure of reservoir water tends to flatten the arch and push it downstream.
Photograph (C) Kollgaard & Chadwick, Development of Dam Engineering in the US
Design Concepts and Criteria

An arch dam transfers loads to the abutments and foundations both by cantilever action and
through horizontal arches, and a method of distribution was developed by Stucky in
Switzerland and the USBoR.

The assumptions made are not strictly true so the effect of each must be understood before
accepting the design.
 The concrete in the dam and the rock foundations are homogeneous and isotropic;
 Stresses within the elastic limit for both concrete and the rock formations and that
stress will be proportional to strain;
 That plane sections before bending remain plane after bending;
 That direct stresses vary linearly between the upstream and downstream faces, in both
arch and cantilever elements;
 That the modulus of elasticity of concrete and the modulus of deformation of the
foundation are the same in tension as in compression;
 That temperature stresses and strains are proportional to temperature changes;
 That water load on the reservoir walls does not cause differential movements at the
damsite;
 That foundation deformations are independent of the shape of the foundation;
 That tensions are relieved by cracking so that all loads are carried by compression and
shear in the uncracked portions;
 That the dam acts as a monlith, i.e. that contraction joints or slots have been tightly
grouted and that all shrinkage of the concrete has taken place before this.
The parameters controlling design, other than actual geometry include:
 The loads on the dam; Loading and Factor of Safety

 The degree of fixity to foundation and abutments;
 The properties of the component materials of the dam and the foundations.
Steel reinforcement can reduce the thickness of the dam but at a cost. If reinforcement was not
used then cracking in the faces of an arch dam may result from:
 Excessive tensile stress due to dam geometry;
 Secondary tension resulting from high compressive forces in thin members;
 Secondary tensile stresses at the arch haunches and parallel to the abutments;
 'Hang up' of concrete adjacent to a near vertical abutment;
 Temperature effects - either due to hydration of the cement or climatic conditions.
Definition of different arch dams based on base thickness (h is height of the dam):
Thin arch <0.2h
Medium arch 0.2h - 0.3h
Thick arch >0.3h
Arch-gravity >0.5h

Reinforcement is not generally required in arch-gravity dams or thick arch dams. Its use in
thin arch dams is favoured, however for a 90m high dam the cost of reinforcement will be
many millions of dollars, which could mitigate the adoption of such a dam.
Uplift - is not usually of importance in thin arch dams, but in thick arch dams provision is
made for internal drainage, as for gravity dams. If the design assumes that the concrete will
crack if tensions exceed say 0.4MPa, then it is consistent to assume that full hydrostatic
pressure can act in such cracks.
Tensile stresses - the aim of the designer is to eliminate tensile stresses, although this is not
always possible since an irregular cross-section can generate local stress concentrations, and
necessary excavation of abutments beyond the design limits will alter the geometry of the
dam, and possibly affect the degree of fixity.
Abutment Stability
In the rock body the following are involved:
 The weight of the rock;
 Static tectonic and dynamic seismic stresses;
 Hydrostatic thrusts and buoyancy after filling of the reservoir;
 Forces transmitted from the dam.
Minimum safety is usually found in the upper part of the double curvature dams because:
 The upper zones of the valley are less tight and earthquake forces here cause stronger
reactions;
 The rock overburden is less - providing less normal loading on possible sliding planes;
 The direction of the resultant forces from the dam often meet the abutments at less
favourable angles.
Percolation of water under pressure may affect the strength of a rock abutment:
 Saturation frequently decreases the strength of rocks, probably due to infiltration of
microcracks;
 Natural rock stresses will be modified by the water pressure, and
 Shearing resistance may be decreased.
Photograph (C) Kollgaard & Chadwick, Development of Dam Engineering in the US
Shell Geometry
Constant-Radius Arch Dam

The simplest form of arch dam with a vertical cylindrical upstream face and a uniformly
inclined downstream face. Used in wide valleys with the possibility of slip forming
construction methods.
Constant-Angle Arch Dam
Variable-Radius Arch Dam

Double curvature - Cupola Dam

Vertical curvature introduced so that the weight of the dam will offset vertical tensions due to
water load. Cupola dams are ideal for narrow valleys and are similar to the thin arch dams in
regard to foundation requirements.
Cross Sections of typical arch dams
Contraction Joints
It has been normal practice to provide radial contraction joints in arch dams at approximately
15 meter spacing. This dimension has evolved from experience since cracks often appeared in
monoliths of 20 meter or more in
length, where full control of concrete
temperature was either impractical or
uneconomical; cracking occurred
particularly at sides subject to sudden
and large falls in ambient temperature.
For constant radius arch dams the
joints are radial and plane, whereas for
double curvature dams they are
frequently warped; in some cases
they are formed to leave the rock
almost normal to the contact surface.

Since monolithic action is required in the arch, provision is made for the injection of cement
grout into the joints after the concrete has cooled to mean temperature, or has been artificially
cooled to a little below mean temperature in order to introduce some compression into the
arches.
Each joint is usually divided by horizontal grout stops so that zones from ten to fifteen meters
high may be grouted progressively to ensure stability of the completed sections against
inadvertent overtopping by floods.
Arch dams are usually sufficiently flexible to defect measurably under the forces exerted by
joint grouting; the effectiveness of the grouting can therefore be assessed by comparing
measured with calculated deformations. To prevent harmful overstress regular observations
should be made during grouting on joint meters embedded in the concrete across the joints, on
dial gauges fixed to be upstream and downstream faces of the joint, on clinometers on faces of
the dam and galleries and on plumbobs and survey targets as convenient.
Prestressing
In seeking further economies in the construction of arch dams it appears to be necessary to
consider means of applying external loads to the dam to counteract undesirable tensile stresses
that would otherwise develop. Many dams have now been built with compressive stresses up
to 8.5 MPa but to increase these stresses would most likely not be possible without
prestressing to counteract the higher tensions.
Potential application of prestressing to arch dams

Prestressing induces vertical compressive stresses upstream at the heel of the dam and
downstream near the crest. This can be achieved by two processes, firstly by the information
of flat jacks to force open the end joints of the shell which would defect the dam upstream,
secondly by applying a radial load at the crest by means of a horizontal cable to defect the
upper part of the dam downstream.

EMBANKMENT DAM
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
2. TERMINOLOGY
3. EMBANKMENT DAMS
4. EARTHFILL DAMS
5. ROCKFILL DAMS
Introduction to Embankment Dams
ICOLD defined an embankment dam as, "any dam constructed of excavated materials placed
without addition of binding materials other than those inherent in the natural material. The
materials are usually obtained at or near the damsite"

The materials available locally control the size and configuration of the dam. Many small
embankment dams are built entirely of a single type of material such as stream alluvium,
weathered bedrock, or glacial till. These are homogeneous dams, constructed more or less of
uniform natural material.
Larger embankment dams are zoned and constructed of a variety of materials, either extracted
from different local sources or prepared by mechanical or hydraulic separation of source
material into fractions with different properties.
An important element in a zoned dam is an impermeable blanket or core which usually

consists of clayey materials obtained locally. In locations where naturally impermeable
materials are unavailable the dams are built of rock or earth-rock aggregates, and the
impermeable layers of reinforced concrete, asphaltic concrete, or riveted sheet steel are placed
on the upstream face of the dam.
Embankment dams have been built on a variety of foundations, ranging from weak glacial
deposits to strong rock. An advantage compared with concrete dams is that the bearing
strength requirements of the foundation are much less. Minor settlement during and after
construction is generally not serious because of the adjustability of the material.
Terminology
Parts of an Earth Dam
(C) Sowers, George Earth and Rockfill Dam Engineering

Note : Not all of the above ordinarily would be incorporated in any one dam

Embankment Dams
Layout of Earthfill Dam Projects
Earthfill dams require ancillary structures for diversion, such as low-level outlets and
spillways, whereas such features can be embodied into concrete dams. Power waterways are
much longer, requiring surge tanks. The layout must be given due consideration to the scheme
of diversion and location of ancillary features.
Earthfill Design
An earth dam is basically a trapezoidal embankment built in a valley to form a water
reservoir. The design has to ensure:
1. It is impermeable enough to prevent excessive loss of water from the reservoir.
2. The design must ensure stable slopes.
3. Settlement of the dam must not be excessive so as to reduce the freeboard of the dam.
4. The upstream slope of the dam must be protected from the destructive action of waves,
and the downstream slope must withstand rainfall erosion.
5. A sufficient bond between the embankment and its foundation must exist to prevent
the development of seepage paths; excessive hydrostatic uplift must be controlled by
proper drainage.
Impermeable Zone Location

The location of the impermeable zone in a rockfill dam involves the same factors as it does in
the case of an earth dam.
The upstream deck has a number of advantages:
1. It is more stable under the water load, because the downward force of the water
produces frictional resistance to sliding
2. The permeable rock embankment develops no uplift, since the embankment permits
no movement of water upward from the foundation.
3. The impermeable deck can easily be inspected and repaired if necessary.
4. During construction the height of the dam can be increased by dumping only on the
downstream side and extending the membrane upward on the sloping surface.
The disadvantages of an upstream deck are:
1. The deck is vulnerable to weather and wave attack.

2. If constructed of earth, sudden drawdown greatly reduces its stability and may cause it
to slide.
3. Settlement of the rock embankment tends to produce tensile cracks in the membrane.
The central core location has a number of advantages:

1. The core is equally supported and is more stable during a sudden drawdown (if
constructed from earth).
2. Settlement of the rockfill induces compressive stresses in the core, tending to make it
more compact.
3. There is less core volume and less cross sectional area for leakage for a given height
of dam and thickness of core.
The choice for dams with impermeable zones depends largely on the stability of the core
material. If it is strong, a near upstream location is often the most economical. However, if the
core material is weak a central location is better.

Slope Stability
Also see Slope Stability pages by H.Connolly.
Introduction
Failure of an embankment dam can result from instability of either the upstream or
downstream slopes. The failure surface may lie within the embankment or may pass through
the embankment and the foundation soil. The critical stages in an upstream slope are at the
end of construction and during rapid drawdown. The critical stages for the downstream slope
are at the end of construction and during steady seepage when the reservoir is full.
It is common to install piezometers to measure pore water pressures and compare data with
the predicted values used in design. Since pore water pressures are a dominant influence on
the factor of safety of slopes, remedial action should be taken if the factor of safety, based on
the measured values, is considered to be too low.
To ensure stability a number of conditions must be investigated:
1. The slopes must be safe against surface slipping. To ensure this the slopes must be no
steeper than the angle of repose
2. The dam must be safe against sliding on the foundation
3. The mass of the embankment must be safe against a circular arc failure or composite
linear failure. This is likely to occur within an earth core or weak foundation
The safety against failure can be increased by reducing the gradient of the slopes.
Homogeneous Embankment
1. Slip within embankment

2. Slip circle through foundation
Zoned Embankment
1. Within rockfill
2. Through rockfill and foundation
3. Through core and foundation

End of construction
Most slope failures occur either during, or at the end of construction. Pore water pressures
depend on the placement water content of the fill and on the rate of construction. A
commitment to achieve rapid completion will result in high pore water pressures at the end of
construction. However, the construction period of an embankment dam is likely to be long
enough to allow partial dissipation of excess pore water pressure, especially for a dam with
internal drainage. Dissipation of excess pore water pressures can be accelerated by installing
horizontal drainage layers within the dam. However, a total stress analysis would result in an
over conservative design. An effective stress analysis is therefore preferred. A factor of safety
as low as 1.3 may be acceptable at the end of construction provided there is reasonable
confidence in the design data.
Steady seepage
When the reservoir has been full for some time, conditions of steady seepage become
established through the dam with the soil below the top flow line in the fully saturated state.
This condition must be analysed in terms of effective stress with values of pore pressure being
determined from the flow net. The factor of safety for this condition should be at least 1.5.
Internal erosion is a particular danger when the reservoir is full because it can arise and
develop within a relatively short time, seriously impairing the safety of the dam.
Rapid drawdown in low permeability soils
Rapid drawdown of the reservoir after a condition of steady seepage will result in a change in
the pore water pressure distribution. If the permeability of the soil is low, a drawdown period
measured in weeks may be 'rapid' in relation to the dissipation time and the change in pore
water pressure.
Rapid Drawdown in high permeability soils
The pore water pressure distribution after drawdown in soils of high permeability decreases as
pore water drains out of the soil above the drawdown level. The saturation line moves
downwards at a rate dependant upon the permeability of the soil. A series of flow nets can be
drawn for different positions of the saturation line and values of pore water pressure obtained.
The factor of safety can then be determined, using an effective stress analysis, for any position
of the saturation line.

Settlement
Settlement is a problem for embankment dams. It begins during construction and continues
for many years after the dam is complete. The two main causes are:
1. The migration or working of fines from between the points of contact between the
larger rock allows the particles to re-orient themselves into a more dense structure
2. The crushing of the contact points between the larger rocks under the extreme stress
developed by the embankment weight causes the rocks to develop new points of
contact which in turn crush again.
The problem can be avoided by proper compaction during construction. In earthfill dams it
may be possible to overbuild the dam, to make a, say 50% higher dam which will settle to the
correct height. Multi-stage construction also helps.
a. Settlement in section
b. Settlement - elevation
c. Irregular abutment
d. Overhanging abutment
Slope Protection
Both faces of an embankment dam must be protected against structural damage. In normal
circumstances the downstream will only be subject to the forces of nature. The upstream face
must be protected against erosion or disturbance by wave action, ice or by impact of floating
debris. Various methods of protection include large rocks (rip-rap), precast concrete forms,
soil cement or the waterproofing membrane of the dam. Protection must be well above and
below the operating range of the reservoir.

Soil Cement Slope Protection
Rip-rap size : Mass of individual rock = 1000 x (Wave Height Hs)3 (kg)
The rip-rap must be durable, weatherproof and of good quality sound rock to enable it to
withstand the changing harsh conditions.
Seepage Paths
Piping
Internal erosion of the foundation or embankment caused by seepage is known as piping.

Generally, erosion starts at the downstream toe and works back toward the reservoir, forming
channels or pipes under the dam. The channels or pipes follow paths of maximum
permeability and may not develop until many years after construction.
Resistance of the embankment or foundation to piping depends on:
1. plasticity of the soil

2. the gradation
3. the degree of compactness
Plastic clays with a plasticity index >15, for both well and poorly compacted are the materials
which are most resistant to piping. Minimum piping resistance is found in poorly compacted,
through to well-graded cohesionless soils with practically no binder. It is also found in
uniform, fine, cohesionless sand, even when well compacted. Settlement cracks in resistant
materials may also produce piping.
Piping can be avoided by lengthening the flowpaths of water within the dam and its
foundations. This decreases the hydraulic gradient of the water flow and hence its velocity.
The flowpaths can be increased by:
 Cutoff walls

 Impermeable cores
 Impermeable blankets extending upstream from the upstream face
Seepage control
Seepage is the continuous movement of water from the upstream face of the dam toward its
downstream face. The upper surface of this stream of percolating water is known as the
phreatic surface. The phreatic surface should be kept at or below the downstream toe.
The phreatic surface within a dam can be controlled by properly designed cores or walls.

Internal drain systems
Purpose
A homogeneous dam with a height of more than about 6 m to 8 m should have some type of
downstream drain. The purpose of a drain is:
1. to reduce the pore water pressures in the downstream portion of the dam therefore
increasing the stability of the downstream slope against sliding.
2. to control any seepage that exits the downstream portion of the dam and prevent
erosion of the downstream slope: i.e. to prevent 'piping'.
The effectiveness of the drain in reducing pore pressures depends on its location and extent.
However, piping is controlled by ensuring that the grading of the pervious material from
which the drain is constructed meets the filter requirements for the embankment material.
Toe drains
The design of a downstream drainage system is controlled by the height of the dam, the cost
and availability of permeable material, and the permeability of the foundation.
For low dams, a simple toe drain can be used successfully. Toe drains have been installed in
some of the oldest homogeneous dams in an effort to prevent softening and erosion of the
downstream toe.
For reservoir depths greater than 15 m, most engineers would place a drainage system further
inside the embankment where it will be more effective in reducing pore pressures and
controlling seepage.
Horizontal drainage blanket
Horizontal drainage blankets are often used for dams of moderate height.
Drainage blankets are frequently used over the downstream one-half or one-third of the
foundation area. The Bureau of Reclamation's 45 m Vega Dam is a homogeneous dam which

has been constructed with a horizontal downstream drain. Where pervious material is scarce,
the internal strip drains can be placed instead since these give the same general effect.
Disadvantages of horizontal drainage blankets
An earth dam embankment tends to be more pervious in the horizontal direction than in the
vertical. Occasionally, horizontal layers tend to be much more impervious than the average
material constructed into the embankment, so the water will flow horizontally on a relatively
impervious layer and discharge on the downstream face despite the horizontal drain.,p>
Where this has occurred the downstream slope is prone to slipping and piping. Repairs can be
made by installing pervious blankets on the downstream slopes or constructing vertical drains
to connect with the horizontal blanket. Such vertical drains are normally composed of sand
and gravel.
Chimney drains
Chimney drains are an attempt to prevent horizontal flow along relatively impervious
stratified layers, and to intercept seepage water before it reaches the downstream slope.
Chimney drains are often incorporated in high homogeneous dams which have been
constructed with inclined or vertical chimney drains.
In some major dam projects, chimney drains have been inclined at a considerable slope, both
upstream and sometimes downstream. An upstream inclined drain can act as a relatively thin
core. In addition to controlling seepage through the dam and increasing the stability of the
downstream slope, the chimney drain is also useful in reducing pore water pressures both
during construction and following rapid reservoir drawdown.
Dimensions and permeability of drains
The dimensions and permeability of permeable drains must be adequate to carry away the
anticipated flow with an ample margin of safety for unexpected leaks. If the dam and the
foundations are relatively impermeable, then the expected leakage would be low. A drain
should be constructed of material with a coefficient of permeability of at least 10 to 100 times
greater than the average embankment material.
Thin upstream sloping core
In an earth dam with an upstream sloping core of low permeability, the foundation is assumed
to be impermeable and in a steady state. Under steady state conditions the small amount of
water that seeps through the core flows vertically downward in a partially saturated zone and
then more or less horizontally in a thin saturated layer along the impermeable foundation. For
this type of dam the downstream shell must be several hundred times more permeable than the
core.

Partial cutoffs
An earth dam constructed without a cutoff on permeable or semi-permeable foundations of

earth or rock may lead to seepage beneath the dam creating unacceptable uplift pressures and
causing instability. If an impermeable cutoff is installed to 60 % of the depth of the permeable
foundation, the flow net and downstream slope gradient is only slightly modified to a lower
level. A theoretical line of seepage for several depths is given here.
For an effective cutoff the positioning and depth of cutoff must be essentially 'perfect'. Since
this is impossible to achieve, other methods of seepage control should be used in conjunction
with cutoffs.
Filter and Transition Zones

Since the core is stabilised with rock or gravel zones, it is necessary to prevent the fine core
material being sucked into the upstream shell material during rapid drawdown of the
reservoir, or forced into the downstream shell by seepage water under reservoir head.
Transition or filter zones must therefore be provided on each side of the core.
The upstream filter, if non-cohesive and of proper grading, can serve a valuable service by
providing material for induced self-healing should a transverse crack appear in the core.
Selection of the best material for this purpose is well justified. Although its prime function is
to retain the core material against movement into the rockfill, the downstream transition
material should be selected and placed so as to inhibit the propagation of a core crack into the
compacted rockfill. It is good practice to widen the transition zones towards each abutment,
i.e. where tension and oblique cracking may occur.
To prevent migration of fines from the core:

D15/D85 < 4-5
D50/D50 < 25
For sufficient permeability:

D15/D15 > 4-5
To prevent segregation of the filter:
D60/D10 < 20
(filter)/(filter)
Single filter between core and rockfill
Double filter to core

Cores
The core may be defined as a membrane built within an embankment dam to form the
impermeable barrier, the balance of the dam being provided to ensure stability. It may be of
natural materials, clay, gravels etc. or prepared materials such as cement or asphaltic concrete,
or of metal, plastic, rubber, etc.

The thickness of the core will depend primarily on the material available, i.e. if a good clay is
available at low cost one would tend to be liberal with the core. The core width will often be
related to the type of foundation, the permissible hydraulic gradient along the contact zone.
A core of natural materials may be central, inclined and close under the upstream face or in
some intermediate position. A general core thickness is one half of the height of the dam,
depending on materials available. Permeability of the compacted core should not exceed 10-5
cm/s.
The hydraulic gradient relative to the core is the ratio of maximum head of water to the
thickness of the core. Thin cores may be adequate for impermeability but it is essential to
provide well designed filters on either side. The greatest danger with thin filters is the
possibility that a 'blow through' may occur in a segregated zone.
The principal factors considered in determining core dimensions and embankment zoning are:
 The type and volume of core materials available;

 The relative economics of earthfill and rockfill;
 The plasticity of the available core material and its effect on the risk of core cracking;
 The extent and rate of reservoir draw-down;
 The nature of the foundation rock under the core.
Cracking of Core - cracks frequently occur in earthfill dams and in cores of rockfill dams.
Care must be taken to prevent such cracking and the Engineer must decide whether the cracks
are likely to extend and become serious or whether they are stable and can be backfilled.
Influence of Post Construction Settlement at Crest on Cracking

Crest Settlement
Kind of cracking
(mm)
Less than 50 No cracking of dams
Equal or greater
Transverse cracking of dams compacted dry may appear
than 50
Greater than 100 Reinforced concrete facing without perimetral joint may crack
Equal or greater
Longitudinal cracking between core and shell may appear
than 130
Greater than 160 Longitudinal cracking of core compacted dry may appear
Greater than 180 Hydraulic fracturing may appear
Equal or greater Transverse cracking of core compacted wet may appear. Longitudinal
than 220 cracking between core compacted wet and shell may appear.
Equal or greater
Asphaltic concrete facing may crack (self healed for settlement of 350mm)
than 350
Longintudinal cracking of core compacted wet may appear. Reinforced
Greater than 400
concrete facing with perimetral joint will crack
Greater than 1000 No uncracked dam in those studied
Greater than 1200 All dams exhibit transverse cracking
Equal or greater
Serious cracking of asphaltic concrete facing
than 1400
Equal or greater Cracking needing substitution of reinforced concrete facing

tahn 3800
Freeboard
A homogeneous embankment dam should never be overtopped and for preference no
permanent embankment dam should be overtopped. However, provision for freeboard can be
expensive because it requires enlargement of the dam section and hence much more materials.
It may be convenient to pave the crest and downstream face. The level of the crest is then
determined to allow for only spray to pass over, or for the peak flood discharge to pass over or
even more frequent overtopping. However this is only used for dams under 30m high.
An alternative method of reducing the quantity of fill is to provide a wave wall along the crest
of the embankment. See figure.
Crest Width
This is often governed by construction procedure and the access required either during
construction or as a permanent feature. The Japanese Code 1957 specifies crest width (W) in
terms of the height of the dam, as
W=3.6H1/3-3(m)
which would give crest widths as in the table.
Height of dam (m) Crest Width

30 8
50 10
70 11

100 13
200 18
Culverts under Embankments

At some locations it is necessary to construct a large culvert under the dam, although this
should be avoided where possible.
The conventional culvert is one of reinforced concrete designed to withstand both the internal
water pressure and external embankment loading. It is important that leakage does not occur
within the core area or upstream from it, or anywhere within an homogeneous bank. To
prevent this cut-off collars usually encircle the pipe, their location and dimensions being
governed by the head from the reservoir.
Earthfill Dam Contents

Earthfill Dam Introduction
An earthfill dam is an embankment dam, constructed primarily of compacted earth, either
homogeneous or zoned, and containing more than 50% of earth.
A rockfill dam where all the voids have been filled by finer materials by hydraulic sluicing is
usually regarded as an earthfill dam.

Types of Earthfill Dam
1. Homogenous
2. Central
Impervious Core
3. Sloping
Impervious Core
4. Hydraulic Dams
Slopes of 1 in 1.33 are

suitable for concrete
faced rockfill dams, but
for effective placing and
stability of an asphaltic
concrete facing, the
upstream slope must be
about 1 in 1.7. It is
significant that men can
walk on this slope
without ropes, but on a
slope of 1 in 1.33 safety
ropes are essential. An
asphaltic concrete (C) Thomas, Henry H. The Engineering of Large Dams
allows for more

movement due to
settlement that for a
rigid concrete deck.
Homogeneous Earthfill Dams
Such embankments are made of a single type of material or material from the same source.
This may be small particles placed by hydraulic means, or compacted earth or gravels that are
handled and compacted mechanically.
Basic properties required in the material for an homogeneous embankment or for the core of a
rockfill dam are:
 It must be sufficiently impervious to prevent excessive loss of water through the dam,
the acceptable loss being determined by the safety of the structure and the value of the
lost water;
 It must be capable of being placed and consolidated to give a practically homogeneous
mass, free from potential paths of percolation, either through the fill or along its
contact with the foundation;
 The soil should develop a maximum practical shear strength under compaction and
maintain most of it after the filling of the reservoir;
 It must not consolidate, soften or liquify upon saturation.
The stability of an embankment dam is enhanced if the downstream portion can be maintained
free from seepage. Internal drains are therefore put within the dam. See figure, leaving the
'dry' compacted fill as support. The section A-A represents the filter, drainage, filter divisions.

The location and inclination will depend on the materials used. It has been suggested that
maximum stability would result from locating it nearer the upstream face with the angle ø less
than a right angle.
Central Impervious Core Earthfill Dams
Where there is only limited supply of soil for the impervious core but plenty of pervious
material for the embankment, the designer has no option but to decide on a thin core dam.
However, where there are plentiful supplies of pervious and impervious material, a thin core
dam may be more economically or easily constructed for a number of reasons:
1. The unit cost of placing impervious materials may be more than the unit cost of
placing pervious materials.
2. The amount of embankment volume can be reduced in a thin core dam more
effectively than in any other type of dam.
3. The construction time available and the weather conditions may not allow the use of
an impervious core of large thickness.

The minimum thickness of core is dependent on a number of factors:
1. tolerable seepage loss;
2. minimum width which will allow proper construction;
3. the type of material chosen for the core and shoulders of the dam;
4. design of proposed filter layers;
5. past experience on similar projects.
Core Stability - The core material usually has less shear strength than the rest of the
embankment, therefore from a stability standpoint, a thinner core is better. However, a thicker
core has increased resistance to differential cracking; which may lead to piping. Therefore,
piping resistance is dependent upon the soil properties such as plasticity and gradation of the
core material.
Advantages of vertical cores:
1. One advantage of the vertical core is that higher pressures will exist on the contact
between the core and the foundation, and will provide more protection against the
possibility of leakage along the contact.

2. The vertical core tends to be slightly thicker for a given quantity of impervious soil
than the thickness of a sloping core.
The following criteria represent a rough cross-section of opinion among experienced earth
dam engineers:
 Cores with a width 30% to 50% of the head of water have proved satisfactory on many
dams under diverse conditions. Cores of this width are adequate for any soil type and
dam height.
 Cores with a width of 15% to 20% of the head of water are considered thin. However,
when adequately designed and constructed filter layers are used, then the core is
satisfactory under most circumstances.
 Core widths of less than 10% of the head of water are not used widely and should only
be used when a large leak through the core would not lead to failure of the dam.
Sloping Impervious Core Earthfill Dams

Advantages of sloping cores:
1. The principal advantage of the upstream sloping core is that the downstream portion of
the embankment can be constructed first and the core placed later. This a distinct
advantage when there is only a short season of dry weather suitable to allow
construction of a core from fine-grained soils.
2. Another advantage is that the foundation grouting can take place whilst the
embankment is being placed.
3. Filter zones between the upstream and downstream pervious zones can be constructed
more thinly and are easier to install than in vertical core dams.
4. The sloping core dam is advantageous with the speed and economy of foundation
grouting which can be achieved. The advantage comes from the fact that grouting can
be performed while the main downstream pervious embankment is being constructed.
Disadvantages of sloping cores:

1. At some sites the area of contact between the core and the foundation depends on the
depth of the foundation excavation: i.e. when the excavation is carried deeper, the
contact area moves upstream. However, in some cases the depth of excavation
required to provide a suitable contact between the earth core and foundation cannot be
determined reliably in advance of construction.
2. Due to the reason above it may be difficult to locate the grout curtain in the desired
position relative to the core contact area.
3. If it is anticipated that additional grouting is required through the embankment after
the dam is completed then a central core design is preferred, because the work can be
done from the crest of the dam without lowering the reservoir.
Hydraulic Fill Earthfill Dams

A hydraulic fill dam is one in which the material is transported in suspension in water to the
embankment where it gets placed by sedimentation. The sorting effect of flowing water is
utilised in creating a fine-grained core at the centre of the embankment with coarse shells on
the sides. In a semi-hydraulic fill dam the material is transported by hauling units and dumped
at the edge of the embankment. It is then washed to its final position by water jets. The use of
this type of dam is rare, because;
 The cost of rolled earth has droped rapidly with the development of larger more
economical earth moving equipment.
 It is difficult to control the quality which makes them less dependable than other types
of dam.

Drainage of the core takes place in two ways, some of the water percolates horizontally into
the more pervious shell. The remainder moves upward to the surface, allowing the centre of
the dam to subside. The downward movement eventually develops arching in the core and
prevents its full consolidation.
Materials
The thouroughness with which borrow areas are investigated can have a major effect on the
cost of the dam. The best information is derived from trenches cut by bulldozer. Two
questions must be asked;
1. Is the material acceptable?
2. How will it be excavated?
The materials must be tested in the laboratory and must be representative of what would be
used in the final dam.
When selecting earth for a core or for a homogeneous dam, one must consider its
permeability, resistance to piping, shear strength, flexibility and resistance to cracking. The
water content will effect each of these differently; testing and judgement are required to
determine the optimum mositure content for the particular soil in the particular part of the
dam.
Rockfill Dam Contents

1. Introduction
2. Types of Rockfill Dam
3. Advantages of Rockfill Construction
4. Materials
5. Earth Core Rockfill Dams
6. Decked Rockfill Dams
Introduction to Rockfill Dams

ICOLD defined a rockfill dam as, "an embankment type of dam, dependent for its stability
primarily on rock. As rockfill dams must contain an impervious zone - now usually selected
earth with filter zones, comprising a substantial volume of the dam - the term Rockfill dam
usually represents a dam that contains more than 50% of compacted or dumped pervious fill.
The dam is dependent for watertightness on an impervious upstream blanket or an impervious
core."
Like an earth dam it is composed of fragmental materials, with each particle independent of
the others. The mass stability is developed by the friction and inter-reaction of one particle on
another rather than by any cementing agent that binds the particles together.
Types of Rockfill Dam

Composite Earth and
Rockfill
Central earth core
Sloping earth core
Upstream core
Rock with a thin

membrane or
diaphragm to hold
water

Central thin membrane
Upstream thin
membrane or deck
Unbonded or dry
masonry
Dam with rubble

retaining zone
Advantages of Rockfill Construction

 Economical - due to the use of cheap local materials.
 Suitable where the foundation conditions are not good, especially where high
hydrostatic uplift is likely to be a factor in design.
Rockfill is particularly suitable when there is no satisfactory earth available and when a
plentiful supply of sound rock is at hand. The rockfilling is especially adapted to construction
during wet and cold weather and permits continuous work under weather conditions that
would not permit earth or concrete construction.
Very rapid constructions are possible with rockfill because of its adaptability to bad weather
and because the process of filling does not have to be interrupted for rolling or other separate
compaction operations.
The rockfill dam with an upstream diaphragm is very well adapted to stage construction. The
dam height can be increased merely by dumping more rock behind the impervious diaphragm
without interfering with or encroaching on the reservoir. The dam is then made water-tight by
continuing the impervious face upward. The stage construction concept is also suitable for
cofferdamming, as the first part of the dam serves as a cofferdam which protects the
remainder of the foundation for further construction.
Rockfill Materials
The quality of the rock is a major factor in the choice of a rockfill dam and in the design of
the structure. Extensive testing is necessary to judge whether the rock is suitable for
construction.
Quarrying - The cost of drilling and blasting constitutes a large part of the unit price of
rockfill. Quartzite for example has excellent qualities for rockfill but is extremely expensive
to drill. The way the rock breaks up is also important, sandstone produces a lot of fines, others
produce flat slate pieces which do not lend themselves to dumped rockfilling.
Rock Durability - There is no entirely satisfactory test to determine durability of rock over
centuries, and hence good judgement has to be used. Examining old structures such as walls
and bridge piers built of the same material is helpful. Accelerated durability tests do exist,

where the samples are subjected to alternate cycles of wetting and drying or freezing and
thawing. Compressive strength tests can be made after each series of wet-dry and freeze-thaw
testing if there are sufficient samples.
Strength - In high dams where crushing of the corners of the rock pieces will result in
settlement, the strength is important. In general strengths of over 35MPa or more are desirable
for dams over 40m, while strengths as low as 14MPa are more suitable for dams less than
15m in height. Friability, the tendency to become a powder during crushing is important
because too many fines can seriously interfere with construction.
Petrography - The study of the rock under chemical reaction and under a microscope to
establish rock breakage.
Likely to be satisfactory Likely to be unsatisfactory

Granite, diorite Shale
Gneiss Slate
Basalt Schist
Sandstone Siltstone
Dense limestone Porous limestone
Dolomite Chalky limestone
Quartzite
Massive Schist
Shear Strength - Large size triaxial or direct shear tests are the best method for determining
strength.
Earth Core Rockfill Dams

The rockfill dam consists of a number of components:
1. The main rockfill
2. The impervious zone
3. Auxiliary supporting members
The main rockfill provides the structural support for the dam by its weight and internal
stability. The impervious zone holds back the water. It is made up of the membrane which
holds the water and transition zone which transfers the water load to the rockfill. The
membrane may be a thick blanket or core of earth or a thin diaphragm or deck of wood,
concrete, steel, asphalt, dry rubble masonry or stone masonry. The auxiliary support members
help to sustain the membrane or parts of the main rockfill. These components are similar to
the shell, core, and appurtenances of the earth-fill dam and are analysed in a similar way.

Decked Rockfill Dams
Timber Face - used mostly for mining purposes, relying upon dumped rock for stability with
a facing of timber for watertightness. Leakage under and around the dam could not be
prevented, but usually did no harm to a free-draining rockfill. Although not used in present
day construction, the value of timber should not be overlooked.
Steel Face - consists of large welded panels, connected by flexible joints to allow for
expansion and contraction and any displacement of the plates relative to the face of the
rockfill. To help reduce corrosion, coats of coal-tar epoxy resin preparation and
supplementary cathodic protection are provided below water level, giving about a 50 year life.
Cement Concrete Face - since cement has a very long life, it is an obvious watertight
membrane on rockfill dams. Details of typical facing are shown in the figure.
The facing can be tied to the dam in two ways, either poured directly onto the rubble
transition zone. A mortar bed is initially placed which penetrates into the rubble a few
centimeters. This is immediately covered with the concrete to form a monolithic mass which
extends into the rubble and is thus bonded to the dam.
Or, ribs are placed in the bottom of the slab by forcing grooves in the facing. The ribbed
support, however, is unnecessary if the bonding with the backing is effective.
Two types of facing have been used.
One is a thin monolithic slab of concrete with no joints. It is sufficiently flexible to conform
to movements in the backing without failure and the tensile forces are distributed by the
reinforcements so that numerous small cracks develop rather than any major failures.
The second type, used in most concrete faced dams, has a facing which consists of monolithic
slabs, 10 to 30 sqm each. The concrete thickness is largely a matter if experience. Only
nominal reinforcement is required, about 0.5% concrete area in each direction. Water
tightness is ensured by copper water stops.
Asphaltic Concrete Face - two types of asphaltic facings have been used, a laminated facing
consisting of:
Collected by: r. yusuf DAM ENGINEERING 100
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1. Rubble concrete masonry transition
2. 10cm thick porous concrete
3. 15cm bituminous concrete, placed in two layers and rolled
4. Reinforced concrete protective and insulating layer 12cm thick.
The outer layer of concrete only serves to protect the bituminous side from sunshine and
physical damage. It is sprayed with water during very hot weather to keep the bituminous
concrete from sagging in plastic flow. The second form employs an asphaltic concrete paving
similar to that used in highways. It is placed in layers and rolled as for paving. The advantage
of a purely asphaltic paving is that it tends to adjust itself to movement by plastic flow. As
with other thin facings, a transition zone is required to equalise settlement movements and to
provide uniform support.
Rubble Retaining Zone - used in the upstream face to permit a

slope that is steeper than the angle of repose of the rockfill.
This makes it possible to reduce the volume of rockfill, but at
the expense of construction of the retaining zone. There are two
types for this zone, a wedge of compacted rockfill, where the
steeper slope is merely the angle of repose of dense rather than
loose rock. Slope angles of 45 degrees can be obtained this
way.
The second form is an unbonded rubble masonry retaining

wall. It is essentially a retaining wall, and should be designed
as such. The typical width of the base of the supporting zone is
0.25 the height of the dam.
SPILLWAY CONTENTS

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1. INTRODUCTION
2. THE HANDLING OF FLOOD
WATERS
3. UNCONTROLLED
SPILLWAYS
4. GATED SPILLWAYS
5. SPILLWAY CHUTES
6. ENERGY DISSIPATION
7. 3D FE SIMULATION
IMAGES
Spillways - Introduction
The provision of adequate spillway facilities can pose more problems than the design of the
dam. Complete protection against the greatest flood that might occur would in almost all
circumstances be unjustifiable. The existing or possible future habitation in the valley below
the dam must influence decisions to be made regarding the spillway. Four standards for dam
design have been suggested;
 Freeboard and still capacity sufficiently to ensure that the dam will not be overtopped
by floods up to probable maximum categories;
 Such that the dam can be overtopped without failing, and in so far as practicable,
without suffering serious damage;
 Such as to ensure that breaching of the structure would occur at a relatively gradual
rate; and
 The height of the dam and storage are small enough that no serious hazard exists
downstream in the event of breaching.
Spillways - Handling of Flood Waters

Retention in Storage - In rare cases it is economically possible to store the entire volume of
the design flood within the reservoir without overtopping the dam. The occurence of a
subsequent storm shortly after the first must also be considered. In some cases an auxillary
spillway or fuse plug spillway may be built in for emergencies.
Auxiliary Spillway to another valley. At certain

locations it is possible to build one or more
spillway outlets on the rim of the storage basin
and to divert flood waters into adjacent valleys.
Impact on the total environment must be
considered before floods can be by-passed in this
manner. Generally the main valley will have
carried floods of maybe half the design flood and
it is simple to assess the damage likely to be done
by larger floods. The owner of the dam will be
responsible for damage resulting from diversion
of a major flood into a valley not normally subject
to large floods.
Fuse-Plug Spillways are structures built instead of an auxiliary spillway. They may be simple
earth banks, flash boards, or other devices designed to fail when overtopped. Such plugs
should only be used when the sudden release of water is both safe and not over-destructive to
the environment. For preference fuse plugs should be so constructed as to make their

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intensional destruction. This is much more positive than endeavouring to design a structure to
fail at a predetermined overload.
Spillway Location Options - The sites indicated by

the red areas are the most favourable locations for
spillway positioning. The order of preference for
rapid concrete construction is indicated by the
numbering.
Passage over or through the dam - Many dams are

designed for the safe passage of controlled and
uncontrolled flood waters over the crest. Radial or
sector gates are also used in large diversion weirs,
however spilling over the crest is the cheaper
method.
Bottom spillway
Advantage - provision can usually be made for its use
for the passage of floods during construction.
Disadvantage - once built its capacity is finite wheras
the forecasting is indefinite.
- a single outlet can be blocked by flood debris
Siphon Spillway
Disadvantage - construction is expensive
- sudden appearance of flood water
downstream
- large flood debris can block outlet
Gates or no gates - many Engineers are not inclined to place full reliance on effective
operation of gates at the time of a major flood. The provision of gated spillways is usually
economic, whatever height of dam the cost remains roughly the same and is only dependent
on the magnitude of the flood provision. The possibility of maloperation can not be
overlooked and their accessibility is important. If proper gate operation can not be guaranteed

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then the effect of flood water passing over the top of gates must be investigated. Hydraulic
gates are most reliable, followed by mechanically and electrically operated gates.
Spillway gates may therefore be installed:
 Purely on economic considerations of total cost of dam and spillway, or

 In order to protect upstream property or installations, or
 In order to exercise control over the magnitude and duration of flood flows below the
dam - having due regard to flow in downstream tributaries, or
 In order to derive some economic benefit from water stored above the fixed crest
level.
Spillways - Uncontrolled Spillways

The discharge over a spillway crest is given by the formula:
Q=C.L.H3/2
where Q=discharge, C=coefficient, L=length of the crest, H=effective head of water.
Crest Profile - the crest of an overfall spillway is usually

dimensioned to conform to the underside of the nappe of the free-
falling jet. Greater efficiency is obtained by operating a spillway at
greater than design head, as can be seen in the figure showing the
effect of nappe profile on coefficient.
It is common practice to choose the design head for the nappe as 75%-80% of the maximum
expected head. When the spillway so designed does pass the greater flows, pressures lower
than atmosphere will occur over the crest, causing problems associated with cavitation.
The flow over a spillway gives rise to self-excited vibration, in which three coupled elements
are involved; the jet, the overflow crest and the air cushion between dam and jet. This can be
avoided by using splitters on the crest.
The cross section of a dam is normally determined to meet

stability requirements. Optimum nappe can be obtained by the
provision of an upstream overhang, as can be seen in the figure
on the left, with the overhang not less than 0.3 times the height
of the dam.
With the reservoir at a particular level the discharge over the spillway will be proportional to
its length. It is possible to introduce variations in the plan shape of the spillway crest so that
the effective length is increased, for example, rectangular 'duckbill' spillway or triangular
sections.

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In narrow gorges it is often expedient to adopt the glory-hole spillway. The design of a glory
hole spillway is involved since it includes flow over the weir, free or forced flow in the shaft,
flow around the bend and flow in the discharge tunnel. Since velocities are very high at the
bottom of the shaft damage to lining is likely to occur. The main disadvantage with the glory-
hole spillway is that beyond a certain surcharge the discharge only increases slowly with
increased head. It does not provide any substantial margin for underestimation of the
maximum flood.
Spillways - Gated Spillways

The decision for gates is more often economic, but sometimes topography may be the
controlling factor. Gates use mechanical devices and are liable to malfunction, however they
can be submerged and can operate at any head and are useful to pass floods during
construction or to control a filling reservoir.
The Engineer is concerned with the loads concentrated on certain parts of the dam by the
system for supporting and operating the gates. This is very important when one gate is closed
and the other open. Large gates require special formwork, complicated reinforcement and
probably prestressing of anchorages which puts the price up.
The minimum length is determined by the debris which could be expected to flow through the
gate. The location chosen must be easily accessible during normal operation and during
extreme floods. The engineer must be responsible for the procedures for operation of the
gates. Automatic gates may be required in remote locations however the expense and
reliability issues do not favour their installation.
Types of Gate - the trend is towards simplicity.
 Vertical-lift Gates

Nanairo Dam, Japan - Vertical-lift spillway gates

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Eildon Dam, Australia - Vertical-lift spillway gates
 Submerged Radial Gates - used to provide greater discharge for a particular size of
gate.
(C) Thomas,
Henry H. The
Engineering of
Large Dams
Sainte-Croix Arch Dam - Submerged Radial Gate

 Flapgates
Spilling dam - Flap gate with

downstream jack
1. Concrete sill
2. Flapgate panel
3. Trestle
4. Support
5. Slide
6. Jack
7. Swivel
8. Inspection Gallery

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 Inflatable dam - rubberised fabric, shaped as a seal tube, capable of being pressurised
with either air or water, adaptable for installation on any reasonable sill for flood
control and other purposes.

Koombooloomba Dam, Australia - Inflatable 'Fabridam'
Advantages of inflatable dams
 Comparatively low cost
 Little maintenance
 Readily collapsed to allow free flow of floodwaters
 Fail-safe so long as the resulting flood wave is acceptable in the valley
Disadvantages of inflatable dams

 Relatively limited life - 20 years
 Vulnerable to vandelism
 Availability of replacement parts in the future
 Possibility of downstream flood due to malfunction
Spillways - Spillway Chutes

A chute is the means by which water is transferred over the crest to the river bed below the
dam. Its function is to prevent damage to the valley walls that could endanger the dam. It may
or may not serve to dissipate some of the energy in the water.
Cascade spillways - used to dissipate energy
The rock must be massive and free from close jointing and
competent. The rock excavated must be used in the dam if
the scheme is to be economically viable.
Lined Chutes - at most sites a concrete lined chute is required. The chute width is determined
by the length and arrangement of the spillway crest, the total energy in the water and the
economical relation between the width (including excavation costs) and the height of the side

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walls of the chute. The height of the chute wall is also important because the water could
erode the side slopes.
At the bottom of the chute the water may enter a dissipator

basin, or be directed around a flip bucket so that much of its
energy is dissipated in air. Vibration will cause movement of
the slabs and even failure of them. It is essential that slabs are
anchored to the rock with steel rods. The figure shows the
correct way of laying slabs so they do not lift up.
Spillways - Energy Dissipation

The passage of flood waters from reservoir level to tailwater level will involve the dissipation
of vast energy. The velocities and pressures involved are huge and destructive.
Free Overfall - energy dissipated in a downstream coffer dam stilling basin unless overflow
is very high, say 80m&SUP3;/s/m or the height of the overfall exceeds 100m. For example
the scour below a free overfall at Kariba Dam is over 50m.
Flip Bucket Spillways - the purpose of this type is to throw the water well clear of the
structure. The jet of a ski jump spillway leaves horizontally wheras the jet of a flip bucket is
deflected upwards to induce disintegration in the air. The spray produced can cause damage to
the countryside and may adversely affect nearby electrical installations.
A. Roller Basin
B. Deflector Bucket
C. Flip Bucket
D. Non-radial spillway and sluice
buckets
E. Schoklitsch dissipator

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Stilling Basins - are usually associated with overflow dams of gravity
type. Dissipation of energy depends upon the formation of rollers,
turbulence and/or standing waves. Dentations are often provided to
assist in dissipation of energy. The blocks are subjected to highly
fluctuating pressures of such low minimum values that serious
cavitation and destruction can occur.
The figure shows a baffled apron spillway used for energy

dissipation.
Spillways - 3D Simulation by F Zhou and CS Song

3D simulation of free-surface over a chute spillway
By Fayi Zhou and C.S. Song
In spillway design, the free surface pattern under different geometry needs to be known. The
3-D free surface flow in chute spillway is of typical super-critical. An unsteady three-
dimensional free-surface flow model is developed based on the compressible hydrodynamic
euqations and large eddy simulation concept using an explicit finit volume scheme.
The simulation process is divided into three steps for computational efficiency. Approximate
free-surface profile and average velocity distribution were determined first assuming steady
one-dimensional non-viscous flow. The fully developed 3-D turbulent flow filed is simulated
next holding the free-surface profile fixed. Finally, the free surface is set free to move and the
fully developed flow with strong gravity waves are simulated.
A free-surface smoothing and a wave steepness constrainbt approaches were used to assure
numerical stability while waves up to certain specified steepness can be resolved.
3D free surface pattern along the whole spillway region

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3D free surface pattern at the upper part of spillway
3D free surface pattern at the lower part of spillway
CONSTRUCTION
CONTENTS
1. GENERAL
2. RIVER DIVERSION
3. CONCRETE DAMS
4. EMBANKMENT DAMS
General Construction
1. Safety
2. Specifications
3. Plant
4. Cost and its control
Safety - with the ever increasing height of dams there is greater need for precautions,
especially against falling objects or persons. Double curvature structures have made access
and movement of personnel difficult. All site personnel must be alert at all time for the
accidents that might happen. The insurance is regular meetings of staff and representatives of

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the work force, where knowledge and experience can be pooled - especially in the planning
stage of an unusual operation.
Specifications
For all types of dam, the specification should cover the following:
 The required date for completion, with a schedule to indicate dates for completion of
stages of the work;
 The degree of responsibility to be accepted by the Contractor in the dimensioning of
diversion works, for losses due to floods, for river pollution and general care of the
river;
 Clearing of the site and works areas;
 The extent of foundation preparation required and the sharing of responsibility for
unforeseen conditions;
 Protection of the environment, disposal of soil, rehabilitation of borrow areas,
beautification, etc.;
 Premliminary work that will be done by the Owner and the degree of responsibility
accepted by the Owner for consequences of such work.
Plant - The cost of purchasing plant and its operation are major items. On a dam involving 2
million cum of concrete, the purchase and operation might each represent 18-20% of the
direct cost of the dam. For an embankment dam this may be of the order of 25-35%. It is
therefore important to select the correct plant to achieve optimum cost.
The specification for some major contracts calls for the use of only new plant and the main
advantage is that suitable plant can be matched to the particular job. Material transporters can
be matched to quarry equipment for example. For compaction of embankments - soil or rock,
it is important to select the most appropiate equipment and this can be best determined by
means of a trial embankment. It is also necessary to have a supply of spare parts since many
sites are remote. Plant should be simple and rugged, and preferably modular to simplify the
replacement of parts.
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Consistently high quality of materials is the objective of all dam builders and to sacrifice
quality for a doubtful saving in cost is poor engineering.
Cost and its Control - Safety, Time and Cost are interrelated and usually conflicting. Safety
is always paramount, and hence time and cost directly relate to quality and degree of
perfection required. There is an optimum time for any operation and beyond this time will
incur extra costs. Cost is made up of direct charges for manpower and materials, plus
overheads and interest. Interest is out of the control of the Engineer.
With regard to the direct charges, the selection of the type of dam will be the major decision
and this might well be influenced by local conditions rather than mathematical economies.
 Is a labour-intensive job required in the interests of the local community?

 Is skilled labour available?
 What degree of mechanisation is desirable or possible at the particular site?
For a concrete dam, for example, the dissection of costs may be;
Materials 25%
Formwork 20%
Plant Purchase 19%
Plant Operation 19%
Placing and consolidation of concrete 4%
Precooling concrete 3%
Concrete Treatment 3%
For an embankment dam, for example. the dissection of costs may be;
Quarry Operation 30-40%

Haulage 20-30%
Spreading and Compaction 25-30%
Face rolling, mesh, etc. 15-20%
River Diversion
Regardless of the type of dam, it is necessary to de-water the site for final geological
inspection, for foundation improvement and prepartation, and for the first stage of dam
construction. The magnitude, method and cost of river diversion works will depend upon the
cross-section of the valley, the bed material in the river, the type of dam, the expected
hydrological conditions during the time required for this phase of the work, and finally upon
the consequences of failure of any part of the temporary works.
At most sites it will be necessary to move the river whilst part of the dam is constructed; this
part will incorporate either permanent or temporary openings through which the river will be
diverted in the second stage. If the first diversion is not large enough the initial stages of
construction will be inundated, if the second stage outlets are too small, the whole works will
be flooded.
At some sites there is a distinct seasonal pattern of river flows and advantage can be taken of
such conditions but noting that Nature is random.

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Construction of the Hendrik Verwoerd Dam, South Africa required a sophisticated
arrangement of cofferdams. An approach was developed based on the frequency and
distribution of floods that could occur over a five year period of construction. The following
is an extract of the original detailed specification:
First Stage (A) -
 Construction from each bank of the river of groynes a short distance upstream of the
dam, to alter the direction of flow and thus to move the low water channel towards the
left bank of the river at the dam site.
 Construction of a semi circular concrete arch cofferdam on the right bank of the river.
 De-watering of this cofferdam and excavation within it for the main dam blocks, the
proportion of the overspill apron and the sections of the mid channel cofferdams.
 Concreting of the dam blocks, numbers 14 to 28 up to a minimum level of 1200
meters, the portions of the overspill apron and of the mid channel cofferdams within
this cofferdam. In blocks of the dam constructed on this stage, temporary openings
were formed through which the river was later diverted.
Second stage (B) & (C) -

 Construction of a semi circular arch cofferdam on the left bank of the river.
 Construction of the flanking portions of each of the upstream and downstream mid
channel concrete arch cofferdams which cross the river upstream and downstream of
the central section of the dam.
 Excavation of a channel along the right bank, leading to the temporary openings
through the dam, demolition of portions of the right bank cofferdam to permit the
diversion of the river through the temporary openings and such clearing out of the
right bank diversion channel as may be necessary.
 The cutting of a channel through the portion of the right bank groyne adjacent to the
bank to form an entrance to the diversion channel described above.
 The placing of rockfill to connect together the right and left bank groynes so as to
divert the river flow into the right bank diversion channel, thereby cutting down the
velocity of the water in the vicinity of the mid river cofferdams.
 Completion of the upstream mid river cofferdam completion of the downstream mid
river cofferdam.

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 Placing of spoil, excavated from the works, in the flood channel on the left bank
upstream of the dam to prevent the river flooding into the area to the protected by the
mid river cofferdams.
Third stage (C) & (D) & (E) -

 De-watering of the left bank cofferdam and excavation for the dam blocks and the
portion of the overspill apron within this cofferdam.
 Concreting of the dam blocks numbers 9 to 27 to a minimum level of 1206 meters.
 Demolition of the left bank cofferdam.
 Demolition of the remaining portion of the right bank cofferdam within the areas
protected by the mid channel cofferdams.
 The de-watering of the mid channel cofferdam and excavation within it for dam block
numbers 1 to 7 and 2 to 12 and portion of the overspill apron.
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 Concreting of dam blocks 1 to 7 and 2 to 12 to such levels that the contraction joints in
the lower part of the dam up to gallery can be grouted.
 Concreting within the mid channel cofferdams of the portion of the overspill apron
downstream of blocks 1 to 7 and 2 to 12.
 Cooling of the concrete and grouting of the dam construction joints.
Diversion can also be achieved by means of a tunnel, which depends on the nature of the rock
and depth of weathering and should be far away from the dam itself to not interferre with the
foundations. The tunnel also should be large enough to avoid the possibility of job jams.

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Concrete Dam Construction
1. Aggregate Production
2. Concrete Handling, Placing and Consolidation
3. Formwork
4. Built in items
5. Cooling of Concrete
6. Economical Construction
Aggregate Production - The acceptability of natural aggregates is judged upon the physical
and chemical properties of the material and the accessibility, proximity to the site and
economic workability of the deposit.

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Concrete Handling, Placing and Consolidation - The procedure to be adopted for moving
concrete from the mixers on to the dam will be governed by site conditions. The problem is to
transport it to the dam with the least possible segregation or change in its consistency so it
may be compacted uniformly into the dam without unreasonable effort. The cableway is
probably the simplest arrangement. The tilting mixers will feed the buckets; these are then
moved to a pick up point under the cableway, transported smoothly to the block and emptied
quickly through an air operated gate.
Three Tower Cableway
The use of a belt conveyor has also been considered, but problems occur in keeping the belt
temperature stable in warm weather and also in windy conditions. The conveyors are usually
covered and cold air is blown over the concrete to lower its placing temperature.
The placing of a low-slump concrete, four layers in 2.3m lift

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Tractor mounted vibrators at Emosson Dam, Switzerland
Proper consolidation of low-slump concrete is laborious and requires continuous supervision.

The most efficient compactor is usually the two man hand-held high-speed vibrator.
Formwork - Probably the most widely used lift is 1.5m, however, on large dams a height of
2.3-3.0m is frequently used. With the larger lifts there are fewer movements of forms and
fewer horizontal lift surfaces to be cleaned. The high-lift formwork is unique and expensive
with less prospect for re-use, heavier equipment is required for lifting the forms and the heat
problems and risks of cracking in the concrete are accentuated. Modern steel formwork is of
cantilever design, see figure. Where possible the use of slip forms will expedite the work and
lower the costs. At some locations it may be expedient to use precast concrete slabs for
formwork with set-retarding agent on the inner surface.
Built in items - The installation of built in items is always a major source of delay on
construction. Advance planning is required with close attention to detail. The complication of
installation of reinforcement, prestressing, gate hinges, drainage wells and gate wells are
common on spillways. There has been a tendency to use precast concrete units for galleries to
save time, however this prevents the inspection of the concrete in the interior of the dam. The

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simplest method of forming galleries is vertical formwork extending the full height of a lift.
When this is removed, precast concrete beams or slabs can be laid over the opening and
concreted into the next lift. Reinforcement is usually required above and below rectangular
galleries and this is best installed as prefabricated units.
Cooling of Concrete - The method of cooling concrete during the first few days after placing
can be of the utmost importance if cracking is to avoided. It is essential to give attention to
both internal and external factors that may induce cracking;
 Temperature rise, which will depend upon the heat of hydration of the cement, the
quantity of cement per cubic metre, the concrete placing temperature and the rate of
construction;
 Heat dissipation, which will depend upon the conditions of exposure - including the
temperature of the underlying concrete and the thermal diffusivity of the concrete. If it
is considered necessary to heat the underlying concrete the rate of rise of its
temperature should not exceed 2° Celsius per day;
 The effects of restraint from a cold surface, i.e. rock or concrete say 14 days old, it
will depend upon the temperature gradient which can be reduced by placing concrete
in half lifts for a predetermined height, say 3m above the cold surface;
 The arrangement of cooling pipes - at 0.25 and 0.75 of the height of the lift may be
more efficient than on the top of the old lift and at mid-height of the new lift. The
horizontal spacing will depend upon the rate of heat removal required and the
temperature of the cooling water (i.e. river water of varying temperature or
refrigerated water);
 The local weather conditions - humidity, temperature and wind.
Economical Construction - Concrete dams are expensive, however mechanisation over the
last 40 years has reduced by a factor of four the number of man hours required to place a
cubic metre of concrete in a mass concrete dam. Although every Engineer strives for
perfection, consideration must be given to the degree of perfection that is really necessary.
Close co-operation between the Owner and Contractor will save time and money. Questions
have to be asked at all stages such as;
 Is it permissible to design for tensile stress in the concrete?
 Will arching of the dam result in overall economy?
 Are longitudinal contraction joints necessary in large gravity dams?
 Can the transverse contraction joints be omiited, located at wider spacing etc?
 What clean up is necessary on horizontal construction joints?
 Should the height of lift be specified by the designer?
 Should the cement content of the concrete be specified or only the properties required
in the concrete?
 Can the dams of intricate shape be justified?
 Should ancillary works be separated from the dam to minimise interference with a
continuous or cyclic process of dam building?
 What is the optimum layout and design for galleries?
Looking at the 'Construction - General Section' to see the proportion of costs in a concrete
dam, assumuing that the materials have been
predetermined, the Contractor should
concentrate on formwork, the purchase
of plant and its operation.

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3. Formwork
4. Built in items
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construction;
 The local weather conditions - humidity,
temperature and wind.

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in the concrete?
dam, assumuing that the materials have been predetermined, the Contractor should
concentrate on formwork, the purchase of plant and its operation.
3. Formwork
4. Built in items

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construction;
in the concrete?

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3. Formwork
4. Built in items

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construction;

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in the concrete?
3. Formwork
4. Built in items
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construction;
in the concrete?

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3. Formwork
4. Built in items

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construction;

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in the concrete?
3. Formwork
4. Built in items
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construction;
in the concrete?
Embankment Dam Construction

1. General
2. Phases of Construction
3. Quarry development and Haul Roads

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4. Material Compaction
5. Earth Dams
6. Hydraulic Fill Dams
7. Rockfill Dams
General - Considerable economy can often accrue if there is 'Progressive Design' - the aim is
to provide design flexibility to cover the probability that materials will not be in true accord
with samples tested nor will foundations conform to assumptions.
Phases of Construction -
1. Evaluation of plans, specifications, basic requirement, and features of the site.

2. Planning and scheduling of the job
3. Making the site ready
4. Building up the structure
5. Clean Up
Quarry development and Haul Roads - The quarry site should be determined primarily on
the basis of rock quality, i.e. the fragmented rock must be sound, hard and clean. If the
location is not dictated by rock quality, then it is desirable to separate the quarry and the haul
roads from other works such as the intake, spillway or power station construction. Attention
should be given to environmental factors such as noise, vibration from explosives and dust. In
designing the explosive charge, the form of muck pile must be considered, i.e. for rubber-
tyred loaders a wide low pile thrown well out from the face is desirable for minimum loading
costs.
Haul roads must be built to suit the required speed of construction, and this involves the size
of the haulage units. The roads should be at least 13m wide for two way traffic, for
preference, on way traffic should be organised on a large job. The gradients must be such as to
give minimum cost for the vehicles involved. The general layout of haul roads and ramps can
be greatly facilitated with scale models.
Material Compaction -
 Fine - Trial embankments should be constructed to determine relationships between

moisture content, layer thickness, type of roller, number of passes of the roller and the
resulting density and permeability of the fill. Additional water during compaction
usually improves the impermeability of residual soils by a factor of at least ten
compared with compaction on the dry side of optimum moisture content.
 Plastic clays - a little wetter than optimum moisture content, can be compacted by
rubber-tyred rollers, which are water ballasted. A disadvantage of the rubber-tyred
roller is that layer and shear planes tend to form in some materials. Since the fine
materials are usually sensitive to moisture the field Engineer must be extremely
weather conscious. If heavy rain is expected the surface of the fine material should be
rolled smooth with sufficient gradient to shed water from the working area.
 Filter or Transition Material - The thickness of the filter and transition zones will
depend upon the water pressure to be sustained and the materials economically
available. For a large dam the fine filter is often of crushed rock which is expensive.
Its width would normally be the narrowest than can be placed and compacted. Setting
out of the zone boundaries is important, especially for curved dams with a thin fine
filter. The number of passes should be determined such that future settlement of the
core and the filter zone will correspond as closely as possible.

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 Rock Compaction - The steel-faced vibratory roller is normally used for the
compaction of rock. On the sloping faces a roller of 1.5t is most useful. The thickness
of the layer of rockfill and the maximum acceptable size for rocks should be regarded
as factors pertinent to the design of the dam.
 Water to aid compaction of rockfill - Wet rock will compact better under rolling than
dry rock. Firstly, the friction is less between the rocks and secondly many rocks lose
strength when wetted so that crushing occurs at points of contact during the third or
fourth pass of the rollers.
 Provision for Instrumentation - This will inconvenience construction and failure of the
equipment to work will represent a financial loss for the cost of its purchase and
installation, and little can be done about it after the dam is built. Vital information
about the behaviour of the dam will be lost if care is not taken in its installation.
Earth Dams -
The most important variables affecting construction of earthfill embankments are the
distribution of soils, method of placement, water content, and compaction.
Soils may be classified by engineering properties into various groups. These groups fall into
two main divisions, the course grains and the fine grains. Course grains are those larger than a
number 200 sieve size and include gravels and sands. Fine grains are smaller than a number
200 sieve size and include silts and clays. Course grain material is used for the outer zones of
an earthfill embankment, and fine grain material is used for the impervious core or central
portion of the dam. A sieve analysis test will determine the percent of material passing a given
sieve size.
The soil material must be placed in horizontal layers not more than 15 cm. thick after being
compacted. The soil should be homogeneous and free from lenses, pockets, organic material,
or other imperfections. Prior to placement, the material should have the optimum moisture
content required for the purpose of compaction. The optimum moisture content, or the water
content that produces the maximum density, may be obtained by a laboratory Proctor test.
Good compaction of a cohesive soil reduces permeability and increases shear strength and the
stability of the dam. Compaction equipment includes sheep-foot rollers, pneumatic rollers,
and hand tampers. The dry density of the soil should not be less than 95 percent of standard
Proctor test.
Hydraulic Fill Dams -
Excavation - dredging, with hydraulic giants or dry with the aid of a hog box. The choice of
the methods depends on the cohesion of the soil and on the topography of the site.
Transport - The materials are transported in suspension in pipelines. Typical mixes are from
10-20% solids by volume or 25-50% solids by weight.
Fill Construction - To start the fill two parallel dikes are constructed at or just inside the
embankment toes as shown in the figure. Often these are the permanent rock toes themselves
but they can also be made of rolled pervious earth. The pipelines (called beach pipes) are laid
on top of these dikes or are carried on low trestles just above them. Outlets are provided to
allow full discharge of the pipe. In filling, several adjacent outlets are allowed to discharge
into the area between the dikes. The coarse materials settle close to the discharge points while
the finer ones are carried to the centre, still in suspension. A pool is created between the

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'beaches'. The core level is always below the beach level because the rate of sedimentation
there is much slower.
The width of the core is controlled by the percentage of fines in the borrow soil and the level
of water in the core pool. At the start of each 1-2m lift, the level in the core pool is raised to
provide a width somewhat greater than the maximum limit of core in the shell. Filling
commences when the coarse materials settling on the beach above the pool and encroaching
on the pool limits. As the beach rises the core pool narrows and becomes deeper. Filling is
stopped when the pool width is close to the minimum permissible core width. A core zone
with jagged edges, as shown, is the result.
Re-working the Fill - It is seldom that the beach will conform exactly to the desired dam
shape since the deposition will vary with the distance from the outlet. Draglines are placed on
the outer edges of the shell to reshape the dam to the proper dimensions. A new pair of dikes,
if necessary, is built and the process is repeated.
From time to time fingers of core develop into the shell beyond the established limits. These
are removed by digging them out, and replacing them with the shell material. Zones of shell
material in the core are likewise equally dangerous. These develop from slides into an
excessively deep core pool or as a result of too small a proportion of fines available from the
borrow pits. A small hydraulic dredge is used to excavate the core material and discharge the
mix back into the core pool so that the coarse materials will be widely dispersed.
Reworking the shell also tends to reduce the loose structure which often develops when fine
sands are deposited out of water. Such loose cohesionless soils are potential sources of
failures and are real hazards in hydraulic dam construction.
Rockfill Dams -
Pore Pressures - Excessive compactive effort relative to the particular material may induce
pore pressures in the earthfill greater than uplift pressures that will result from filling of the
reservoir. This would mean a lower factor of safety during construction than when the dam is
in operation. If this is not acceptable then extra money must be spent to ensure slope stability
during construction. On the other hand, a slope slide during construction would not compare
in importance to a slide in a completed dam. It may therefore be a justifiable risk for the short
term. If this were to be done then it would be mandatory to monitor pore pressures so that it
would be known definitely when the design factor of safety was established. There is
justifaction for reduction of construction pore pressures especially when the height reaches
150m for example.
An advantage of the thin core is that construction pore pressures should normally drop by
50% by the end of the construction period. In thick cores, the pressures may remain for years.
Dumped Rockfill - the main body of fill is placed by dumping. The initial part of the fill is
dumped from clamshell cranes, cableways, or from ramps on the abutments to form a mound

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or bank. The remainder of the fill is dumped from the top of this mound, allowing the rock to
fall down the sloping surface. The combined effect of sliding, tumbling and impact casue the
pieces to become tightly wedged together. Not more than 15% fines should be in the dumped
rockfill, since they prevent good compaction and make drainage of water difficult.
Rolled Rockfill - if the rock is soft and breaks readily into pieces less than a third of a cubic
metre, a rolled rockfill can be used. It is placed in layers and then rolled by heavy rubber tyred
rollers and heavy vibrating rollers. Four to eight passes are required for compaction.
Reshaping the Fill - the dumped rockfill assumes side slopes of the angle of repose. If a flatter
slope is required it can be formed by introducing horizontal berms as required.
1. General
5. Earth Dams
7. Rockfill Dams

5. Clean Up
costs.


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Earth Dams -
sieve size.
Proctor test.

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Rockfill Dams -

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150m for example.
1. General
5. Earth Dams
7. Rockfill Dams

5. Clean Up

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costs.

Earth Dams -

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sieve size.
Proctor test.

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Rockfill Dams -
150m for example.
1. General
5. Earth Dams
7. Rockfill Dams

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5. Clean Up
costs.


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Earth Dams -
sieve size.
Proctor test.

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Rockfill Dams -
150m for example.

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1. General
5. Earth Dams
7. Rockfill Dams

5. Clean Up
costs.


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Earth Dams -
sieve size.
Proctor test.

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Rockfill Dams -
150m for example.

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1. General
5. Earth Dams
7. Rockfill Dams

5. Clean Up
costs.

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Earth Dams -
sieve size.

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Proctor test.

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Rockfill Dams -
150m for example.
1. General
5. Earth Dams
7. Rockfill Dams

5. Clean Up

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costs.

Earth Dams -

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sieve size.
Proctor test.

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Rockfill Dams -
150m for example.
1. General
5. Earth Dams
7. Rockfill Dams

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5. Clean Up
costs.


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Earth Dams -
sieve size.
Proctor test.

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Rockfill Dams -
150m for example.
fall down the sloping surface. The combined effect of sliding, tumbling and impact cause the

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Materials For Earth DAM

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Materials For Earth DAM

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Water Resources - National and International

1. Water supply (requires a high reservoir)

Examples of reservoir estimated lives due to siltation; (Snowy Mountains Project)

Collected by: r. yusuf DAM ENGINEERING 1 from167

Collected by: r. yusuf DAM ENGINEERING 2 from167

Gates - gates are devices installed in

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Loading and Factor of Safety - Introduction

Loading and Factor of Safety - Static Loading

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Seismic Force (H6) - Force acting on dam in horizontal plane.

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Uplift (V3)- Hydrostatic forces acting within a dam and its

Seismic Force (V4) - Force acting on dam in vertical plane.

Other loads on the dam

Return Period Wind Speed Set-up

Direction of Forces - At certain locations it may be appropiate to increase the radius of an

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Loading and Factor of Safety - Dynamic Loading

In October 1969 the Committee on Earthquakes of the International Commission on Large

Collected by: r. yusuf DAM ENGINEERING 7 from167

Factor of Safety - Gravity Dams

Range of shearing resistance parameters.

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Recommended shear friction factors, Fsf (USBR 1987)

Factor of Safety - Concrete Arch Dams

Factor of Safety - Embankment Dams

Immediately after completion with full construction pore pressure 1.3-1.5

Earthquake and Reservoir Full 1.2

Seismic coefficient 0.1 FoS 1.8

A reasonable factor of safety is

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SITE INVESTIGATION CONTENTS

Time and Money for Investigation

Site Investigation - Desk Study

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Ground Reconnaissance - Features that should be sought during early reconnaissance

1. Topography - Flat, gently undulating, rolling, sharp hills, mountains, difference

Site Investigation - Geophysical Investigation

Refraction Seismic - Click Forward Once

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Advantages of Geophysical Methods - They permit a rapid coverage of large areas at a

Limitations of Geophysical Methods - There is difficulty in correct interpretation when the

Site Investigation - Exploratory Investigation Methods

Boring and Sampling

Programme of Exploration Work for Foundations

Planning and Conducting Borrow Pit Explorations

Site Investigation - Evaluation of Selected Site

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Borrow pit investigations

Site Investigation - Detailed Investigation

The next stage is to produce a detailed investigation of the chosen site.

Site Investigation - Monitoring

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Fresh Rock No visible signs of weathering

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Investigation must be made for

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Gravel, Sands and Boulder Clays

The strength of a rock will depend upon its -

The strength of a rock mass will depend upon -

Table - Unconfined compressive strength of rocks