RELAY PERFORMANCE CONSIDERATIONS WITH LOW RATIO CTS AND HIGH FAULT CURRENTS
The Relay Performance'Considerationswith Low-Ratio Current Transformers and High
Fault Currents Working Group of the IEEE PES Power System Relaying Comnittee:
C. W. Barnett, Chairman; 3. W. Chadwick, Jr., P. R. Drum, K. J. Khunkhun,
W. C. Kotheimer, P. A. Kotos, J. R. Linders, D. U. Smaha, J. W. Walton, P. B.
Winston, S. E. Zocholl, Jr.
ABSTRACT
Low ratio toroidal cts are in existence in many
locations on power systems. The majority of these cts
are in the auxiliary switchgear at generating stations,
but are not limited to this application. The ratio of
the cts used in this application is usually selected to
accomnodate metering and overload protection. The
problem addressed here is the absence of consideration
in this ratio selection for fault protection. In many
cases the fault duty of this switchgear is very high
and, because the low ratio cts also are of low accuracy
classes, the cts will saturate during fault. Analysis
of some fault cases shows that the protective relaying
will not operate, or will not operate properly, due to
the saturated cts. The significance and consequences of
the use of these cts and the accompanying saturation
during high fault currents are discussed.
Considerations when testing low ratio ct applications
for saturation are presented as well as a computer
program to demonstrate the volt-time concept of ct
saturation. Alternate ct connections and corrective
alternatives are given along with conclusions to aid in
resolving low ratio/high fault current situations.
KEY WORDS
Current transformers, Saturation, Fault current,
CT accuracy designation, Simulation
INTRODUCTION
The effect of current transformer (ct) performance
on protective relaying has always been a concern of the
IEEE Power System Relaying Committee. One of the more
critical concerns involves low ratio cts in any of the
lower voltage system areas, particularly in 2.4-13.8kV
metal-enclosed switchgear relaying applications. These
applications are common to power plant auxiliary systems
and similar industrial or cogeneration projects.
One of the problems addressed in this paper is
that of the relatively small individual loads that are,
for economic and other reasons, connected to a bus with
inherently high available short-circuit currents. Since
the maximum current for each load may be small, the ct
ratio tends to be a low value to provide thermal
protection at moderate overloads. From Table I it is
noted that a low ratio selection results in a low
accuracy class (4100).
This will provide satisfactory performance for
moderate overloads but would be generally inadequate for
s h w t circuit current levels. The Power System Relaying
Conunittee is, as a part of this discussion, emphasizing
the need for providing correct ct application for BOTH
92 SM 382-2 PURD A paper recommended and approved
by the IEEE Power System Relaying Committee of the
IEEE Power Engineering Society for presentation at
the IEEE/PES 1992 Summer Meeting, Seattle, WA,
July 12-16, 1992. Manuscript submitted February 2 7 ,
1992; made available for printing April 6 . 1992.
C-7803-0937-5/93/%3.000 1993 IEEE
m
MINIMUM STANDARD ACCURACY CLASS RATINGS FOR CTS
IN METAL-CLAD SWITCHGEAR (ANSI C37.20.2-1987)
RELAYING ACCURACY
50:s c10
75: 5 c10
100:5 c10
150:s c20
200 :5 c20
300:s c20
400:s C50
600:5 C50
800:s C50
1200:5 ClOO
1500:5 ClOO
2000;5 Cl00
3000:5 ClOO
4000:s ClOO
overload AND short circuit protection. For applications
addressed by this report, this requirement will usually
mean the provision of two cts; a low ratio for overload
and a high ratio (in the order of 2000-4000 to 5) for
short circuit protect ion.
There have been reports of failures of relays to
operate when subjected to high fault currents, and
others to operate falsely. The purpose in presenting
this discussion and data is to alert our colleagues to
the problems inherent to these applications and to
suggest ways to avoid the problem.
It should be noted that industrial and co-
generation facilities are obligated to meet the
requirements of the National Electric Code (NEC) as set
forth in Articles 230-208 and 240-100 that precludes the
use of any protective devices that cannot detect and
interrupt all values of current in excess of its trip
setting.
Sometimes information defining ct transient
performance has proved to be impractical as tools for
re1 ay engineering in the circumstances presently
discussed. As an alternative, a PC program that allows
easy analysis of ct performance is included in the
Appendix of this paper. This tool along with user's
judgement will usually permit determination of whether
or not their relays will function properly.
CONSEOUENCES OF CT SATURATION
Ideally, a current transformer should deliver a
true proportional value of primary current to a
protective device which may either be used directly to
trip a power circuit or supervise other protective
devices performing a similar function. In either case,
a saturated ct that fails to deliver a true reproduction
o f primary current may cause undesirable and sometimes
desirable operations which can be described as follows:
Undesirable
False TriD: On the surface it may seem rather
uncommon for a saturated ct to cause a false trip. But
a current differential is most likely to misoperate when
154
one ct saturates. Partial or full saturation of one ct
will allow the other cts to deliver the necessary
operating current to the differential relay for a
through fault condition, thus causing a false trip by
not producing the expected balancing current. Such a
situation i s most likely to materialize when a small
load is connected from a rather high voltage
distribution system. For example, a 7.5 HVA transformer
connected to a 138 kV system has only 31A full load
requirement. Therefore, a ct tap of 50/5A might be
selected, which is available on a standard 600/5A
multi-ratio ct. However, ct performance at this tap
will be poor and through-current for a low-side fault or
for re-energization of transformer and connected load
(e.g., due to voltage recovery on clearing a nearby
fault) may cause an undesirable trip of the transformer
differential. Operating current will be supplied by the
low voltage circuit high ratio ct and the severely
saturated high voltage circuit low ratio ct will not
provide a matching current for through-restraint or a
sustained distorted wave-form to provide some harmonic
restraint. Figure 3 illustrates sustained zero output
from a high voltage circuit low ratio ct during an
actual transformer energization test.
Delaved Trio: When a ct provides a partial or a
distorted current reproduction of the primary current to
a protective device which has inverse time current
characteristics, additional delay in tripping of the
power circuit will result. This delay in tripping may
result in de-energizing a large portion of the
distribution system due to loss of relay coordination
caused by ct saturation.
For example, when a 350 HP motor with FL=45A is
fed from 4160V switchgear, a 75/5 ct may be used for
overload and phase faults as well as for ground faults
by a residually connected ground relay. If the system
is low resistance grounded, tripping by the ground relay
cannot be predicted accurately. Residual connections
excite all three cts for ground faults and an electro-
mechanical ground relay has the highest burden when at
the lowest tap to provide maximum sensitivity. Such
ground protection will result in delayed tripping by the
ground relay. The relays at the incoming feeder and
neutral of the transformer may trip faster even though
it will not be apparent from the time current
coordination study.
Failure To TriD: The most undesirable function
which may result due to a saturated ct is a failure of
a protective device to trip when the secondary current
is either very low or extremely distorted. For example,
fault current at the medium voltage switchgear may be
higher than 20,000A. A ct with a 50/5A ratio for a
small load off the switchgear will most likely saturate
to the point where it cannot be expected to deliver
current sufficient to trip an instantaneous overcurrent
relay. In such conditions, backup relays may operate to
isolate the fault after extended time delay, resulting
in de-energizing the entire bus. This may ultimately
result in tripping a generating station or similar large
faci 1 i ty .
Failure To Block TriDDinq of Overdutied Devices:
Overdutied fault interrupting equipment (starter, load
switch, or circuit switcher) is sometimes applied where
the tripping is blocked by high speed fault sensing
relays if the fault current exceeds the equipment
interrupting capability. Saturation of a ct could
prevent proper blocking by the fault sensing relay and
permit interruption attempt of fault current in excess
of the equipment rating. Application of such a blocking
scheme must include careful evaluation of the ct
characteristic so that the desired blocking will be
dependabl e.
155
Desirable
Failure to TriD Overdutied EauiDment: Whenever
low ratio cts are used in a fused starter, their
saturation may prevent some undesirable operations for
high faults. For example, a typical medium voltage
.starter could interrupt a 6000A fault, but will be
damaged for higher fault currents. Therefore, a fused
starter feeding a 50A load, protected by overcurrent
relays connected across 75/5A cts will trip for
overloads and low level faults. Saturation of cts will
prevent the relays from picking up and tripping the
starter, thus protecting it from interrupting currents
above its rating. The fuse will do the interrupting.
Saturation will delay the tripping long enough for the
fuse to interrupt the heavy faults.
Prevent Damaqe to Current Circuit Devices: It iS
a common practice to use the same cts for both
Drotective and meterina functions. When the protective
device is used purely 6 r overloads, a saturated ct will
have -no detrimental effect. On the contrary, it may
serve to limit damaging high current to these devices.
SIGNIFICANCE OF USE OF LOW RATIO CTS IN REGARD TO
FAULT LEVELS AND BURDENS
.CT Performance Concerns
A low ratio ct, as indicated by its corresponding
ANSI voltage classification listed in Table I, will be
more prone to saturation for a given overcurrent than a
ct of a higher ratio. When low ratio cts are applied to
a high capacity, low impedance system, the application
should be reviewed to insure the ability of the ct to
provide the desired output. The magnitude of fault
current, the connected burden, and the ct saturation
characteristic will be the prime factors in determining
the performance. During heavy faults, the sensitivity
advantage of using a low ratio ct will be lost due to
the poor ct performance. The short time thermal rating
of a low ratio ct may be exceeded when the ct is applied
to a high fault current circuit. This is especially
true when ct saturation results in delayed clearing of
the fault by a backup clearing device.
Imoact on Re1 av Performance
Low ratio ct saturation for high currents will
cause the relay time current characteristic to be slower
than published values or to fail to operate. In
addition, the saturated ct output is rich in odd order
harmonics which can be detrimental to the mechanical and
electrical operation of the connected relays.
Saturation will cause very dissimilar outputs from cts
connected to a current differential relay. This problem
will be severely aggravated for transformer differential
applications because of the usual need for applying low
ratio and high ratio cts.
THE PRACTICAL APPROACH TO APPLYING LOW RATIO CTS
The knowledg! that low ratio current transformers,
with their low C" rating, could easily go into
saturation has been long understood. This knowledge has
dictated a number of basic philosophies in applying
these cts and the corresponding relay types. One basic
rule-of-thumb has applied in the application of cts,
namely: The kneepoint voltage o f the ct as defined by
the ct excitation curve should not be less than twice
the voltage required to drive the maximum secondary
symmetrical current through the combined burden o f the
relay, connecting wiring, and ct. See Figure 1. This
requirement frequently results in application of the
higher ratio cts to provide a "C" rating sufficient for
the connected burden.
 POWER SYSTEM CONSTRAINTS THAT MAY REOUIRE
HIGH-SPEED TRIPPING
is (rmr sym) x 2 , T
n 2 Several factors may prompt the choice o f high-
w CT Application Ruleoi-Thumb speed clearing of faults. Stability of rotating
m
c
machinery, thermal storage to equipment such as
transformers, buswork, and safety ground grids,
$ coordination of serial current sensing protective
devices, etc., all require the accurate measurement of
P magnitude and duration of current. This requirement is
=Yc especially true during conditions such as faults,
ij
w
X transformer energization, motor starting in-rush, etc.

z Careful comparison of the ct output capabilities

for connected burdens and current magnitudes with the
5 in-service parameters will usually eliminate problems
with a-c saturation as illustrated in Figure 2.
8
U
However, d-c saturation requires additional
considerations such as the time to saturate and,
m
W
unsaturate the core. Figure 3 illustrates the
I performance of some low ratio cts for severely offset
SECONDARY RMS EXCITING AMPS - I, (significant d-c component) current that may occur for
transformer in-rush during energizing.
FIG. 1 Illustrates CT Application Rule-of-Thumb

Relay selection is also determined by the type of T E S T CT

application as will be indicated in the following. RATIO=
TYPE BAR IS
Ground Relavinq d

The application of ground relaying is determined

by the type of system grounding. On a high resistance
grounded system, ground fault detection is usually
provided by zero sequence voltage measurement and !, :
therefore, ct performance is not involved. .. . . _
.. .
I
On a low to medium resistance grounded system, I j j !
where the value of grounding resistance is usually
selected to limit the magnitude of ground fault current STANDARD C T
to the full load phase current magnitude, feeder RATIO 240-1 Ip
protection can be provided by a ct embracing all three
phase conductors and working with an instantaneous relay
THROUGH TYPE *
1- -
(50N or 50G). This type of relaying should only be
applied to motor circuits and delta primary transformer
circuits. Since cts are usually low ratio in this
application, inverse time relays should never be applied FIG. 2 Illustration of A-C Saturation
without careful analysis since the ct can go into
saturation before the relay can operate.
310 amoa
Inverse time relays can be applied in the residual
connection of the phase cts on the main and tie
breakers. Here the cts are o f higher ratio which
minimize the possibility of saturation.
On a solidly grounded system where the ground
fault current magnitude can equal the symmetrical three
phase fault magnitude, a single low ratio ct embracing
all three phases should never be used without careful
analysis because of its low saturation point. In this
case an inverse time relay with instantaneous unit
should be applied in the residual connection of the
phase cts since the phase cts are usually o f higher
ratio.
Phase Re? avi nq
FIG. 3 Complete Saturation of 6-Phase CT During
The considerations for multi-phase relaying are Transformer Energi zat i on
independent of the type of system grounding which has
been selected. On low current circuits using fused
starters, the cts will be used only for overload These examples are intended to show merely that ct
protection and the fuses will protect for high magnitude output magnitude or duration may not correctly represent
faults. On low current circuits using circuit breakers, the primary current. The consequences o f such
the highest ct ratio should be selected consistent with inaccurate reproduction can be seen by referring to
the setting range of the relay providing the desired Figure 4. If this ct performed as illustrated in Figure
level o f protection. This may necessitate the use of 2, then the relay that should trip the breaker may be
auxiliary cts in the instrumentation circuits to restore delayed suffic.iently to result in loss o f coordination
the level o f current to a practical value. with the upstream protection (in this case - a high
I56
voltage fuse).

--
T Re1 ay
CB
Load
1

E: Ft
{
FIG. 4 CT Saturation Could Result in Loss of so01
c10 s VB = 1ov
Coordination Between the Relay and the Fuse

Reference 3 in the Bibliography describes the

procedure to determine the time to saturate and
unsaturate for a particular ct and circuit parameters.
.Delaying tripping in the scheme shown in Figure 5 just
longer than the time to unsaturate permits the use of
overcurrent relays in a differential scheme.

CT 1001s 1001s
ClO C20

10015 IWlS
CfO
U 0

FIG. 5 Use of Time Delay May Permit Use of
Overcurrent Relay For Device 87 Even with
Mismatched CTs
C T PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT
AND CORRECTIVE ALTERNATIVES
There are some improvements and some corrective
alternatives that can be made to the overall accuracy of
a l o w ratio ct scheme. These improvements are mentioned
here because manufacturers sometimes will provide the ct
connections as described below to meet a customer's
accuracy requirement, The corrective alternatives
discussed provide a more complete solution but may be
expensive and/or physically difficult to implement.
CT Performance ImDrovement Considerations
Series Connection: Use two identical toroidal cts
with series secondary windings to approximately double
the ct voltage capability as compared to the use of a
single ct of the same ratio and voltage capability.
Each ct only has to develop one half the excitation
voltage for a given fault current that a single ct must
develop. Therefore, with the series connection, the
fault current that can be transformed accurately will be
about twice the fault current accurately transformable
with a single ct. If the series connection utilized cts
with twice the ratio but the same voltage capability as
the single ratio ct, the fault current that can be
accurately transformed will be approximately four times
that of the single ratio ct. Also, if the series
connection utilized cts with twice the ratio and twice
the voltage capability of the single ratio ct, the fault
current that can be accurately transformed will be
approximately eight times that of a single ratio ct.
Figure 6 illustrates these ct voltage capability
enhancements.
157
FIG. 6 Comparison o f the primary current that can
be carried by cts using series secondaries
versus a single ct to yield comparable
accuracy.
(a) Single ct
(b) Two identical cts with series
secondaries and same voltage
capability and ratio as a single ct
(c) Two identical cts with series
secondaries and same voltage
capability and ratio as a single ct
but with twice the ratio
(d) Two identical cts with series
secondaries and twice the voltage
capability and ratio of a single ct
Parallel Connection: Similar improvements to ct
voltage capabilities can be achieved as illustrated in
Figure 7 by using two identical toroidal cts with
parallel secondary windings. Twice the ratio of a
single ct is required when paralleling two secondary
windings so that the current to the relay load will be
the same as that developed by a single ct. There is an
advantage to using this two ct connection as long as the
higher ratio cts have a higher voltage capability than
the single ct. If the higher ratio cts have twice the
voltage capability of a single ct, the fault current
that can be accurately transformed is approximately
twice that of the single ct as shown in Figure 7b.
Also, if the two ct connection uses cts with four times
the ratio and twice the voltage capability of the single
ct, the fault current that could be transformed
accurately would be approximately four times that of a
single ct as illustrated in Figure 7c.
I the rated voltage capability, the burden cannot exceed
about 0.01 ohms. A realistic burden in the range of
0.5-0.75 ohms will cause severe saturation of the ct.

{/,1s-A
20A, 'o_A., 4.16Kv 3SOMVA Swltchwu Bu8

so1s 1001s
c10 a
o

1001s
Sole-CTs for Motor
QO Protection

Single ct
I Two identical cts
rJ I I-800A
with
secondaries
parallel
and
twice the ratio and
2001s
vol tage capabi 1 i ty
of the single ct. A viable solution to the problem caused by using
CZO
low ratio cts with high fault currents requires two sets
Two identical cts of cts as illustrated in Figure 9. Presuming ground
wi t h para1 le1
secondaries and
2001s four times the
C20
ratio but only
twice the voltage
capabi 1 i ty of a
single ct

FIG. 7 Comparison of the primary current that can

be carried by cts using parallel
secondaries versus a single ct to yield
comparabl e accuracy.
However, it must be emphasized that these
improvements may fall short of being able to guarantee
operation of protective relaying for high level faults.
Caution should be exercised when oversizing cts in
combination with increased relay sensitivity so that the
overall performance o f the combination is not reduced by
electromechanical relay burden increasing more than the
increase in ct voltage capability. The burden of
digital and solid-state relays i s not excessive for low
current settings, therefore, use of these relays with
the ct connection enhancements improves overall
performance.
Much higher ct accuracies are available with "T"
class cts that have wound primary and secondary
windings. However, this type of ct is rarely used in
switchgear. The mechanical withstand of the wound ct is
finite and may not be high enough to withstand a high
level fault. The thermal withstand of wound cts must
also be evaluated for a high level fault to be sure that
the ct will not be damaged within backup fault clearing
time.
CT Performance Corrective Considerations
Figure 8 illustrates a typical industrial or power
plant medium voltage feeder where ct ratios have been
selected for metering and moderate overload
requirements. The noted short circuit duty will
theoretically produce about 2500 amperes secondary. For
158
Failt CTs and 10015
CTs as Low-Level
Phase and Ground 3ma
Fault CTs lo01s
CtO
x
fault currents are sufficiently limited, a low ratio set
of cts is used for the phase overload time delay relays
and the ground relay instantaneous and time delay units.
If the ground fault level is not restricted
sufficiently, the ground instantaneous unit may also
have to be used on the high ratio set of cts. Limiting
the ground fault level to a low value is another
solution to achieving adequate ct performance on ground
faults. The high ratio high accuracy cts are used for
the phase instantaneous relays for short circuit
protection.
Existinq Installations: For existing switchgear
installations, a low cost but imperfect solution is to
speed up backup overcurrent relaying. Some utilities
employ high dropout instantaneous units with their
switchgear source overcurrent relays as illustrated in
Figure 10. These phase instantaneous units are set to
pickup with some margin above the current required to
start the largest motor on an already loaded bus. Each
instantaneous unit Initiates a timer which is generally
set for a 12 cycle delay to allow the feeder circuits to
open for a downstream fault. The high dropout or reset
characteristic provides faster contact opening for
successful feeder fault clearing thereby allowing use of
a relatively fast 12 cycle time delay. If the fault is
not cleared by the feeder breaker, the instantaneous
unit will stay picked up and allow the timer to trip the
station auxiliary source breaker. The main drawback to
the scheme is that the instantaneous units cannot be set
as sensitively as the instantaneous units on the
individual feeder circuits, the fault cannot be cleared
as quickly (which impacts feeder cable sizes), and the
generating unit may be tripped when the entire medium
voltage bus is lost.
STAllON SERVICE
TRANSFORMER
350 MVA 4.16kV
FIG. 10 Simplified Single Line of Higher Speed
Backup Phase Overcurrent Re1 ay Scheme for
4.16kV Switchgear
Another possible consideration for existing
switchgear installations is to replace the low ratio cts
on a feeder with higher ratio cts selected for the
maximum fault and burden. Refer to Figure 11 which
illustrates such an arrangement. The instantaneous
relays will utilize the main cts but the overcurrent
re1 ays and metering must use step-up auxi 1 iary cts
connected to the high ratio cts to regain sensitivity.
When the secondary burden on the step-up auxiliary ct is
reflected to its primary winding this burden is equal to
4.l6 kV 350 HVA BUS
1-30 CIM?
lault current
is limited
L-1
FIG. 11 Auxiliary CT Used with High Ratio Main CT
to Provide Sensitive Overload Protection and
Metering
159
the square of the inverse auxiliary ct current ratio
times the ohmic secondary burden. Hence, caution must
be exercised so that the main ct performance is not
restricted due to excessive burden. Note that the
reflected impedance can be minimized by selecting the
auxiliary ct with characteristics that will saturate
before the capability of the main ct is exceeded.
If the ground fault current is limited, then
sensitive ground relaying can be connected to the
auxiliary ct secondary.
From these statements it should be apparent that
although the Figure 11 application will work, the
engineering required to properly select ct accuracy and
coordinate the saturation characteristics of the step-up
auxiliary cts with that of the main cts is tedious and
should be evaluated carefully.
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTIC EVALUATION CONSIDERATIONS
The choice of .atechniaue to evaluate overcurrent
performance characteristics of a ct and the associated
relay combination is strongly influenced by the
magnitude of the current, the ct relaying accuracy
rating, and its secondary burden. These three factors
directly influence the volt ampere requirements of the
test current source.
Depending on the power and economic resources
available, there are several evaluation techniques that
can be used. In descending order of volt ampere
requirements (and cost) these are:
(a) Full Scale Tests
(b) Lower Power Secondary Shunt Connected Tests
(c) Analog Model ing
(d) Digital Computer Simulation Methods
It is required that the tests evaluate the effects
of magnetic remanence in the ct core. There are several
ways a ct can become magnetized leaving remanent in the
core. One common cause is polarity testing using a
battery. Remanence can affect the ct performance later
if the initial direction of the primary fault current
drives the core flux in the same polarity as its
remanent magnetization. It may become saturated and
provide a distorted current to the relay. Therefore,
the test facility must have a means to demagnetize the
ct before test as well as to produce a known amount of
remanent flux in the core to evaluate the effects.
Full Scale Tests
Volt AmDere Reauirements: The performance of a
current transformer and any associated protective re1 ays
under conditions of extreme overcurrent is best
evaluated by full scale high current tests. These tests
are usually performed at a high power testing laboratory
such as used for testing power circuit breakers for
interrupting capacity. A properly designed full scale
test can provide the most accurate results because, to
a large degree, it eliminates distortion of the primary
current waveform by the non-linear behavior of the ct.
Eliminating distortion is accomplished in full scale
testing by insuring that the test source impedance is
linear and is very much larger than the primary linear
impedance of the unsaturated ct, including the reflected
secondary and burden impedances. This imp1 ies also that
the source must develop enough voltage to drive the
required primary current through its source impedance.
Figure 12 shows a schematic diagram illustrating the
test circuit requirements.
The dual requirements, high voltage and high
current, for the source define its volt-ampere rating.
This volt-ampere rating can be quite large, even for
testing small low ratio cts.
 C I rcui t the test circuit must have the capability o f producing
Breaker a control 1 ab1 e dc component.

I(t) =Im[sin(wt t a - 6 )-sin( a - 6)e' -t/r

1 (2)
I - I IIC
where Im = peak of ac component amperes

I Current m r a t o r 6 = fault incidence angle, radians

nigh
I
T = time constant of dc component, sec.
a = Arctan (wT), radians
To Waveform Recorder
w = 2rf, radians/sec.
FIG. 12 Full Scale Current CT Test Circuit f = system frequency, hertz
t = time, sec.
The time constant T depends on the L/R ratio of
The test source volt-ampere requirements can be the test current source including the series reactor.
estimated as follows: Values of .025 to about .1 are required to simulate
typical faults on power systems. At currents in excess
Let S = ratio of the source impedance of about 50,000 amperes most laboratories have
to the ct linear primary difficulty achieving time constants greater than about
impedance. Usually this Value .04 second, however. The incidence angle 6 is
is between 20 and 100 controlled during test by a point-on-wave switch (POW)
which detennines the instant of closing the test
PU = the maximum per unit multiple breaker. Maximum offset, the worst condition for
of primary test current producing ct saturation, occurs when the breaker closes
desi red the circuit at a normal zero crossing on the source
voltage waveform.
In = the ct nominal secondary
current at one per unit current Medium Power Test Sets: Low voltage circuit
(5 amperes for example) breaker test sets made by several manufacturers can also
be used to test cts if the current range is reduced and
22 = the total linear impedance of smaller time constants are acceptable. These equipments
the ct secondary circuit. This are usually limited to a few thousand amperes and about
includes the ct winding .025 second time constant.
resistance and the burden
impedance Relav Performance Tests: Because of the high
costs and the large equipment required, it is not
It is comnon practice to insert a linear reactor economically feasible to perform full scale high current
in series with the source to achieve the required value tests on cts with complex relay systems requiring
of S. Equation (1) then gives an estimate of the multiple current and voltage inputs. Therefore, such
required vol t-amperes. tests are usually limited to single phase relays such as
VA - S(In x PU)* 22 (1)
simple overcurrent detectors, time overcurrent relays,
and differential relays.
For a 50/5 ct with a secondary burden of 0.5 tj0.5 Figure 13 shows an oscillogram of a full scale
ohm, and a winding resistance of 0.1 ohm, a test current test on a ct with a ratio of 50/5 connected to a time-
of 200 per unit, and a source impedance ratio S of 20, overcurrent relay and subjected to a 10,000 ampere fully
the source volt-amperes must be at least: offset primary current. The peak primary current
approaches 27,000 amperes and the largest spike" of
VA = 20(5 x Z O O ) * 0.781 = 15620 KVA secondary current is about 1250 amperes. These tests
were performed at a switchgear short circuit testing
The source voltage is: 1 aboratory .
Vs = VA/(In x PU) = 1562 volts
and the source impedance is:
Xs = v/(In x PU) = j0.156 ohm.
A series reactor o f about 414 microhenries would Primary
suffice. Also the source must deliver a current of Current
10,000 amperes.
Test Circuit Time Constant: Fault currents on
power systems usually exhibit a waveform containing both
ac and decavinq dc components. This is due to the Secondary
inductance df the system. Equation (2) describes in Current
mathematical terms the current time behavior. The
polarity and initial magnitude of the dc component
depends on the time of Occurrence of the fault relative
to the system voltage waveform. Saturation o f a ct is
strongly influenced by the dc component. Consequently FIG. 13 Full Scale Test o f 50/5 CT at 10,000 Amperes
160
J o w Power Secondary Shunt Connected Tests
In this testing scheme, the current is scaled down
to the ct secondary-level and flows through the relay
and the ct secondary winding connected in parallel as
shown in Figure 14. The method has the advantage o f
using a much smaller current source and is thus suitable
for laboratories with limited facilities. For
satisfactory results, the source impedance must be
larger than and the ct secondary resistance must be
smaller than the relay impedance.
As in the Full Scale Test, a series reactor is
used to minimize distortion of the test source current
when the ct saturates and its reactance must be much
greater than the relay impedance. In order to produce
saturation, the voltage developed across the ct
secondary must exceed the knee point of the ct
saturation curve. Therefore, to accommodate the reactor
voltage drop, the source voltage capability needs to be
at least several times the knee point. For high
accuracy rated cts this may require a high voltage
source. The source current requirement is reduced in
proportion to the ct ratio. To provide 200 per unit
current to a 50/5 ct and relay, the source would need to
supply only 1000 amperes. In contrast a full scale test
source would need to supply 10,000 amperes. Because o f
laboratory safety considerations connected with the high
voltage source, this method is usually restricted to
testing low ratio, low accuracy class cts with knee
point voltage less than about 200 volts.
r PIT--?
Small Reactor
Smal=ac tor/
Contactor
CT
LOW r through the actual relay burden. A1 though suitable
Voltage AC Relay
Source
Shunt Shunt
t Because of amplifier size constraints, the testing
To Waveform Recorder
FIG. 14 Low Power CT Secondary Shunt Connected Test
Circuit
In the circuit of Figure 14, the ct secondary
circuit is connected in parallel with the relay. The ct
primary winding is left unconnected. During testing
when the ct secondary voltage exceeds the knee point,
the ct begins to saturate. Its secondary winding
impedance begins to decrease and shunts current away
from the relay, distorting the relay current waveform.
A drawback of this test method is the effect o f the ct
secondary winding resistance. If the secondary
resistance is comparable to the relay impedance, the
current shunting effect is less and more current flows
in the relay. In this case, the test will produce
better relay ,perfomance than would actually be
encountered in practice.
Controlling the L/R time constant o f the test
curreKt source becomes difficult in this method due to
the compromises usually made in the choice of the source
voltage and the reactor size relative to the relay
impedance. When the resistance o f the relay is large,
greater than 2 ohms, the achievable time constant will
be very small, probably less than -01 second.
161
Analos Modelina Techniaues
It is possible to use a small analog ct model to
test the performance of a ct and relay combination in
response to a specified primary current input. Figure
15 shows the setup. The actual ct is not used. A
small, low current, magnetic model of the ct and its
relay burden impedance are connected to a low current
test source. The model ct secondary current is
amplified by a large current amplifier and used to
operate the actual relay in test. The test current is
usually only a few amperes. The model ct may have a
ratio of 1000/1 so that its secondary current is only a
few milliamperes. It must be designed to saturate at
the same per unit primary current as the actual ct and
its ratio and secondary model relay burden scaled
properly. Because of the very low currents used, the
model components for ct and relay burden are quite small
and easily constructed.
^.. I
U
I
Curren
fourc
-"I I/
FIG. 15 Test Circuit Using Small Analog Model of CT
The current amplifier is the limiting factor in
this scheme. It must develop sufficient output power to
drive the actual desired instantaneous secondary current-
amplifiers have been developed and can be obtained, they
are very costly and require an equally large power
source for operation. For example, to perform the test
on the 50/5 ct shown in Figure 13 the amplifier would
need to deliver a peak current o f about 1250 amperes
through an impedance of .05 ohm. This i s an
instantaneous power of 78 kilowatts.
of actual relays using analog modelling techniques is
only feasible at lower test current magnitudes.
Digital Comouter Simulation Techniques
The technique of using digital computation methods
to model system behavior is well accepted in the power
industry. Numerical techniques, such as the Electro-
Magnetics Transients Program (EMTP) are being widely
applied to evaluate the transient performance of various
systems and components. Inherent in these simulation
methods is the ability to handle the non-linear behavior
o f components such as protective gaps, arrestors, and
transformers of a1 1 types.
Central to the mathematical model of a transformer
is the representation of the non-linear properties of
its magnetic core, i.e. its B/H loop. Some of the
various techniques used are: approximation of the curve
by a series o f straight line segments, empirical
equations, and look up tables. In the case of
simulation of a ct, the choice of a numerical method to
solve the resulting differential equations is critical.
Due to the extreme non-linearity o f the saturation
process some numerical integration methods will
encounter instabilities and produce large errors.
Experience has shown that methods based on second order
trapezoidal integration, such as EMTP and the Piecewise-
Stable Method (PS Method) [SI are the most stable. With
a good ct model, digital si.mulati.on can produce very
realistic results. Figure 16 and Figure 18 show ct
current waveforms that were calculated using an
empirical equation model. Comparison of these waveforms
with the results of full scale tests on the same cts are
shown in Figure 17 and Figure 13 respectively and
supports this point . Electromechanical relays are usually simulated by
ClLTEl L
ALOOIITHY
.)
FIG. 16 Digital Simulation of a 150/5 CT and a
Microprocessor Type Overcurrent Relay Test
at 40,000 Amperes Fully Offset
FIG. 17 a
Oscillogram o f Full Scale Test of 150/5 CT
and Relay at 40,000 Amperes
FIG. 18 Digital Simulation of 50/5 CT Test at
10,000 Amperes
The next step in the simulation is the modeling of
the relay and calculating the model's response to the
calculated current. Because of the large number of
different types of relays and operating principles
involved, computer routines specific to particular relay
162
design are usually developed. For linear circuits, such
as signal processing filters and sequence networks, the
state space variable method is convenient. Logic
functions in a relay can be implemented directly.
Digital relay algorithms also can be programed directly
in many cases.
a set of simultaneous differential equations relating
the operating torque to the relay's current inputs and
its magnetic properties.
Figure 16 also illustrates the results of a
complete microprocessor overcurrent relay simulation.
The simulation included the main and auxiliary cts, the
relay's anti-aliasing signal processing filter, and the
relay algorithm including its data sampling algorithm
and measuring and tripping logic.
Usually digital simulations are not executed in
real time. This is due to the necessity of using a very
small time increment for the numerical integration to
obtain accurate results. The resulting large
computational load cannot be accomnodated in real time
by most computer installations. Nevertheless, even a
small personal computer running a simulation covering a
fault current real time span of 100 milliseconds
requires less than 5 minutes computation time.
It is feasible to store the calculated .ct
secondary current waveform values in a data file and to
read them out at a real time rate into a fast digital-
to-analog data conversion system. The analog current
waveform obtained can then be amplified and used to test
an actual relay. If simulation o f high fault currents
i s desired, this requires the high power current
amp1 i fier technique a1 ready discussed. Simi 1 ar
techniques have been used by several re1 ay manufacturers
to test transmission line protective relay systems at
somewhat smaller current magnitudes.
NOTES ON CT WAVEFORMS AND SATURATION
Eauivalent Circuit of CT
A toroidal current transformer can be represented
as a current source where the ratio current (primary
current divided by turns ratio) is injected into a
magnetizing impedance and with the burden of the ct as
shown in Figure 19. Using an impedance such as the
reactance shown is a useful visual concept. It is
misleading when used analytically because magnetization
is a non-1 inear phenomenon.
FIG. 19 CT Equivalent Circuit and B-H Curves for
Different Excitation Levels
 The 6-H diagrams (plotted flux 0 versus
magnetizing current IM) are plotted for low, medium, and
saturated levels of excitation and suggest a more useful
analytic concept.
Low Excitation
At low excitation it can be seen that the slope
da/dI representing the inductance is low.
indicates a disproportionate amount of magnetizing
This
compared to the burden current and explains the large
ratio correction factor encountered when low ratio cts
are used to gain sensitivity.
Normal Excitation
At medium excitation (normal) the dfl/dI is
relatively high and the magnetizing current is small
compared to the useful burden current.
Hiah Excitation
At high excitation the slope is infinite and the
concept of impedance breaks down altogether. All that
is apparent is the area of the hysteresis loop
representing losses (and hence resistance). Otherwise,
there is simply a change in flux from -8 to 0 for a
total change o f 28 .The change takes pyace d r i n g a
portion of the cycl! of ratio current. In exactly which
portion of the cycle this takes place is determined by
'the type of burden, i.e. resistance or inductance as
shown in Figure 20.
Y K
FIG. 20 Resistance vs. Inductance Effect on CT
Saturation Intervals
The saturation phenomenon is best represented by
volt-time switch as shown in the diagram rather
than an impedance. The volt-time area of the
burden voltage wave represents flux from the
expression:
@ (VS/Vl)2
v=Ndt (3)
t Therefore, (v,) at saturation equals:
a=iL
vdt
(4)
Therefore, the switch closes when the area
represents the total flux change of 28 . The switch
remains closed for the remainder of the hglf cycle until
the current goes to zero and reverses.
The assumption that no magnetizing current flows
when the switch is open is justified because the ratio
current is very high in comparison to the magnetizing
163
current for this condition; Furthermore, the higher the
current, the more accurate is the representation.
Figure '21 shows the waveforms for a ct -with
resistive burden. In this case, the core voltage i s in
phase with the ratio current and the volt-time area is
measured from t = 0 on the sinewave.
I . N-HJ
- M(HULT1PLES OF PICKUP I)
FIG. 21 CT output Waveforms for Different Levels of
Excitation with Resistive Burden
The peak of the saturated waveform for a current
transformer with resistive burden is derived as follows.
Assume that the instantaneous values of the transformer
secondary current (I1) in burden resistor R6 can be
expressed by
i, p: I, sin 8 (5)
This current causes a voltage drop in the burden
resistor R6 equal to:
v1 = V , sin e (6)
where V l - I , R .
Where there is sufficient voltage to
saturate the tvansformer core, let the total flux change
during the half cycle of the sine wave be 20 As shown .
by the hysteresis loop in Figure 19, thi? is a flux
change from -j3 to tg during a positive half cycle of
voltage and fr& t0 t8 -0 during a negative half cycle
of voltage. The f h x chafige in terms of voltage is:
where N is the number o f transformer secondary turns.
Since tfie right side of this equation has the dimension
of volts, let V = 28 N . Making this substitution and
integrating theS resuft? gives:
1 - (vs/v,) = COS e, (8)
Expressing cose, in terms o f sin 8, and noting
that sin 8, = v,/V, from equation (6) gives:
2
- 2 (VS/Vl) + 1 = 1 - (V,/Vl)
(9)
Equation (IO) can be expressed in multiples of a
rated current by letting V , = M V , , and V = M V , where
V , , is the peak secondary voltage when rited Surrent is
applied to the transformer. With these substitutions,
equation (10) becomes:
( V I / V 1 1 ) = N = (2Ms(M - MS/2) I 0.5
(11)
 Equation (11) is plotted in Figure 21 along with
the resulting voltage waveforms at various multiples of
rated current.
As shown in Figure 21, an input of (M /2) produces
a sine wave output with a volt-time area Jqual to that
of the transformer core. When the input is M , the
output exists for 90 degrees of the sine wave a%d the
last linear peak occurs. When the input exceeds M , the
volt-time area occurs in less than 90 degrees at?d the
peak output volts follows the parabola described by
equation (IO).
A simple BASXCA PC program listed below provides
a convenient demonstration of the volt-time concept of
ct saturation for a resistive burden. The program
assumes that the magnetizing leg is’a volt-time switch
and that at saturation all ratio current switches to
magnetizing current as indicated in Figure 21.
The user enters the number of cycles to be
plotted, a fault current, fault closing angle, and the
impedance angle of the primary fault circuit. The
current is entered in per unit of ct rating. The user
then enters the symnetrical current at which saturation
occurs in per unit of ct rating. The residual flux may
also be entered in per unit of the saturation flux. A
scale factor for the plot is then entered to complete
the input data.
For example, assume that 20 per unit current flows
in a ct which will saturate with 5 per unit current and
that current was last interrupted with maximum negative
residual flux. To study this case, enter the following
data:
No. of cycles------------------------?:4
per unit current---------------------?:20
Closing angle------------------------?:go
Circuit impedance angle--------------?:85
Per unit to saturate-----------------?:5
Per unit residual flux---- -- - ------ --?: - 5
P1 ot vertical scale factor--- -- ---- -- ?:lo
The program then produces a plot, as shown in
Figure 22, of the primary current, core flux and the
secondary current all plotted to the same scale. To do
this the program determines the area of the per unit
voltage at which saturation occurs. Since a resistive
burden is assumed, the perunit current and the voltage
drop across it are numerically equal. The volt-time
area is plotted as the flux which accumulates until it
equals the volt-time area determined by the symmetrical
current at which saturation occurs. At this point the
flux becomes fixed and the secondary current goes to
zero since there is no longer a rate of change of flux.
Here all ratio current switches t o magnetizing Current
which flows in a zero ohm magnetizing impedance.
FIG. 22 Graph of CT Performance for Example Input
164
The secondary current remains zero until the
primary current. reverses. At this point the area
decreases and there is again a rate.of change of flux
and ratio current then switches from magnetizing current
to secondary current. Figure 23 shows the saturated
secondary current and the flux without the primary
current superimposed to emphasize the form o f secondary
current and it‘s relation to the flux.
L
FIG. 23 Graph of Figure 22 with Primary I Omitted
This example is not as severe a case as can occur
with low ratio and extremely high fault current, but was.
shown to clearly illustrate the form of current produced
by ct saturation. In more typical cases, the secondary
current becomes no more then a high current pulse each
half cycle. Such cases can be studied using the program
given in Appendix A.
CONCLUSIONS
This paper offers solutions to the basic hazard of
failure to trip when using low ratio cts on systems with
high fault levels such as exist in power plants and
industrial plants in metal-clad switchgear. The
conflict between large ct core size requirements and
switchgear space 1 imitations reduces the relaying
accuracy at these installations to less than what is
required for adequate protect_ion at high fault current
levels.
The selection of cts based solely on load and
overload currents can result in inadeauate relay
protection for the facility.
The following i s offered to guide the application
engineer in minimizing this problem.
1. For new relay installations, apply high ratio cts
near the bus connection for energizing instantaneous
relays. Use low ratio cts for metering and overcurrent
protection downstream from and as near to the high ratio
cts as feasible. The performance of selected ct and
relay settings should be confirmed for the maximum
asymmetric fault current by means of ct performance
application guides or calculation .
A conservative 1 imiting condition would be for
this maximum fault current not to exceed 20 times the
selected ct current rating with the total secondary
external burden not greater than the ct’s standard
burden rating.
2. For existing installations where it is not
feasible to install an additional set of high ratio cts,
the following changes will improve the present
performance.
a. When the present cts are marginal, replace them
with cts selected for maximum fault current and
burden. Supply the instantaneous relays from
these cts and the metering and overcurrent relays
-

from a u x i l i a r y cts of suitable ratio and 30 LOCATE 1, (80-LEN(TS))/2

capability. 40 PRINT TS
50 LS="a s i m p l i f i e d program t o analize the c t
b. Accept t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e l a y f a i l u r e t o waveform r e s u l t i n g from a"
operate a t very high currents and speedup the 60 L1Sl"specified saturation l e v e l r e l a t i v e t o a
backup r e l a y s t o coordinate w i t h the overcurrent specified current
r e l a y s e t t i n g s down t o a moderate overload. Note 70 LOCATE 2,(80-LEN(LS))/2:PRINT LS
t h e drawbacks pointed out i n the paper. 80 LOCATE 3,(80-LEN(LlS))/Z:PRINT L1S
90 LOCATE 6,l:INPUT "No. o f cycles-----------";Tp
C. When i t i s not f e a s i b l e t o changeout the present 100 LOCATE 7,l:JNPUT "Per.:unit current-------";).(
c t s t o a higher r a t i o , add a second set o f low -
110 LOCATE 8,l :INPUT "closing angle- - - - - - -- - ' I ;CA
r a t i o c t s as near t o the e x i s t i n g c t s as 120 LOCATE 9,l: INPUT " c k t impedance angle----";ZA
possible. 130 LOCATE 10,l:INPUT "per u n i t t o saturate--";Q
140 LOCATE 11,l:INPUT "per u n i t residual f1ux";AO
d. For severe saturation problems, r e s t r i c t the 145 LOCATE 12,l:INPUT " p l o t vert. scale factor";G
ground f a u l t current l e v e l s w i t h a system neutral 150 CLS
r e s i s t o r s u f f i c i e n t t o l i m i t the f a u l t current t o 160 WINDOW(-TP/100,-20)-(TPy20)
an acceptable value no more than 20 times the c t 170 LINE(-TP/lO,O)-(TP,O)
load rating. 180 LINE(O,-20)-(0.20)
190 FOR N=l to'TP .
3. The performance o f any o f these solutions should 200 LINE(N,-.5)-(N, .5)
be confirmed before placing i n service. Computer 210 NEXT N
programs are available, such as t h a t given i n t h e 220 FOR N=-20 TO 20
appendix o f t h i s paper, t o confirm the r e l a y system's -
230 LINE(0,N) ( .Ol*TP,N)
performance. 240 NEXT N
250 S=O:JO=O:UO=O
4. U t i l i t i e s and other user groups should promote t h e 260 .TI 0001:U-377 :RADmATN ( 1)/45
'proper and adequate a p p l i c a t i o n o f r e l a y i n g c t s i n 270 B=CA*RAD
metal - c l a d switchgear. The National E l e c t r i c a l Code 280 TO=TAN(ZA*RAD)/W
A r t i c l e 230-208 and 240-100 precludes the use o f low 290 FOR K=O TO TP/.006
r a t i o c t s i n service entrance p r o t e c t i o n and feeder 300 J=JO+T
.applications over 600 v o l t s when the r e s u l t i n g -
320 U=M*( EXP( (J/TO) )*COS( B) -COS (W*J+B) ) :Ul=U
p r o t e c t i v e performance i s l i m i t e d as discussed i n t h i s 330 D=( (U-UO)/Z+UO)*WfT
paper. 340 A=DtAO
350 I F S=1 THEN 370
BIBLIOGRAPHY 360 I F A>=Q THEN 370 ELSE 410
370 I F U>=O THEN 380 ELSE 400
1. D. J. West, "Current Transformer Application 380 A-AO:U=O:S-1
Guidelines". I A S '77 ANNUAL 390 GOT0 470
400 So0
2. American National Standards Institute, 410 I F S=2 THEN 430 ELSE 420
"Requirements f o r instrument Transformers . 420 I F A<=-Q THEN 430 ELSE 470
ANSI Standard C57.13- 1978 430 IF U<=O THEN 440 ELSE 460
440 A=AO:Ul:S=2
3. Power System Relaying Committee of the IEEE, 450 GOT0 470
"Transient Response o f Current Transformers". 460 S-0
76 CH 1130-4 PUR 470 LINE(JO*6OYAO*G/M) -(J*60,A*G/M)
480 LINE(J0*60,UO*G/M) - (J*60,U*G/M)
4. ANSI/IEEE C37.20.2-1987, "IEEE Standard f o r
Metal - c l a d and Station-Type Cubicle Switchgear.
485 ' LINE( JOf60,U10*G/M) - (J*60, Ul*G/M)
490 AO=A:UO=U:JO=J:UIO=Ul
500 NEXT K
5. I. Somos, D. Piccone, "PS Method, A Stable 510 US-INKEYS
Numerical "Method f o r Solving Transient E l e c t r i c a l 520 I F WS=""THEN 510
Problems, Cardinal P r i n t i n g Co., Sharon H i l l , 530 END
PA.
NOTE:

1. Before loading the above BASICA program, load

APPENDIX A GRAPHICS.COM (contained i n the DOS f i l e s ) .
2. For use w i t h an IBM compatible PC w i t h CGA
ComDuter Proaram f o r Simulation o f Current Transformers graphics.
and Re1avs f o r Performance Analysis 3. Use PRINT SCREEN t o get a hard copy o f the
graphic output.
( I n Program, a l l 0's i n variables are zeros) 4. As shown, the program w i l l produce two function
10 SCREEN 2:KEY 0FF:CLS curves. To get a t h i r d function curve, remove
20 TS="*** SATCT ***" the remarks symbol ( ' ) i n l i n e 485.

165