Professional Documents
Culture Documents
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
BY
F17/1756/2006
OF
I dedicate this project work to my father Charles, mother Jane and grandmother Margaret for
continually inspiring me to work hard in my academics, my brothers Dr. Mulwa, Nicodemus and
Robert and my sisters Margaret, Mwikali, Tabitha, Syombua and Elizabeth for their prayers and
encouragement. Thank you.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My sincere gratitude goes to Dr. Cyrus Wekesa, my project supervisor for his support, guidance,
helpful suggestions and continued monitoring of my progress during the project work. Much
appreciation goes to my lecturers in the Department of Electrical and Information Engineering
for the worthy knowledge they have imparted on me for the last five years. Am very grateful to
Dr. Mativo, Eng. Samson Akuto and Eng. Githinji all of KETRACO Company Limited for the
helpful information they provided to me with regards to this project.
I would like to thank all my friends especially Martha Kyule, Robert Muema and Clyde Omurayi
for their encouragement and support during my project work. Special thanks to Victor Kyalo my
proof reader.
Most importantly I thank God for keeping me healthy during the project period and also for
insight in what I was undertaking.
God bless us all.
iii
DECLARATION AND CERTIFICATION
Except where indicated and acknowledged, I certify that the information presented in this report
is my original effort and has not been presented before for a degree award in this or any other
university to the best of my knowledge.
…………………………………..............
This report has been submitted to the Department of Electrical and Information Engineering,
University of Nairobi with my approval as supervisor:
………………………………
Dr. Cyrus Wekesa
Date: ……………………
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS PAGE
DEDICATION ........................................................................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................................... iii
DECLARATION AND CERTIFICATION ................................................................................iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................ v
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................ viii
LIST OF TABLES .....................................................................................................................ix
ACROYNMS AND ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................... x
ABSTRACT ..............................................................................................................................xi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 1
1.1 Brief Background ..................................................................................................................1
1.2 Statement of the Problem ......................................................................................................1
1.3 Objective of the project .........................................................................................................1
1.4 Project Organization ..............................................................................................................2
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................. 3
2.1 Advantages of HVDC versus AC Transmission .....................................................................3
2.1.1 Technical Advantages .............................................................................................................. 3
2.1.2 Economic Advantages ............................................................................................................. 4
2.2 Disadvantages of HVDC Transmission over AC Transmission ..............................................6
2.3 Types of DC Links ................................................................................................................6
2.3.1 Monopolar DC Link.................................................................................................................. 6
2.3.2 Bipolar DC Link ........................................................................................................................ 7
2.3.3 Homopolar DC Link ................................................................................................................. 8
CHAPTER THREE: GENERAL HVDC TRANSMISSION LINE DESIGN .............................. 9
3.1 General Considerations .........................................................................................................9
3.1.1 Location of the Line (Line routing) ........................................................................................... 9
3.1.2 Transmission Voltage .............................................................................................................. 9
3.1.3 Conductor Type and Size ....................................................................................................... 10
3.1.4 Line Supports and Cross-arms ............................................................................................... 10
3.1.5 Span, Conductor Configuration, Spacing and Clearance ......................................................... 11
3.1.6 Sag and Tension .................................................................................................................... 12
3.1.7 Insulation .............................................................................................................................. 20
v
3.1.8 Ground Wire ......................................................................................................................... 21
3.2 Earth Electrode/ Station Earth ............................................................................................. 21
3.2.1 Choice of Material for Earth Electrode................................................................................... 21
3.2.2 Design of Earth Electrode ...................................................................................................... 22
3.2.3 Shape of Earth Electrode ....................................................................................................... 22
3.3 Converter Stations ............................................................................................................... 22
3.3.1 Converter Space Requirements ............................................................................................. 22
3.3.2 Pole Level.............................................................................................................................. 22
3.3.3 Converter Transformers ........................................................................................................ 23
3.3.4 Smoothing Reactors .............................................................................................................. 23
3.3.5 HVDC Switchyard .................................................................................................................. 23
3.3.6 HVDC Filters .......................................................................................................................... 24
3.3.7 HVAC Filters .......................................................................................................................... 24
3.4 Protection Considerations .................................................................................................... 24
CHAPTER FOUR: ETHIOPIA-KENYA HVDC LINE DESIGN.............................................. 25
4.1 Design Specifications .......................................................................................................... 25
4.1.1 HVDC Interconnector Routing ............................................................................................... 25
4.1.2 Choice of Transmission Voltage ............................................................................................. 28
4.1.3 Determination of Conductor Type and Size ........................................................................... 29
4.1.4 Choice of Span, Conductor Configuration and Clearance ....................................................... 32
4.1.5 Sag and Tension Analysis ....................................................................................................... 34
4.1.6 HVDC Insulation Design ......................................................................................................... 38
4.1.7 Choice of Earth/Ground Wire ................................................................................................ 41
4.1.8 Design of Line Supports and Cross-arms ................................................................................ 41
4.2 Design of Converter Stations ............................................................................................... 44
4.2.1 Converter Space Requirements ............................................................................................. 44
4.2.2 Pole Level.............................................................................................................................. 44
4.2.3 Converter Transformers ........................................................................................................ 45
CHAPTER FIVE: DESIGN RESULTS AND ANALYSIS ....................................................... 46
5.1 Results and Discussions....................................................................................................... 46
5.1.1 Routing Adopted ................................................................................................................... 46
5.1.2 Results for Sag Analysis ......................................................................................................... 46
5.1.3 Insulation Length .................................................................................................................. 47
5.1.4 Other Design Aspects Results ................................................................................................ 47
vi
5.1.5 Converter Station Results ...................................................................................................... 48
5.2 Efficiency and Cost Estimation of the Designed HVDC Line .............................................. 49
5.2.1 Efficiency Calculation ............................................................................................................ 49
5.2.2 Cost Estimation ..................................................................................................................... 50
CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK ........................................................ 52
6.1 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 52
6.2 Recommendation for Future Work ...................................................................................... 53
APPENDICES .......................................................................................................................... 54
Appendix 1: Schematic diagrams different converter transformer configurations....................... 54
Appendix 2: Comparison of different transformer configurations .............................................. 55
Appendix 3: A map of the area to be affected by the HVDC interconnector [8] ......................... 56
Appendix 4: Conductor surface voltage gradients for a +/- 500kV line [11]. .............................. 57
Appendix 5: Current/power carrying capacity for different conductor types [10] ....................... 58
Appendix 6: Joule Losses Cost [10] .......................................................................................... 59
Appendix 7: Standard insulation levels for range II. (From IEC 60071-1), [11] ......................... 60
Appendix 8: Clearances to withstand lightning over-voltages, EN 50341-1, [11] ....................... 61
Appendix 9: Clearances to withstand switching overvoltages, EN 50341-1, [11] ....................... 62
Appendix 10: The Complete HVDC/HVAC Transmission System [8] ...................................... 63
Appendix 11: Unit Prices for Main Equipment [8] .................................................................... 64
Appendix 12: Cost Estimation of the Complete Project [8]. ....................................................... 64
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 67
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
PAGE
FIGURE 2.1 COST COMPARISON BETWEEN AC AND DC TRANSMISSION .............................................5
FIGURE 2.2 MONOPOLAR DC LINK WITH GROUND RETURN PATH .....................................................7
FIGURE 2.3 BIPOLAR DC LINK WITH A DEDICATED LVDC METALLIC RETURN CONDUCTOR ...............7
FIGURE 2.4 HOMOPOLAR DC LINK WITH TWO HVDC CONDUCTORS AND GROUND AS RETURN ...........8
FIGURE 3.1 PARABOLIC FORM OF A CONDUCTOR BETWEEN SUPPORTS AT SAME LEVEL .................. 12
FIGURE 3.2 ICE COATED CONDUCTOR .......................................................................................... 14
FIGURE 3.3 A CONDUCTOR SUSPENDED BETWEEN SUPPORTS AT DIFFERENT LEVELS ...................... 18
FIGURE 4.1 HVDC 500 KV BIPOLAR LINE CORRIDOR FOR NON-POPULATED AREAS ......................... 33
FIGURE 4.2 HVDC 500 KV BIPOLAR LINE CORRIDOR FOR POPULATED AREAS ................................. 33
FIGURE 4.3 SHIELDING ANGLE VERSUS SHIELD-WIRE AVERAGE HEIGHT ....................................... 40
FIGURE 4.4 SELF-SUPPORTING LATTICE TOWER DESIGN FOR A HVDC 500 KV BIPOLAR LINE .......... 43
FIGURE 5.1 CIRCUITRY DESIGN OF EACH THYRISTOR VALVE ........................................................ 49
FIGURE 5.2 CIRCUITRY DESIGN OF EACH WYE-DELTA PART OF THE THYRISTOR VALVE ................. 49
viii
LIST OF TABLES
PAGE
TABLE 4.1 DETAILS FOR SECTION 1, PART 1: WOLAYTA SODO - ARBA MINCH ............................. 25
TABLE 4.2 DETAILS FOR SECTION 1, PART 2: ARBA MINCH – MEGA ............................................ 26
TABLE 4.3 DETAILS FOR SECTION 2, PART 1: MEGA TO TURBI ..................................................... 26
TABLE 4.4 DETAILS FOR SECTION 2, PART 2: TURBI TO MARSABIT............................................... 27
TABLE 4.5 DETAILS FOR SECTION 3, PART 1: MARSABIT TO ISIOLO .............................................. 27
TABLE 4.6 DETAILS FOR SECTION 3, PART 2: ISIOLO TO ISINYA .................................................... 28
TABLE 4.7 LINE MINIMUM COSTS AND JOULE LOSSES IN CASE OF 50% POWER TRANSFER.............. 31
TABLE 4.8 MINIMUM CLEARANCE STANDARDS FOR 500KV HVDC LINE ........................................ 34
TABLE 4.9 SHIELD-WIRE SAGS FOR DIFFERENT SECTIONS ............................................................. 40
TABLE 5.1 ROUTING SECTIONS AND THEIR RESPECTIVE DISTANCES .............................................. 46
TABLE 5.2 CONDUCTOR SAGS FOR DIFFERENT SECTIONS.............................................................. 46
TABLE 5.3 OBTAINED INSULATION LENGTHS ............................................................................... 47
TABLE 5.4 RESULTS FOR OTHER DESIGN ASPECTS ........................................................................ 47
TABLE 5.5 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE CHOSEN THYRISTORS AND CONVERTER TRANSFORMERS............ 48
TABLE 5.6 COST ESTIMATE FOR THE PROJECT WHEN FULLY COMPLETED ..................................... 50
TABLE 5.7 COST ESTIMATE FOR THE PROJECT USING HVAC SYSTEM ........................................ 51
ix
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
AC Alternating Current
DC Direct Current
KETRACO Kenya Electricity Transmission Company
HVDC High Voltage Direct Current
HVAC High Voltage Alternating Current
EEPCo Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation
ROW Right Of Way
UHV Ultra High Voltage
EHV Extra High Voltage
KPLC Kenya Power Lighting Company
OPGW Optical Ground Wire
ACSR Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced
AAAC All Aluminium Alloy Conductor
CIGRE ‘Conseil International des Grands Réseaux Électriques’(French)
IEC International Electro-technical Commission
BIL Basic Insulation Level
SR Synchronous Reactor
AC Alternating Current Filter
DCF Direct Current Filter
EL Electrode Line
KV Kilo Volt
MVA Mega Volt-Ampere
MW Mega Watt
kA Kilo Ampere
x
ABSTRACT
HVDC transmission is preferred over HVAC transmission for power transmission over long
distances. This is due to the many advantages associated with HVDC transmission as explained
in chapter two of this project. This project thus involved the design of a HVDC transmission line
to transmit power between Ethiopia and Kenya.
The design involved choice of the most feasible routing which relied to much extend on the
feasibility study done by KETRACO Company Limited (Kenya). The entire route was
subdivided into five sections. A bipolar dc link configuration was chosen with a standard
transmission voltage of +/- 500kV. The most economical solution for the conductor type from
the design was ACSR Pheasant, four conductors per pole. The conductor size was 726.79mm
cross-sectional area and 35.10mm diameter.
For each of the five sections subdivided during routing, sags were calculated assuming an
erection tension of 63709N obtained calculations involving the physical conditions of the area
during worst probable conditions and during erection time. The largest sag obtained from the
calculations was 13.42m. Insulation design was then done taking into account the effects of
pollution, lightning and switching over-voltages.
The support towers were also design taking into considerations the values of transmission
voltage, sag obtained, insulation lengths and minimum clearance of the line conductors from the
ground. The designed transmission line required two converter stations; one at Wolayta/Sodo in
Ethiopia and another at Isinya in Kenya.
xi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
The transmission and distribution of electrical energy started with direct current (DC) in the late
19th century, but it was inefficient due to the power loss in conductors since the low voltages
generated then could not be stepped up. Alternating current (AC) offered much better efficiency,
since it could easily be transformed to higher voltages, with far less loss of power. AC
technology was soon accepted as the only feasible technology for generation, transmission and
distribution of electrical energy. The power systems all over the world have been expanded
vastly during the past few decades. Now-a-days large blocks of power are transmitted over long
distances from the remotely located power stations to urban load centres. The main limitations of
long distance power transmission using AC are: voltage regulation problems and system stability
problems. The world's first commercial HVDC transmission link, was built in 1954 between the
Swedish mainland and the island of Gotland, with a rating of 20 MW, 200 A and 100 kV. This
was a monopolar dc link which made use of sea return.
1
3. The type and size of conductor required.
4. The required span, conductor configuration, spacing and clearance.
5. The optimum sags and tension on the conductors.
6. The insulation design required.
7. The choice of the ground/earth wires.
8. The type and requirements of the line supports and cross-arms.
2
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
3
control at the two ends, a more economical use of cheap power generation in either of the two ac
systems and reduction of system reserve and standby capacity [2].
7. Greater Reliability
In a two-conductor bipolar dc line in the event of a fault on one conductor, the other conductor
can continue to operate with ground return; this phenomenon makes the bipolar dc line more
reliable than a 3-conductor 3-phase ac line. Also a monopolar dc line with ground return is
simpler than a 3-phase ac line and is equally reliable [2].
The potential stress on the insulation in case of dc systems is ( ) times of that in ac system for
the same working voltage [4]. Hence for same working voltage less insulation is required. Also
underground cables can be used because of less potential stress and negligible dielectric loss.
4
Figure 2.1 gives the comparison of the cost for dc and ac transmission with reference to distance
of transmission.
c. Lower Losses
An optimized HVDC transmission line has lower losses than AC lines for the same power
capacity. The losses in the converter stations have of course to be added, but since they are only
about 0.6 % of the transmitted power in each station, the total HVDC transmission losses come
out lower than the AC losses in practically all cases [3].
d. Stage Construction
An HVDC transmission line can be built in stages. Initially the line can be built as a monopolar
line with ground return. Later on the line can be converted into a bipolar line. This aspect
becomes very important when there is a long period between the successive stages because the
investment for the future extension is not required to be made initially [2].
5
e. Environment Friendly
The land coverage and the associated right-of-way cost for a HVDC overhead transmission line
is not as high as for an AC line. This reduces the visual impact. It is also possible to increase the
power transmission capacity for existing rights of way. There are, however, some environmental
issues which must be considered for the converter stations, such as: audible noise, visual impact,
electromagnetic compatibility and use of ground or sea return path in monopolar operation [3].
6
Figure 2.2: Monopolar dc link with ground return path
Figure 2.3: Bipolar dc link with a dedicated LVDC metallic conductor as return path.
7
2.3.3 Homopolar DC Link
It has two (or more) conductors all having the same polarity (usually negative) and always
operates with ground as the return conductor. If a fault develops at one conductor the converter
equipment can be reconnected so that the healthy conductors (having some overload capacity)
can supply more than half the rated power.
Figure 2.4 shows a homopolar dc link with two conductors and ground as the return path.
Figure 2.4: Homopolar dc link with two HVDC conductors and ground as return path.
8
CHAPTER THREE: GENERAL HVDC TRANSMISSION LINE DESIGN
= . + (3.1)
.
Where
V = line voltage in Kilovolts.
L = transmission distance in kilometres.
P = power transmitted in kilowatts.
9
A standard voltage nearest to this value should be adopted. The above formula gives only a
preliminary estimate. Once the preliminary estimate is available, a detailed study of both
technical and economical aspects can be done in order to come up with the best choice of the
transmission voltage.
10
· They are very suitable for double circuit lines.
They also posses some disadvantages which include:
· They are very costly.
· They are bulky and have to be assembled on site.
The height of the tower depends on the line voltage and the span length. The legs of the towers
are set in special foundations. Overhead HV, EHV and UHV lines mostly use self supporting
steel towers fabricated from galvanized steel angle sections. There are mainly two common
configurations of steel towers; tangent towers and angle (deviation) towers.
In design, the shape and length of cross-arms depend on the line voltage and the desired
conductor configuration. Both vertical and horizontal loads are taken into account when
designing cross-arms. Normally, an allowance is made for the loads imposed on the cross-arms
due to change in the line profile especially in hilly areas [2].
Both symmetrical and unsymmetrical conductor configurations are used in practice. Practically,
a flat horizontal configuration results in a lesser tower height but a wider right of way. On the
other hand, a vertical configuration results in taller towers and thus increased lightning hazards.
During transmission line design, adequate spacing between conductors should be kept in order to
avoid conductors from coming within sparking distance of each other even while swinging due
to wind. The spacing of aluminium conductors can be calculated by:
= √ + (3.2)
11
3.1.6 Sag and Tension
Sag and tension analysis of a conductor is an important consideration in overhead transmission
line design. The continuity and quality of electric service depend largely on whether the
conductors have been properly installed.
The conductor is assumed to be flexible and sags below the level AB due to its weight. The exact
shape of the conductor is that of a catenary. With an exception of conductors with very long
spans and very large sags, the shape of the conductors is assumed to be that of a parabola
(where a equals the constant for a given conductor with O as the origin) and this
assumption provides ease of calculation with sufficient accuracy.
y= S, when
From (3.3)
12
Hence, = (3.4)
Thus, =
Giving = (3.5)
Considering the equilibrium of half line OA and assuming the conductor to be almost horizontal
and taking moments about A,
And = (3.6)
= (3.7a)
= (3.7b)
3.1.6.2 Sag and Tension Analysis Taking Into Account the Effects of Ice and Wind
A transmission line conductor is also subject to wind pressure in addition to its own weight. A
coating of ice may also be formed on the conductors of the lines in hilly areas during severe
winter conditions. The two factors should thus be taken into account when calculating the sag or
tension of the conductor.
A one meter length conductor is considered having the following parameters:
13
Figure 3.2: Ice coated conductor.
The overall diameter of ice covered conductor as seen from Figure 3.2 is given by:
D d 2t Meters (3.8)
V π π m
π
V D d m (3.9)
The weight of ice is approximately 8920N/m . Thus the weight of ice per meter length of
conductor is then given as,
π
w 8920 D d N/m (3.10)
w 2230π d 2t d N/m
w 8920π dt t N/m
For design purposes, the wind pressure is assumed to act horizontally on the projected area of the
ice covered conductor. From Figure 3.2 it is seen that this projected area is D square meters per
14
meter length of the conductor. Thus for a wind pressure of p Newtons per square meter of
projected area, wind load is given by:
F = pD N/m (3.12)
With the wind velocity specified, the wind pressure p is taken as 0.059v N/m [2]
Therefore the total force acting on the conductor per meter length is given by:
.
F = w+ w + F N/m (3.13)
This force Ft lies in the new plane of conductor and is inclined to the vertical at an angle given
by:
γ = tan (3.14)
Equations (3.5) and (3.7) are still valid if all the measurements are made in the new plane of
conductor and with w replaced by . If T is the limiting tension and Ft is the total force per
meter on the conductor under worst probable conditions, then using Equation (3.6), the sag in the
new plane is given as:
S= meters (3.15)
S = S cos γ (3.16)
γ = tan (3.18)
15
3.1.6.3 Determining Total Length of Conductor
Considering a small right angled triangle on the parabola = in the Figure 3.1, it gives:
ds = dx + dy (3.19)
Dividing both sides by dx :
= 1+ = 1 + 4a x
This gives,
.
ds = 1 + 4a x dx ≅ 1 + 2a x dx (3.20)
s= x+ + k
When x = 0, s = 0. Therefore, k = 0
Thus, s = x + (3.21)
With z is the total length of the conductor line, then = in the Equation (3.21). Substituting the
value of from Equation (3.7a), the length of half the conductor line is determined, that is .
×
Thus, = + × = +
×
This gives,
z= + (3.22)
z = (1 + ) (3.23)
16
to the regulations, the maximum tension in the conductor should not exceed half the breaking
load [7]. This is maintained so as to allow a factor of safety of two. The erection tension should
be such that if loading conditions subsequently occur there will be no infringement on the factor
of safety.
If the quantities under the worst probable conditions are denoted by subscript 1 and those under
the erection conditions denoted by subscript 2; then z , T , θ and F denote the conductor
length, tension, temperature and total load per meter under the worst probable conditions.
z , T , θ and F denote the same quantities under the erection conditions. A relationship
between the two conditions is derived so as to show the interdependence between the two set of
conditions.
αz θ − θ
Thus, z = z + + α θ − θ (3.24)
Substituting for z and z from Equation (3.23), then the above equation becomes,
{ 1+ = 1+ + + α(θ − θ ) (3.25)
Using the binomial expansion and neglecting second order terms Equation (3.25) reduces to,
( ) ( )
− = + α(θ − θ ) (3.26)
After rearranging the terms in the above equation it can be written as,
T T − T − αAE θ − θ − = (3.27)
17
This results to a cubic equation which can be solved graphically or analytically. Using this
derived equation erection tension T1 is determined such that the tension T2 (that is, tension under
worst probable conditions) will not exceed the safe limit of tension. The sag for erection
conditions is then calculated using this value of tension.
The curve BOCA is the complete parabola with A and B at the same level. The actual line BOC
is a part of this complete parabola.
Then,x (3.28)
Since the equation of parabola that is y ax is valid for both the curve BOCA and BOC,
Equation (3.6) still holds.
y S h
18
Or = (3.29)
Substituting the values of S and x1 from equations (3.6) and (3.28) into equation (3.29),
= (3.30)
= + (3.31)
Since h, T, and w are known, can be found out. The formula given by equation (3.31) is
valid even when the two supports B and C fall on the same side of origin O (that is, span l is less
than ).
19
3.1.7 Insulation
To determine whether or not an insulator can be used, both its mechanical strength and electrical
properties are considered. The suspension insulators are the ones commonly used in high
voltages [6]. The line insulation chosen should be sufficient to take care of the following three
kinds of over-voltages:
20
3.1.8 Ground Wire
Ground wires are used to shield the current carrying conductors from the lightning strokes by
dissipating the lightning currents to the ground. They may be one or two. These wires are placed
above the current carrying conductors and are grounded at each or alternate tower. These wires
are commonly made from galvanized steel. In design of high voltage lines, a shielding angle of
30° is considered adequate; however this shielding angle increases to 45° for high voltage lines
in areas with low lightning hazards. For extra high voltage lines the shielding angle is kept at
about 20° [2]. In design, the ground wires should have lesser sags as compared to the current
carrying conductors. A ground wire should have sufficient mechanical strength and be able to
carry the maximum expected lightning current without overheating. The size of ground wire is
generally chosen on the basis of mechanical strength since experience has shown that if this is
satisfied, the wire can carry the maximum lightning current without overheating [2].
21
3.2.2 Design of Earth Electrode
The following design aspects govern the design of an earth electrode [2]:
a) The current density at the electrode surface should not exceed 1.5A/m.
b) The temperature of the electrode and its surrounding should be limited to 60℃ .
c) The earth resistance should be as low as possible.
d) The step voltage on the ground surface above the electrode should be within safe limits.
22
3.3.3 Converter Transformers
The converter transformers are used to step down the ac voltages to suitable values for feeding
the converters. Generally, there are three basic transformer arrangements for connecting the 12-
pulse valve groups to the three-phase HVAC system:
a) Two three-phase two-winding transformers.
b) Three single-phase three-winding transformers.
c) Six single-phase two-winding transformers.
Appendix 1 shows schematic diagrams of the three alternative connections, while Appendix 2
gives a comparison of the three configurations, citing some advantages and disadvantages of
each of them. Selection of the converter transformer bank is primarily dependent on the
maximum weight that can be transported to the site and the spare part policy [8].
23
3.3.6 HVDC Filters
To avoid interference with telephone lines running parallel to the DC overhead lines, DC filters
are required to absorb the harmonic currents. Active DC filters are recommended, because they
can reduce harmonics to lower levels than passive filters. Furthermore, they are cheaper and need
less space for installation as compared to passive filters [5].
· Testing of one of the duplicated protection equipments must be possible without affecting
24
CHAPTER FOUR: ETHIOPIA-KENYA HVDC LINE DESIGN
Aspect Description
25
small rivers. The terrain was seen to be suitable for agriculture.
4. Restrictions No restrictions.
Line route followed the main road Sodo-Arba Minch-Mega, to facilitate its
5. Maintenance
construction and maintenance.
6. Vicinity Villages: Sodo, Tebela, Korga, Birbir, Lante, Arba Minch.
26
village.
The line route crossed a lot of small rivers. The terrain was suitable for
3. Hydrology
agriculture.
4. Restrictions No restrictions.
5. Maintenance Maintenance and constructions is more difficult.
6. Vicinity No village and roads were in the proximity of the line.
27
agriculture.
The restrictions were in Losai National Reserve and Buffalo Springs Game
4. Restrictions
Reserve areas.
The line route followed the main road Sodo-Mega- Moyale-Isiolo, to
5. Maintenance
facilitate construction and maintenance.
In the proximity of the line route were few villages; more important were
6. Vicinity
Loglogo and Isiolo.
.
V = 5.5 + = 570.25KV (4.1)
.
A standard +/- 500 kV HVDC bipolar scheme was chosen for the HVDC link so as to ease the
choice of standard rated power equipment during installation.
28
4.1.3 Determination of Conductor Type and Size
The HVDC line design included the economic optimization of the conductors, considering
applicable international standards. The lines were to be protected against lightning discharges by
two earth wires, that is, one ground wire and one OPGW type. The +/-500 kV, 1200km long
Bipolar HVDC Line from Wolayta/Sodo to Isinya was designed without metallic return.
Conductors used had to satisfy the following:
· Transfer of a maximum design power of 2000 MW at +/- 500 kV nominal voltages on the
bipolar line without neutral conductor.
· Transfer continuously the specified maximum continuous overload for the pole operation
over ground return, assumed 1500 MW.
· Provide safety of the line, considering the mechanical loads from wind.
· Provide satisfactory radio interference (RI), audible noise (AN) and corona loss
performances.
The optimal conductor selection process was complex with the choice of suitable conductor (and
sub-conductors) depending on the operating voltage, the power to be transmitted and the
acceptable voltage drop and losses in the conductor. Thereafter, radio interference, audible noise
and corona losses needed to be evaluated to find the optimum conductor bundle.
= (4.2)
% × ×
Where: V = Sending end voltage, pole to ground, in our case 500 kV.
% = Percentage drop in voltage.
= DC resistance of the conductor in Ω / km.
L = Distance in km.
Thus, to transfer 1500 MW per one pole, with maximum 10% drop voltage, the pole resistance
Thus, = = . / (4.4)
× ×
29
Assuming four conductors per bundle (per pole), then the resistance of a single strand used to
make the four bundled conductor was obtained by multiplying the overall calculated resistance
of the bundled conductor by four which gave:
= . × = . / (4.5)
Accordingly, conductors with electrical resistances lower than 0.055556Ω could be used in this
project. The conductors with this property were: Finch, Bunting, Grackle, Bittern, Pheasant,
Dipper, Martin, Bobolink, Plover, Nuthatch, Lapwing, Falcon, Chukar– ACSR types and
ASTER 851 – AAAC type [10]. The next procedure was to compare the given conductor types
on the basis of their radio interference (RI), audible noise (AN) and corona loss performances.
4.1.3.2 Radio Interference (RI), Audible Noise (AN) and Corona Loss Performances
This involved determining the Radio Interference, Audible Noise and corona loss performances
of the conductors. These qualities depend on the surface voltage gradients of the candidate
conductors. This process was done taking into account different bundle arrangements. The basis
for this comparison was to get a conductor type with a surface voltage gradient lower than the
acceptable surface voltage gradient for a long transmission line which is 22kV/cm [10].
The following acceptable line geometry for the 500KV HVDC transmission line was assumed:
· 14 m pole spacing.
· 11 m conductor above ground level.
From Appendix 4, assuming a four-bundled line, all the conductors being compared were found
to have surface voltage gradients lower than 22kV/cm, which is the recommended value [8].
30
Finch, Bunting, and Grackle types of conductors were ruled out since their power carrying
capacities were far below the expected 1500MW during overloads. Bittern and Pheasant
conductor types had power carrying capacities of 1474MW which was considered sufficient
since the 50% power overload assumed was quite high. Dipper, Martin, Bobolink, Plover,
Nuthatch, Lapwing, Falcon, Chukar– ACSR types and ASTER 851 – AAAC types had their
carrying capacities higher than 1500MW.
For the four bundled conductor line chosen, each conductor was to carry a current given by:
From the data given in appendix 5, Bittern and Pheasant conductor types had current carrying
capacities of 737A which was considered still sufficient since the overload condition considered
in the calculation was higher than the recommended 30%. Dipper, Martin, Bobolink, Plover,
Nuthatch, Lapwing, Falcon, Chukar– ACSR types and ASTER 851 – AAAC types had their
carrying capacities higher than 750A.
31
Appendix 6 gives the joule loss costs in case of half power transfer, as compared to 4 x ACSR
FINCH. Considering full power transfer, the economical solution became the conductor with low
electrical resistance and lower line minimum costs, among which 4 x Pheasant remained the
most attractive. 4 x Falcon and 4 × ASTER 851 were not selected due their higher mass, making
them more difficult to transport and install in mountainous areas [10].
32
Figure 4.1: HVDC 500 kV bipolar line corridor for non-populated areas and forests [8].
Trees with heights lower than 4 m were allowed inside a 20 m line corridor and trees shorter than
8 m were allowed for the rest of the line corridor.
Figure 4.2: HVDC 500 kV bipolar line corridor for populated areas [8].
33
The minimum clearances between the conductors and ground at their maximum sags were also
considered in this design. Table 4.8 gives some of the clearances standards used in this project.
Table 4.8: Minimum clearance standards for 500KV HVDC line from common features [10]
Crossing obstacle Minimum clearance
1. Ground 10m
2. Cross country and secondary roads 10m
3. Streets 11m
4. Residential areas 11m
5. Highway, motor ways 11m
6. Over pipelines 11m
7. Power and telecommunication lines 7m
8. Sport places and school courts 10m
9. Fences/Walls, Constructions with fire proof roofs 7m
In the design of the towers a minimum clearance of 11m was used since this was the largest
among the clearances.
34
Maximum wind velocity was 28.6m/s
To calculate the erection tension T , equation 3.27 was used, that is:
T T − T − αAE θ − θ − = , (4.8)
. × . × .
= = 1.961 × 10
Therefore,
T T − 100000 − 46431.85 − 38172.82 = 1.961 × 10
T T − 15395.33 = 1.962 × 10
T − 15395.33 T − 1.961 × 10 = 0
The solution of above equation gives the erection tension as:
T = 63709.26471 ≅ 63709N
35
The conductor sags at erection time were then calculated at each section using the determined
tension at erection.
θ = tan = 1.1458°
h = 400 sin(1.1458) = 8m
× ×
l = l+ = 400 + = 512.94m
. ×
. × .
S= = = 11.65m
×
For the next about (271-35) =236 km the altitude was between 800m and 1200m.
θ = tan = 0.097 °
36
4.1.5.3 Sag between Mega and Turbi
For the first 25km the route was flat. Thus,
.
S= = = 7.08m
×
For the next (107-25) =82km the altitude was between 1200m and 800m. Thus,
θ = tan = 0.28°
θ = tan = 0.31°
θ = tan [ ] = 0.1983°
37
As it can be seen from the above calculations the erection tension T was approximately 63709
Newtons. The largest value of the sag required for during erection was thus, 13.42m. The height
of the tower designed had to be able to provide adequate ground clearance even during the
largest value of sag.
4.1.6.2 Pollution
The main environmental danger considered was airborne pollution of the insulator surfaces.
The pollution requirements considered are defined in IEC 60815, [11]:
“Pollution Level “Heavy pollution“ with a creepage distance related to the line max. voltage
500kV is 4.325mm/kV r. m. s.”
Thus a creepage length of 4.325 mm/kV was chosen, that is:
4.325mm× 500 =2162.5 mm=2.1625m.
The selected insulator strings had also to satisfy the requirements of lightning impulse stresses.
4.1.6.3 Over-Voltages
38
( . × ) . ×
( )
= = = . (4.9)
The lightning withstand voltage at 2000 m was thus given by:
1300 x 1.1445 = 1487kVmax.
From EN 50341-1, [11] (that is, using the data given in Appendix 8), the clearance
corresponding to a lightning withstand voltage of 1487KV was 3.0m.
39
Figure 4.3: Shielding angle versus shield-wire average height [8].
Therefore, so as to ensure freedom from shielding failure, two earth-wires subtending an angle
approximated to 0° (zero degrees) to the current carrying conductors at the tower were
incorporated in the design. The minimum distance between live conductors and shield wire
needed to be at least 9m for both suspension angle towers and terminal towers [11]. In this
design the clearance between the live conductors and the shield wire was thus chosen to be 9m
as shown in Figure 4.4. The sag of shield wire should be 10% less than the sag of current
carrying conductor. Thus the sags of the shield wire were designed to be not more than 90% of
the sag of the conductors at their respective sections. The shield-wire sags for the sections under
considerations were calculated based on the respective live conductor sags at these sections and
the results tabulated in Table 4.9.
1. Wolayta /Sodo - Arba Minch 90% 13.42m . (for the first 30km)
90% 7.08m . (for the next 80km)
2. Arba Minch – Mega 90% 11.65m . (for the first 35km)
90% 7.43m . (for the next 236km)
40
3. Mega to Turbi 90% × 7.08m = . (for the first 25km)
90% × 8.09m = . (for the next 82km)
4. Turbi to Marsabit 90% × 8.19m = . (for the 131km)
41
the towers was according to the design parameters obtained earlier in this project. The cross-
arms had to ensure that the current carrying conductors were at least 4.30m from the grounded
tower parts. A greater length than this was used in the design so as to ensure that the live
conductors do not come within sparking distance with the tower body. The formula given in
Equation (3.2) gave;
Spacing = √13.42 + = 7m
Thus, seven-meter long cross-arms were considered in this design. The insulation strings used
were five meters long.
The following parameters based on previous results were also considered:
· Maximum conductor sag of 13.42m. During the tower design this maximum conductor
sag was approximated to 14m.
· Conductor clearance of 11.00m from the ground.
· Spacing of 9m between the live conductors and the shield wires.
Thus, the total tower height was 34m, that is:
14m + 11m + 9m = 34m
Since a span of 400m was adopted for this project, the total number of towers required for the
whole HVDC interconnector was estimated as follows:
The actual number of towers was expected to be slightly lower than this because the span chosen
had to increase where the HVDC line crosses rivers, tributaries, streets or main roads.
Figure 4.4 shows the outline of the self-supporting lattice towers designed for this HVDC
transmission line.
42
Figure 4.4: Self-supporting lattice tower design for HVDC 500 kV bipolar line
43
4.2 Design of Converter Stations
Two converter stations were designed, one at each end of the 500kV HVDC transmission line.
One of the converters was to be located at Wolayta/Sodo in Ethiopia and the other at Isinya in
Kenya. Under normal operation, the rectifier station was assumed to be the Wolayta/Sodo
converter station and the inverter station at Isinya.
44
I = = = 500A (4.12)
×
This was the maximum current expected to pass through the series thyristors when they were in
conduction mode.
Since each thyristor valve had 75 thyristors connected in series, the voltage across a single
thyristor was given by:
V = = 1.67KV (4.13)
×
The firing angle, of the thyristors was calculated using Equation (4.6).
√ ( )
Vo = cos α
π
(4.14)
π
cos α = (4.15)
√ ( )
Vo = = 250KV
V ( ) ≅ 220KV
( )
cos = = 0.84146
√ ( )
45
CHAPTER FIVE: DESIGN RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
46
From Table 5.2, the largest sag obtained for the design was 13.42m. This was the value used in
determining the heights of the designed HVDC line towers. This value was approximated to 14m
during tower design.
From Table 5.3, the insulation length considered during the design was that obtained from
switching over-voltages since it was the largest, with a value of 4.3m. To ensure that there would
be no chance of the live conductors coming into sparking distance with the tower body, a value
of seven meters was used in the design of the cross-arms.
47
7. Earth wires one OPGW and one Galvanized Steel
7. Line supports self-supporting lattice towers
8. Estimated number of towers 3000
The transmission voltage was determined according to the expected power capacity of the line
and the transmission distance. The chosen conductor type and size gave the best qualities with
regard to power loss and economic considerations. A span of 400m was chosen with a horizontal
conductor configuration. This ensured reasonable tower heights. The largest expected clearance
was 11m which was used in the design of the towers. One OPGW and one galvanized steel wire
were used for the earth/ground wires in accordance with the general guidelines for the
environmental treatment of transmission lines by CIGRE Study Committee B2 [10]. Self-
supporting lattice steel towers were used to ensure durability and reliability.
Particular Description
The results were analysed and found to be reliable since there were thyristors and transformers in
market having the obtained descriptions and ratings.
The general design diagram for the whole HVDC system was as shown in Appendix 10.
Figure 5.1 gives the details of each of the 500MW thyristor valve shown in Appendix 10.
48
Figure 5.1: Circuitry design of each thyristor valve.
The connections for the wye-delta part of each of the 500MW thyristor valve were done as
illustrated Figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2: Circuitry design of each wye-delta part of the thyristor valve.
49
I= = = 2000A = 2kA (5.2)
That is,
.
η= × 100% = 99.75% (5.6)
Table 5.6: Cost estimation for the HVDC project when fully completed
So as to show the economic advantage of the use of HVDC transmission system over the HVAC
transmission system, the cost estimation of the project when implemented using HVAC system
50
was done and the two costs compared. Table 5.7 gives the cost estimation of the HVAC system.
The figures were provided by KETRACO from the conceptual study conducted [8].
Table 5.7: Cost estimation for the project using HVAC system.
Table 5.6 and Table 5.7 clearly show that the adoption of HVDC transmission system rather
than an HVAC one cuts costs. The total cost saved by using HVDC transmission system was
calculated as:
Cost saved = Billion Ksh. (141.91284 − 95.66988 = Billion Ksh. 46.24296 (5.7)
Thus, Ksh.46,242,960,000 would be saved by using HVDC transmission system instead of using
HVAC system in this project.
51
CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
6.1 Conclusion
The design of a HVDC transmission line from Ethiopia to Kenya was done successfully
following the required design criteria. The most feasible routing of the line was determined, and
it was divided into three sections having a total of six parts which were: Wolayta/Sodo – Arba
Minch – Mega – Turbi – Marsabit – Isiolo – Isinya. The transmission voltage chosen was
500KV. This was arrived at using the formula given in equation 3.1. The choice of conductor
type and size was done on the basis of minimum power losses, power and current carrying
capacity and economic considerations. A 4× Pheasant ACSR conductor was found to be the best
suited as pertains to the above considerations.
The design assumed a span of 400m with horizontal conductor configuration whose ROW was
50m for the less populated areas and 65m for the densely populated areas. The chosen clearance
of the live conductors was 11m. After calculating the sag for each of the six sub-sections, the
maximum sag obtained was 13.42m; thus an approximate value of 14m was used for the design
of the support towers. The suspension insulators were adopted for this design. The calculations
done with reference from the IEC tables gave a recommended insulation length of 4.3m. An
insulation length of seven meters was adopted in the design to ensure a substantial safety factor.
Two earth wires were employed in the design; their sag was maintained at 90% of the conductor
sags. A distance of nine meters was maintained between the earth-wires and the conductors.
Thus the total tower height was 34m.
The design of the converter stations was also done though not to detail. The use of direct LTT
was adopted. Each thyristor valve comprised of five valve sections with 15 thyristor levels each,
thus making a total of 75 thyristors connected in series. The firing angle for the thyristors was
calculated and found to be 32.71°. The current and voltage ratings of the thyristors chosen were
1kA and 4KV respectively. The converter transformer ratings were 500MW, 400KV/220KV and
1300KV LIWL. The efficiency of the design HVDC transmission line was found to be 99.75%
and the cost of implementing the complete HVDC system was estimated
at Billion Ksh. 95.66988. Thus the objective of the project was successfully achieved.
52
6.2 Recommendation for Future Work
Though the objective of the project was achieved, some areas were not completely tackled and
others were not tackled at all due to time limitation. Hence future work can be covered in these
areas which include:-
1. Detailed design of the converter stations: - this includes design of ground electrodes
and their associated wires, AC and DC filters, smoothening reactors, control rooms and
the HVDC switchyards.
2. HVDC system protection: - this includes both the protection of the HVDC transmission
line and the converter stations. This is usually done on the ac side of the converter station
and thus calls for a detailed converter station design as pointed in the first
recommendation.
53
APPENDICES
54
Appendix 2: Comparison of different transformer configurations
55
Appendix 3: A map of the area to be affected by the HVDC interconnector [8]
56
Appendix 4: Conductor surface voltage gradients for a +/- 500kV line [11].
57
Appendix 5: Current/power carrying capacity for different conductor types [10]
58
Appendix 6: Joule Losses Cost [10]
59
Appendix 7: Standard insulation levels for range II. (From IEC 60071-1), [11]
60
Appendix 8: Clearances to withstand lightning over-voltages, EN 50341-1, [11]
61
Appendix 9: Clearances to withstand switching overvoltages, EN 50341-1, [11]
62
Appendix 10: The Complete HVDC/HVAC Transmission System [8]
63
Appendix 11: Unit Prices for Main Equipment [8]
64
65
66
REFERENCES
[1] D.M Larruskain & Others, “Transmission and Distribution Networks: AC versus DC,”
University of the Basgue Country-Bilbao (Spain)
[2] B.R Gupta, Power system analysis and design, © 2000 S. Chand & Company Ltd (An ISO
9001:2000 Company) 7361, Ram Nagar, New Delhi-110 055
[3] Kala Meah, Student Member, IEEE, and Sadrul Ula, Senior Member, IEEE “Comparative
Evaluation of HVDC and HVAC Transmission Systems,” from IEEE Xplore
[4] Anthony J. Pansini, “Power Transmission and distribution”, Second Edition @2005 By the
Fairmount Press Inc.
[5] Siemens Power Transmission and Distribution High Voltage Division, HVDC proven
Technology, Order No. E60001-U131-A92-V2-7600, Printed in Germany Diepo-Stele 30000
[6] H. Wayne Beaty, “Electrical Power Distribution Systems” @1998 by PeunWell Publishing
Company.
[7] D. Das, Electrical power systems, ©2006 New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers.
New Delhi.
[8] Dr. Popescu, “HVDC Converter Station and Facilities and Basic design on transmission lines
report,,” Final feasibility report on Ethiopia-Kenya Power Systems interconnection project,
vol. 2, March 2009,
[9] J. Holweg, H.P. Lips, Q.B. Tu, M. Uder, Peng Baoshu, Zhang Yeguang, “Modern HVDC
Thyristor Valves for China's Electric Power System," in Proc. 2002 IEE-PES/CSEE
International Conference on Power Systems Conf.
[10] Ethiopia-Kenya Power System Interconnection Project Feasibility Study –Inception Report,
Fichtner GmbH, November 2007
[11] www.iec.ch/standards
67