Seismic Velocity

1. What are the sources of fine-scale velocity control in the area? Vertical
seismic profiles or sonic logs (with checkshots) are the best sources
and are the key link between seismic events and geologic horizons
Sonic velocities benefit from upscaling, but VSP velocities generally do not
(the frequency is closer to surface seismic data).

2. What are the available sources of velocity for depth conversion?

VSP, well logs, or seismically derived?

3.What is the kind of migration used for your data, is it appropriate for the
kind of velocity variation in the area?

4. Dipole sonic logs can give P-wave and S-wave velocity as a function
of depth.

5. Cross Dipole sonic can give indications of anisotropy associated with

vertical fracturing.

Seismic Interpretation 2018_2019 Liner, 2004,

 Velocity pull up beneath carbonate pinnacle reef
Geological model

Seismic Interpretation 2018_2019 Hart, 2011 figure 6.48

Velocity pull up beneath carbonate pinnacle reef:
pull up
Time seismic

Seismic Interpretation 2018_2019 Hart, 2011 figure 6.48

 Depth conversion using simple average
velocities: well data for depth beneath seismic
reference depth to top horizon at well

Seismic Interpretation 2018_2019 Hart, 2011 figure 6.54

Depth conversion using simple average velocities:
seismic data for two-way travel time to top of
horizon-average velocity from depth and time

Seismic Interpretation 2018_2019 Hart, 2011 figure 6.54

 Depth conversion using simple average
velocities: time structure map to top of horizon

Seismic Interpretation 2018_2019 Hart, 2011 figure 6.54

 Average velocity map to top of horizon based on
contouring of velocities at 6 wells

Seismic Interpretation 2018_2019 Hart, 2011 figure 6.54

Average velocity map is multiplied by one-way
traveltime to generate depth converted structural
map

Seismic Interpretation 2018_2019 Hart, 2011 figure 6.54

 Depth conversion: time structure on
carbonate: yellow is high

Seismic Interpretation 2018_2019 Hart, 2011 figure 6.55

 Depth conversion: velocity map from time-depth pairs
(time-structure and measured depth) at well locations

Seismic Interpretation 2018_2019 Hart, 2011 figure 6.55

 Depth conversion: Depth converted horizon- similar to
time structure: yellow is high

Need to capture uncertainty in depth-conversion because size of

hydrocarbons traps can depend on depth-conversion method used
Seismic Interpretation 2018_2019 Hart, 2011 figure 6.55
 Time-to-depth conversion methods

• Depth conversion is the process of combining seismic time

structure, well control, and velocities to create a depth structure
map or volume.

• Vertical ray depth conversion assumes the migrated traveltime

represents information from directly below each bin location.

• This method gives depth from the acquisition surface or datum

using well control to derive average velocities. In areas of gentle
structure and weak lateral velocity variation, the vertical ray method
is quick and reasonably accurate for time migrated data

Seismic Interpretation 2018_2019 Liner, 2004,

 Time-to-depth conversion methods

• Image ray depth conversion accounts for the fact that time
migration does not correctly bend rays. A simple example in which
a fault is imaged through a high velocity wedge. Even if velocity in
the wedge is constant, its change in thickness introduces a lateral
velocity gradient. Since time migration does not strictly enforce
Snell’s law, the migration traveltimes are not vertical, but along
image rays. Depth conversion must take this into consideration.

• Ray depth migration (also called section or map migration) is the

most accurate form of depth conversion for interpreted horizons. It
operates on the unmigrated zero offset data and incorporates the
refraction effect. Depth conversion is accomplished along rays that
intercept the reflector at normal incidence.

Seismic Interpretation 2018_2019 Liner, 2004,

 Time-to-depth conversion methods

• Volumetric depth conversion stretches time migrated data to a

depth cube using a u(x,y,z) velocity model. This is basically vertical
ray depth conversion applied to the entire data cube, rather than
individual time structure surfaces and is subject to the same
comments made earlier.

• Prestack depth migration operates directly on the prestack

seismic data to create a depth volume. This is common in
complex situations such as subsalt imaging in the Gulf of Mexico.
The resulting depth image is unlikely to match well control without
manual warping.

• marine seismic data, particularly in deep water, are affected by

variations in water velocity

Seismic Interpretation 2018_2019 Liner, 2004,

 Depth conversion case history:
Vorwata Field

Seismic Interpretation 2018_2019 Liner, 2004,

Depth conversion case history: Vorwata Field: Jurassic
sandstone- not directly imaged on seismic

Depth mapping by dividing subsurface into two layers, each described by linear
velocity function, base Cretaceous map combined with Jurassic shale map to
make final Jurassic sand map

Seismic Interpretation 2018_2019 Liner, 2004,

 Depth conversion: linear velocity model in
top layer- top Kais average velocity and
depth- slope of line is velocity gradient

Seismic Interpretation 2018_2019 Liner, 2004,

 Depth conversion: linear velocity model in
top layer- top Kais average velocity and
depth- slope of line is velocity gradient

Seismic Interpretation 2018_2019 Liner, 2004,

 Depth conversion: top Kais average velocity map-from
contoured surface velocity map, velocity gradient and
gridded time structure map

Seismic Interpretation 2018_2019 Liner, 2004,

 Depth conversion: top Kais gridded depth map- from
grid multiplication of average velocity map and time
structure map

Seismic Interpretation 2018_2019 Liner, 2004,

 Depth conversion: Base Cretaceous time
structure map- lateral structural and lithologic
variations

Seismic Interpretation 2018_2019 Liner, 2004,

 Depth conversion: Base Cretaceous depth map: linear model for average
interval velocity in layer two, conversion of layer two isochron times to
thickness, and summation with top Kais depth map- new wells within 1%
prediction

Seismic Interpretation 2018_2019 Liner, 2004,

 Structural Uncertainty: analysis determines direction
of maximum uncertainty so well trajectories can be
designed to reduce uncertainty

Seismic Interpretation 2018_2019 Liner, 2004,

 Structural Uncertainty: analysis determines direction
of maximum uncertainty so well trajectories can be
designed to reduce uncertainty

Seismic Interpretation 2018_2019 Liner, 2004,

 Structural Uncertainty:

• Uncertainty and error analysis are important topics in seismic

data interpretation.

• A depth map based on seismic data has uncertainties related to

preprocessing, stacking, migration, interpretation, and the
depth conversion itself.

Seismic Interpretation 2018_2019 Liner, 2004,

 Structural Uncertainty: Extreme velocity variation

• Time structure can be misleading. Apparent structural closures

and other features can be due to lateral velocity variations above
the mapped horizon

• When the gradients are weak, the effect may barely be noticeable.

• For strong gradients, the method of depth mapping from

tracked time surfaces can fail altogether.

Seismic Interpretation 2018_2019 Liner, 2004,

 Structural Uncertainty: Extreme velocity variation:
Time structure can be
misleading.

(A) Time map generated from a

seismic cube.

Seismic Interpretation 2018_2019 Liner, 2004,

 Structural Uncertainty: Extreme velocity variation:

(B) Velocity contour map from

well control or other data. Half-
velocities are used because the
time map represents two-way
reflection time. Dark shades
indicate higher velocity.-Is
this correct?

Seismic Interpretation 2018_2019 Liner, 2004,

 Structural Uncertainty: Extreme velocity variation:

(C) Vertical ray depth map

created by multiplying grid A*B.
This map is a better estimate of
true subsurface structure than
the time structure map, because
lateral velocity variations have
been taken into account.

But if the gradient is strong

enough, the depth conversion
should proceed along image
rays not vertical rays.

Is book example correct?

Seismic Interpretation 2018_2019 Liner, 2004,

 Structural Uncertainty: Extreme velocity variation:
Time structure can be
misleading.

(A) Time map generated from a

seismic cube.

Time structure
Seismic Interpretation 2018_2019 Liner, 2004,
 Structural Uncertainty: Extreme velocity variation:

(B) Velocity contour map from

well control or other data. Half-
velocities are used because the
time map represents two-way
reflection time. Dark shades
indicate higher velocity.-Is
this correct?

Seismic Interpretation 2018_2019 Liner, 2004,

 Structural Uncertainty: Extreme velocity variation:

(C) Vertical ray depth map

created by multiplying grid A*B.
This map is a better estimate of
true subsurface structure than
the time structure map, because
lateral velocity variations have
been taken into account.

But if the gradient is strong

enough, the depth conversion
should proceed along image
rays not vertical rays.

Depth structure Corrected from book

Seismic Interpretation 2018_2019 Liner, 2004,