Composite Structures 184 (2018) 935–949

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Composite Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compstruct

Mechanical characterization of innovative 3D multi-cell thermoset MARK

composites produced with weft-knitted spacer fabrics
⁎
Sanaz Hassanzadeh , Hossein Hasani, Mohammad Zarrebini
Department of Textile Engineering, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan 84156-83111, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Innovative three-dimensional integrated weft-knitted spacer (3D-IWKS) fabrics due to their unique features and
E-glass 3D composites flexibility in design, have recently gained significant popularity. These newly-designed fabrics could meet the
Weft-knitted spacer fabric requirements of numerous technical applications such as composite manufacturing. This work aims to in-
Thermoset resin impregnation vestigate bending and compression resistance of 3D-IWKS composites with different cross-section geometries.
Mechanical analysis
Using 400Tex E-glass yarns, two types of 3D-IWKS fabric samples as U-shaped single-decker structure (USSD) and
Composite failure theories
V-shaped single-decker structure (VSSD) were knitted on a modern flat knitting machine. The fabric preforms
were then molded via vacuum infusion process (VIP) using epoxy resin in order to produce composite panels in
the form of multi-cell thin-walled configurations. As far as bending strength and stiffness was concerned, VSSD
composites were found to be superior to USSD type. The influence of connecting layers’ orientation against the
applied loads was also evaluated via flatwise compression test. The results pointed to higher strength of USSD
samples with vertical inter-connecting layers in comparison to VSSD samples with angularly inter-connecting
layers. By comparing the edge-wisely compressed specimens, it was found that both types of samples are similar
in load-bearing capacity. The findings totally confirm the high mechanical applicability of these new structures.

1. Introduction lamination effects [3]. In this regard, substituting 2D laminates with 3D

Growing challenge regarding the use of textile-reinforced compo-
sites in technical applications has vastly drawn the attention of nu-
merous engineers to the recent development in designing so-called
novel low-weighted textile structures with high mechanical perfor-
mances. Thus, research developments in this filed have been shifted
from 2D structures manufacturing to designing 3D complex shapes with
the aim of meeting the requirements of end-uses where multifunctional
properties are paramount [1]. This approach changing is mainly due to
some limitations of 2D textile-reinforced composites in term of their
low design diversity which eventually leads to their functional prop-
erties. As widely accepted, most of 2D laminates generally have inferior
thickness-through mechanical properties in terms of compress-resist-
ibility, inter-laminar shear strength and fracture toughness. Moreover,
due to low drapeability of 2D fibrous multi-plied prepregs, successful
forming of composite engineering parts with complex geometrical
shapes could not be possible [1,2].
It is approved that the commonly used laminating methods of
composite manufacturing such as co-curing, adhesive bonding or me-
chanical fastening yield to create local stress concentration in 2D multi-
layered structures which would be followed by the inevitable layers’ de-
complex-shaped textile-preforms is believed to be highly beneficial for
improving the mechanical performance of final composite parts. These
textile reinforcements based on their final application, can be produced
via weaving, knitting, braiding, nonwoven and stitch-bonding tech-
nologies [4–11]. Sandwich structures, as one of the well-known 3D
textile preforms, generally comprise of two skin layers separated by a
honeycomb core [3,10]. Numerous technical advantages such as low
areal density, low bulk density, comfort, thermo-physiological proper-
ties, improved tensile strength, elastic compressibility and high energy
absorbency, render these novel textiles as the best alternative for those
structures which mainly suffer from core-skin de-lamination effects
[3,4,10,12].
Generally-configured 3D spacer fabrics comprise two separate sur-
face layers which are connected by pile yarns or the fabric layers
[12,13]. It is claimed that 3D spacer structures with fabric-type inter-
connections not only exhibit higher mechanical performances but also
provide high possibility in designing complex shapes both geome-
trically and dimensionally. Production of spacer fabrics with pile in-
terconnections via waving and knitting technologies have been widely
investigated by numerous researchers but designing of 3D integrated
spacer structures with fabric interconnections is mostly considered

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: s.hassanzadeh@tx.itu.ac.ir (S. Hassanzadeh).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2017.10.048
Received 4 September 2016; Received in revised form 29 September 2017; Accepted 13 October 2017
Available online 16 October 2017
0263-8223/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Hassanzadeh et al. Composite Structures 184 (2018) 935–949

Fig. 1. Diversity in geometrical shapes of 3D integrated multi-cell spacer fabrics [19].

Table 1
Material specifications.

Fiber type Density (g/ Mechanical properties

cm3)
Tensile strength Young’s modulus
(MPa) (GPa)

Single Glass 2.50 1831.7 78.6

yarn (SD = 1.14) (SD = 0.05)
Epoxy 1.17 56 6.1

*
A multi-folded yarn comprised of 4 single plies of 100 text glass yarn.

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S. Hassanzadeh et al. Composite Structures 184 (2018) 935–949

Fig. 2. Cross-sectional views of the produced 3D-IWKS fabric reinforcements.

Table 2 provided by modern knitting machines have been considered as main

Characteristics of 3D-IWKS Fabrics. advantages in constructing novel 3D composites [14,15]. In addition to
composites manufacturing industries, these knitted fabrics have gained
Sample code Areal density Upper surface Lower surface Fabric
(g/m2) layer layer thickness other technical applications in areas such as automotive, aerospace
(mm) engineering, geotextiles, and environmental protection [16,17].
CPC WPC CPC WPC The inherent low in-plane strength and stiffness as well as low fiber
fraction of the knitted fabrics are considered as the major issues faced
USSD 1788.52 3.33 2.22 3.46 2.25 8
(SD = 82.66) (SD = 0.75)
by most of composite designers. However, the possibility of using high
VSSD 1883.22 3.45 2.17 3.57 2.13 10 performance fibers in fabricating process together with providing ani-
(SD = 92.38) (SD = 1.32) sotropic properties in the final products, have made the knitted per-
forms to gain technical merits in composite manufacturing [3,8]. Re-
USSD: 3D fabric with U-shaped single-decker structure (Fig. 2a).
gardless of yarn type, knitted structures due to their high extensibility
VSSD: 3D fabric with V-shaped single-decker structure (Fig. 2b).
and drapability could be easily formed into numerous complex 3D
shapes [3,14].
through weaving operation; this is while the knitting technology,
Regardless of knitting process type, the produced conventional
especially the weft-knitting methodology, has high potential in forming
spacer patterns are thickness-thoroughly limited to distance between
3D integrated spacers with various geometrical shapes, but is not much
the two needle beds of knitting machine [8,14,18,19]. Increase in these
considered [3–5].
fabrics’ thicknesses, can be easily provided by replacing the connecting
As reported in previous literatures, the loop-like geometry of knitted
pile yarns with the fabric layer. This is the basic rule for constructing
preforms would hinder their uses in composite manufacturing, while
different 3D textile preforms with geometrical diversity which is
the recent developments have considered this feature as a turning point
claimed to be easily achieved via weft knitting process [8,20,21].
regarding 3D configured textile-base composites. This is mainly at-
Technical advancements in weft-knitting machineries as well as emer-
tributed to the recent technological advances in knitting machineries
sion of some new applicable features (e.g. individual needle selection),
which provide high flexibility in designing knitted structures. As a re-
are the main reason behind the successful use of weft-knitting tech-
sult, numerous researchers have been attracted to study the product-
nology in producing innovative 3D multi-cell spacer preforms
ability of newly-designed spacer fabrics named multi-cell thin-walled
[14,19–24]. Geometrical diversity and improved mechanical perfor-
fibrous preforms [12,13]. In spite of inherent dimensional instability
mance, are considered as the main advantages of these innovative
and low mechanical properties of plain knitted fabrics, it is well-noted
textiles [14,19,25,26]. Desired geometry of the final composite as is
that design versatilities together with ease of fabric formability

Fig. 3. Basic components of VIP method used in composite manufacturing.

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S. Hassanzadeh et al. Composite Structures 184 (2018) 935–949

Fig. 4. Manufacturing process of 3D-IWKS reinforced composite panels.

Table 3 constructing the simple U-shaped form of 3D-IWKS preforms used as the
Properties of the used epoxy resin. reinforcements of 3D thermoplastic composite panels. They also in-
vestigated tensile strength and stiffness of the final products through
Property Standard test method Value
evaluating the mechanical behavior of plain weft-knitted composite
Viscosity at 25 °C (cps.) ISO 12058-1 8000 layers as the whole structural representative volume element (RVE)
Density at 25 °C (g/cm3) ISO 1675 1.17 [23,24].
Flexural strength (MPa) ASTM D5023-15 70–80 Compared to thermoplastic composites with several advantages, the
Compressive Strength (MPa) ASTM D695-15 72–75
Tensile strength (MPa) ASTM D638-14 50–60
thermoset materials also have their own merits in technical applications
Pot life at 23 °C for 250 g (min) TECAM at 65% RH 150 specially where higher compression and bending strengths are required
Demold time (hrs) — 24 [43] However, a quick reviewing on published works points to a gen-
eral lack of interest among researchers to study the mechanical beha-
vior of the thermoset reinforced composites together with infancy of
shown in Fig. 1, can be either achieved by changing the position of mechanically evaluated reports regarding the 3D-IWKS reinforced
connecting points between the surface layers or by varying the length of composites. Recently, Hamedi et al. [25] studied the bending resistance
knitted constitutive layers [15,26]. of a simple geometrically configured 3D spacer weft-knitted composites
Despite the merits of these 3D integrated weft-knitted spacer (3D- from polyester yarns. Also, they investigated the mechanical sample
IWKS) fabrics for being used as composite reinforcements, the amount behavior under bending using finite element method. Using funda-
of researches conducted on evaluating their mechanical performance is mentals of manufacturing 3D-IWKS reinforced composites, Omrani
rather limited. Some researchers have mostly been involved with fab- et al. [26] did their efforts to produce tubular-shaped configuration of
rication of 3D-IWKS in woven or knitted structures without considering these structures in order to investigate their behavior under external
their mechanical performance [27–33]. Those researches focused on static and internal hydrostatic pressures. They also simulated the
mechanical evaluating of 3D spacer composites are mostly limited to samples behavior using finite element method. For providing a com-
the conventional spacer fabrics (two skin layers with pile-yarn con- plete report regarding the mechanical performance of 3D-IWKS com-
nection) or the sandwich structures (honeycombs surrounded by two posites, this work aim to investigate differences between the mechan-
skin layers). [34–42]. Abounaim et al. [11] were the pioneers in ical performance of the samples varied in their cross-sectional

Fig. 5. 3D-IWKS Composite panels and their specifications.

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S. Hassanzadeh et al.
Fig. 6. Three-point bending test apparatus and the specimens’ dimensions.
geometries, in terms of their resistance against compression and
bending loads. Using E-glass yarn, spacer preforms varied in their cross
sections are going to be fabricated and then molded into composite
parts to be mechanically investigated.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Preparation of textile preforms
Using four-ply twisted of 100Tex E-glass yarns, 3D-IWKS textile
preforms with two different cross-sectional profiles were knitted on
Stoll CMS-400, computerized flat knitting machine. Characteristics of
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Composite Structures 184 (2018) 935–949
the used glass yarns in accordance with ASTM D2256 were determined
as given in Table 1. Fig. 2 illustrates the schematic representations and
photographs of the produced 3D-IWKS performs after 24-h wet/dry
relaxation. Moreover, specifications of the fabric samples such as loop
density and layers thicknesses are provided in Table 2. The mean CPC
and WPC of the skin layers for both samples were found to be 3.43Loop/
cm and 2.19Loop/cm, respectively.
In order to improve fabric quality prior to commencement of knit-
ting, optimized adjustments such as machine speed and loop length
were carried out as described in [15,44,45]. Because of the glass fibers
brittleness, the machine carriage speed was limited in range of 0.3m/
s–0.35m/s in order to prevent unwilling yarn breakage during knitting.
S. Hassanzadeh et al.
Fig. 7. Flatwise compression test apparatus and the specimens’ dimensions.
Additionally, the fabric take-down mechanism was adjusted so that no
excessive pressure could be exerted on the needles and also no breakage
of yarns could be occurred during loop formation.
Followed by results from Abounaim et al. [8], the product-ability of
3D-IWKS fabrics could be achieved only if the proper sequence of
needles from both rear and front beds are being participated in knitting
operation. Length of the loops which are particularly transferred to the
needles of the opposite bed according to the pre-designed knitting
pattern, is another critical factor affecting the quality of the final
knitted sample; comparatively longer loops at the position of layers
connecting point, would guarantees such impeccable loop transferring.
The preforms underwent dry/wet relaxation, according to ASTM D578
prior to composite manufacturing process. In order to assure full
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Composite Structures 184 (2018) 935–949
saturation of the glass fibers with resin, yarns were de-sized before resin
impregnation [46].
2.2. Composite panels reinforced with 3D-IWKS preforms
Among various molding techniques of composite manufacturing,
VIP method due to its individual configuration is mainly suitable for
manufacturing composite parts in any geometrical shapes. More detail
about the VIP method equipment is depicted in Fig. 3.
As shown in Fig. 4, composite samples were reinforced with the
USSD and VSSD textile preforms via a 4-step molding process. Before
the textile preforms being impregnated with epoxy resin by applying
vacuum with the help of pump of 1-bar negative pressure capability, the
S. Hassanzadeh et al.
Fig. 8. Edgewise compression test apparatus and the specimens’ dimensions.
structural free cells must be occupied with especially shaped wooden
inserts in order to remain unchanged after molding. Some of the resin
specifications are given in Table 3. In this research, the epoxy thermoset
resin EP411 and the hardener H15 with viscosity of 150 mPa.s were
obtained from DCM Company. Prior to injection, these two components
were mixed in 100pbw:10pbw ratio. Once the infusion was completed,
the vacuum pump was stopped and the molded samples were condi-
tioned at (20 ± 3 °C and 60 ± 5% RH) for 48 h.
In order to enhance mechanical performance of the molded com-
posites, they were post-cured for 3 h in an oven at 80 °C [44,45]. Fig. 5
shows the produced composite samples with some of their specifica-
tions.
It must be considered that maintaining 3D geometries of the per-
forms during molding is solely conditional up on the use of the auxiliary
rod inserts which are shaped according the required geometry of the
final composite product [15]. Insertion of these filling inserts into the
free spaces of the prepared multi-cellular fabrics is additionally ad-
vantageous in terms of applying a uniform predefined tension to the
loops which in turn would affects the mechanical properties of the final
composite product [44,45]. Prior to insertion, the rod inserts were in-
itially tape-wrapped and then covered with Mirror glaze M0811 wax as
a common releasing-agent in order to ease their withdrawing from the
performs after completion of composite manufacturing process.
Fibers volume fraction Vf is paramount factor affecting mechanical
performance of the composite materials which is calculated using Eq.
(1):
Wf / ρf
Vf =
Wf / ρf + (1−Wf )/ ρm (1)
where, Wf is fiber weight fraction; ρf and ρm are the fiber and matrix
densities, respectively. Because of the yarns loop-liked configuration
structure of the produced 3D-IWKS preforms, it is expected that the
fiber volume fracture of final composite panels to be relatively small.
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Composite Structures 184 (2018) 935–949
Based on several reports, Values of Wf for most composites reinforced
with glass textiles are usually determined via Resin Burning-off method,
through which the applied heat causes the resin component to be
completely melted away but the fibers remain unaffected. Following
this method, the composite samples were initially heated in an oven at
temperature of 250 °C for 10 min; upon burning off the resin compo-
nent, the samples fiber volume fraction was measured. From the test,
maximum volume fraction of the samples was approximately de-
termined at 20% which is fairly compatible with the results of Leong
et.al. [46].
2.3. Mechanical experiments
Bending and compression resistances of the two innovative ther-
moset composites groups called as USSD and VSSD, were evaluated.
The composite specimens dimensionally prepared according to the
ASTM standards were subjected to bending and compression loads
using a universal tensile tester of 25 KN loading capacity (Tinius Olsen
H25KS) equipped with axial actuators. The movable head of the testing
machine was adjusted so that the specimens could be subjected to the
normal bending forces at a constant rate of 2mm/min, while for the
compression test (flatwise and edgewise), the rate of cross-head
movement is suggested to be at 0.5mm/min [47–49].
2.3.1. Three-point bending
The standard flexural test method defined for sandwiched materials,
ASTM C 393, was used to investigate mechanical performance of 3D-
IWKS glass/epoxy composites samples under bending loads. From this
test, not only the bending stiffness of the whole structure is determined,
but also the core shear strength and modulus together with the com-
pressive and tensile strength of the skin layers (facings) could be
measured.
According to the standard, there is no matter if the specimens for
bending tests are prepared as either short beam or long beam; but is
S. Hassanzadeh et al.
Fig. 9. Force-displacement behavior of the USSD and VSSD composite under bending loading.
must be noted that the latter is generally preferred if the facings’ moduli
are known. Regardless of the length, composite beam-like specimens
could be subjected to two different way of loading: single-point loading
with two-point support (i.e. three-point bending) and two-point loading
with two-point support (i.e. four-point bending). For testing the struc-
tures with thin facings and low density cores, applying the concentrated
loads using a wider load rubber-covered pad as simulated as four-point
bending condition, is preferred. This, is due to the fact that such loading
system yields to better load distribution [47]. However, because of
some operational limitations in this research, long samples were tested
using three-point loading system. In this regard, for preparing the test
specimens is must be taken into account that its span length divided by
the total thickness is better to be greater than 20 (L/d > 20), until the
simple beam theory could be valid during the mechanical analysis.
Schematic views of three-point loadings used for evaluating bending
behavior of the USSD and VSSD samples are shown in Fig. 6. In ac-
cordance with ASTM C 393, the width of the test samples is neither less
than twice the total thickness nor greater than half of the span length
[47]. Additionally, the samples were conditioned at 23 ± 3 °C tem-
perature and 50 ± 5% relative humidity before conducting the test in
order to eliminate the effect of content moisture.
2.3.2. Flatwise compression
Compressive strength and modulus of the core elements in 3D-IWKS
composites could be easily determined via conducting flatwise
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Composite Structures 184 (2018) 935–949
compression test as schematically depicted in Fig. 7. Using these
parameters, the mechanical performance of the whole structure in term
of the inter-connecting layers failure modes could be investigated. As
proposed by ASTM C 395 standard test method, the free edges of the
samples were resin-infused so that forming a thin layer in between
would prevent them to be locally crushed during the test. It is an im-
portant point that the test specimens should be in either square or
circular cross-sectional shape and not have area more than 10.000 mm2
[48].
Same as the bending test, the specimens for flat-wise compression
test were standardly conditioned (23 ± 3 °C temperature and
50 ± 5% relative humidity).
2.3.3. Edgewise compression
Load carrying capacity of 3D-IWKS composite columns in terms of
developed facing stresses could be determined through edgewise com-
pression loadings. Core/face column-configured structures regardless of
their height, are usually subjected to a buckling mode of failure except
when facings are considered to be thick [49]. As illustrated in Fig. 8, the
samples were prepared according to ASTM C 364 standard prior to be
subjected to edgewise compression loading.
Similarly, the free edges of the test specimens must be reinforced
with thin layers of resin in order to prevent unwilling localized end
failure. Additionally, taking care to ensure smooth end surfaces free of
burrs, is really essential. Without the ends’ lateral supports, the
S. Hassanzadeh et al.
Fig. 10. Deformed composite samples in both experimental and test-simulated conditions; (a) USSD type and (b) VSSD type.
specimens would be either confronted by early facings’ failure or might
be deviated between the tester cross-heads [49].
3. Results and discussions
In the case of 3D-IWKS composites designed in this research, it was
expected to have lower fiber volume fractions as compared with their
corresponding woven-based composites; this is well attributed to the
inherent character of knitted structures and the curved form of con-
stitutive yarns. The void contents of USSD and VSSD composite samples
were experimentally resulted as 2.92% and 0.72%, respectively. Low
values of the samples void percentages confirms the suitability of VIP
method used in this work for infusing the resin during 3D-IWKS com-
posites molding.
3.1. Bending strength and stiffness
Fig. 9, shows the force-extension behavior and deformed appear-
ances of the both composite groups during the bending test. During
initial loading stage, it is seen that the force-displacement curve of both
USSD and VSSD composites is linear as far as the point at which the top
facing-layer is suddenly crushed. This is mainly attributed to the rela-
tively thin layers and the created moments at the structural weak point
due to the samples lengthening which ultimately exceeds the allowable
core shear stress [47]. These results are obviously shown through the
deformed views of samples given in Fig. 9.
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Composite Structures 184 (2018) 935–949
During bending, the composites’ top facings experience compressive
tension while the bottoms are subjected to the tensile stresses. ASTM C
393 standard vividly stated that tensile failure is occurred only if either
the tensile-experienced facings are thin or they are weaker than the
compression facings [47]. Fig. 9 reveals that failure in the samples is
mainly due to compression bottom facings followed by large unduly
deflection and wrinkling of the top facings.
Using Eqs. (2) and (3), the values of core shear stress τ and facings
bending stress σ could be determined for the composite samples which
were subjected to the three-point bending test (single-point midspan
load).
P
τ=
(d + c ) b (2)
PL
σ=
2t (d + c ) b (3)
where P is the applied load (N), d is the sandwich thickness (mm), c is
the core thickness (mm), b is the specimen width (mm), t is the facing
thickness (mm), and L is the span length (mm).Considering the fact that
the core, facings and total thickness of both USSD and VSSD samples are
identical, it is claimed that the resulted difference between their me-
chanical performances could be only attributed to their geometrical
variations. Differences in their cross-sectional geometry, make the
midspan-loaded USSD and VSSD beam samples to have different de-
flections (Δ ) which is derived from Eq. (4) [47].
S. Hassanzadeh et al. Composite Structures 184 (2018) 935–949

Fig. 11. Load distribution on the samples during bending; (a) USSD and (b) VSSD.

944
S. Hassanzadeh et al.
Fig. 12. Force-displacement curves of the composite samples under flatwise compression loading.
PL3 PL
Δ= +
48D 4U
where Δ is midspan deflection (mm), D is bending stiffness (N.mm2)
and U is shear rigidity (N) of the test sample. For the sandwich struc-
tures with the same facings type, D and U can be determined using
following equations 5 and 6:
E (d3−c 3) b
D=
12
G (d + c )2b
U=
4c
where E is the facings modulus (MPa) under bending and G is the core
shear modulus (MPa). Since the core shear modulus is the only differ-
entiating factor in the case of the test samples, the panel shear rigidity is
considered as a pivotal factor affecting the amount of samples deflec-
tion under loading. From Fig. 10, the simulated and experimentally
observed behavior of USSD and VSSD samples could be easily com-
pared.
The initial slope of the force-displacement curve represents the
stiffness behavior of the test sample. Comparing the curves given in
Fig. 9, it can be concluded that the USSD samples totally have lower
bending stiffness while the VSSDs resists more against the applied
bending load; in other word, the VSSD samples are stiffer than the
USSDs which is mainly attributed to way of load distributing. More
details of load distributionduring the bending test, are provided in the
Fig. 11. It is observed that the applied single-point midspan bending on
the VSSD panel is mainly sustained by the core bonding points in which
high stress concentration is caused. Additional displacement of the
loading cross-head during the test, leads to the failure of skin layers
which is followed by the facings dimpling into the core. In the case of
USSD samples, the applied load is uniformly distributed on the total
surface of the top skin layer which in turn leads to its wrinkling. Further
displacement of the testing cross-head, causes the weak points on the
top skin layer to be dimpled into the core. Overall, the following main
outcomes can be derived from Figs. 9 and 10:
(1) VSSD samples have the higher bending stiffness and strength.
Composite Structures 184 (2018) 935–949
(2) USSD samples are more flexible and have higher energy absorption
(4) capacity.
It must be also noted that there would be no matter if the position of
applied bending load is either on the facing or on the connecting point;
three-replicated experimental trials confirmed the irrelevancy of the
point where the load is applied.
(5) 3.2. Flatwise compression behavior of the samples
Mechanical behaviors of 3D composite panels reinforced with USSD
(6)
and VSSD textile preforms were also investigated under flatwise com-
pression loading; this is because flatwise compressive strength and
modulus are the fundamental mechanical properties for designing
multi-cell core/skin structures. From the force-displacement curves
given in Fig. 12, the compressive stress and effective modulus of the
core could be computed [48] by employing the Eqs. (7) and (8) as
following:
P
σ=
A (7)
St
E=
A (8)
2
where P is the ultimate force (N), A is the cross-sectional area (mm ), S
is the slope of initial linear portion of force-displacement curve (N/mm)
and t is the core thickness (mm). Fig. 12 shows that the ultimate force
sustained by the USSD samples is approximately twice than that of the
VSSD sample. Moreover, the load-subjected cross-sectional area of the
VSSD samples is larger than that of the USSDs which in turn leads to
lower compressive strength for the former. Additionally, compressive
modulus was found to be higher for USSD samples.
As illustrated in Fig. 13, in flatwise compression test same as
bending, the VSSD samples are subjected to a concentrated stress at the
midspan point while the USSDs are affected by uniformly distributed
stresses. From the figure, it is obvious that the value of early-occurred
maximum tension in the USSD samples is approximately triple than that
in VSSDs; this, confirms the higher operational strength of the USSD
samples in technical applications than the VSSD samples.
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S. Hassanzadeh et al.
Fig. 13. Simulated mechanical behavior of 3D multi-cell composites under flatwise compression loading.
Load-bearing capacity of the test 3D spacer composites which were
flat-wisely compression loaded, generally deals with mechanical be-
havior of the structural cores. In this regard, the higher compressive
stiffness of the core which plays as the role of connecting element
would increase strength of the whole structure. It is claimed that ver-
tically aligned connecting layers cause the composite structure to show
higher compressive stiffness in comparison to composites with oblique
connections [3]; this, confirms the superior strength of the USSD over
VSSD samples.
Considering the results of Figs. 12 and 13, buckling deformation of
the USSD samples is stated to be a result of the core layer failure in form
of wrinkling into the structural free cells after applying the compression
load. However, the connecting layers of the VSSD samples are mainly
buckled due to the applied shear stresses.
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Composite Structures 184 (2018) 935–949
Comparing the values measured as work of rupture, reveals that the
USSD samples are highly resistance when subjected to compression
loads. On the other hand, by considering the post loading recovery, it
can be stated both the composites enjoy high mechanical performance
as far as low residual thickness reduction is concerned.
3.3. Edgewise compression behavior
Load carrying capacity of USSD and VSSD samples in terms of de-
veloped facing stresses and the structural yielding point, can be de-
duced from their behavior when subjected to edgewise compression
loading [49]. In the case of core/skin composites columns regardless of
their height, it is claimed that the structural failure is usually due to
buckling deformation unless if the facing layers are significantly thick.
S. Hassanzadeh et al.
Fig. 14. Force-displacement curves of the samples under edgewise compression loading.
As expected, the 3D spacer composites designed in this research have
been subjected to the buckling failure during edgewise compression test
since the facings’ thicknesses were about 2 mm. Detailed illustration of
the samples deformation is shown in Fig. 14. According to the ASTM C
364, the weaker facing layers is wrinkly deformed following which the
core is subjected to a wavy-shaped deformation; further displacement
of the tester cross-head leads to the sever facings dimpling which
eventually results in the whole structural bending, especially near the
ends. This type of deformation is mainly due to the core shear failure or
the facing-to-core bonds fracture [49].
Typical force-displacement curves of USSD and VSSD composites
given in Fig. 14 represents that both of the samples exhibit similar
mechanical performance under edgewise compression. This is due to
the fact that the facing layers of both samples are either materially or
structurally identical; however, their corresponding mode of failure
must be accurately investigated. Form the Fig. 14, it is observed that the
USSD samples fail due to the facings wrinkling as well as ultimate
buckling of the whole structure, while the failure of the VSSD samples is
mainly due to the facing layers dimpling together with subsequent
corrugation of the cellular units and structural fracture near the sample
ends.
Value of compression stress σ distributed throughout the samples’
facing layers could be derived again from Eq. (7).
Pictorial representation of the force-displacement curves reveals
similarities between the mechanical behavior of both USSD and VSSD
samples during edgewise compression. This confirms that the com-
pressive strength of the facing layers directly affect the mechanical
behavior of composite part which is edge-wisely compressed.
In order to verify the accuracy of the experimental results from
edgewise compression testing, a simple simulation was also carried out
as depicted in Fig. 15. In this figure, stress distribution throughout the
samples as well as their deformed appearance are simply observed. It is
concluded that failure modes and shapes of deformed configurations,
are the main differences between the two composite samples which
were edge-wisely compressed in this study.
4. Conclusions
Rapid advances in the field of 3D textile products used as composite
947
Composite Structures 184 (2018) 935–949
reinforcements, has attracted the attention of researchers and engineers
involved in composite manufacturing. These textile-based composites
are exceptionally advantageous as far as weight to volume ratio and
high ability in designing especially where complex geometries are
concerned. Among different available method of textile production, it is
widely accepted that knitting technology could offer vast range of fi-
brous constructions with rather complex geometries; but the looped
configuration of the yarns in these textiles essentially inhibits their use
as reinforcing elements in composite materials. New design of 3D
knitted spacer preforms has been recently admired by 3D composite
manufacturers since they are not associated with disastrous de-lami-
nation phenomenon during technical applications. In this study, me-
chanical performances of 3D thermoset composites reinforced by these
innovative 3D integrated multi-cell weft-knitted spacer fabrics (3D-
IWKS) from E-glass fibers, were investigated in terms of bending and
compression resistance. Because of their geometrical complexity, the
produced 3D textile preforms were molded via VIP molding by which
the most suitable resin infusion could be provided.
It was concluded that VSSD samples exhibit higher stiffness and
modulus in comparison to USSD sample during three-point bending test
which is mainly attributed to differences between the distribution mode
of the applied bending loads in both samples. It was also observed that
total resistance of the samples depends on the strength of both con-
necting and skin layers. Investigating the samples fracture mode, re-
vealed that USSD samples have relatively low core shear strength which
leads to buckling of the inter-connecting layers; this is while the VSSD
samples fracture is associated with lower strength of the compression
top facing layers and not the core shear strength.
In the case of flatwise compression test, the applied loads in mainly
sustained by the interconnecting layers of the composite samples. Thus,
the layer orientation relative to the load direction as well as their
stiffness and modulus, significantly affect the mechanical performance
of the final composite material. It was observed that both VSSD and
USSD samples were subjected to the buckling mode of failure when the
normal compressive load was applied. Comparing the slope of the force-
displacement curves of both samples approved the higher compressive
modulus of USSD samples than the other group. Additionally, it was
found that the USSD samples exhibit load bearing capacity three times
more than the VSSD samples when subjected to flatwise compression.
S. Hassanzadeh et al.
Fig. 15. Simulated mechanical behavior of 3D multi-cell composites under edgewise compression loading.
Results obtained from the edgewise compression test revealed that
the buckling of facing layers is the predominate mode of failure which
could be expected for both of the composite samples. In the case of
USSD panels, the facings wrinkling caused the whole structural buck-
ling while for the VSSD samples, the facings dimpling into the core free
cells is mainly concerned. It was found that both type of composites
exhibit similar load bearing capacity during edgewise compression
loading.
Totally, these newly designed 3D integrated knitted spacer compo-
sites with high flexibility in geometrical shape, are highly suitable for
being used in different technical applications. Investigating their me-
chanical behaviors in terms of bending and compression resistance,
simply revealed this claim. Numerical study and finite element analysis
regarding these novel constructions are going to be focused in our fu-
ture research.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in
the online version, at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2017.10.
048.
948
Composite Structures 184 (2018) 935–949
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