Introduction-

Well we all have plenty of things to thank the renowned William Shakespeare for… He introduced us
to the conversing with skulls, famous tragedies in which there never seems to be a shortage of
death… And finally comedies in which everyone marries themselves off… Shakespeare has also
brought Early Modern English, or what might be known to many of you as ‘Shakespearean English’,
to our lives and how much better off we are because of it… As it bears little resemblance to
contemporary English many students have and continue to, me included, struggle with reading
Shakespeare, let alone deciphering what ‘The Bard’ means. Whilst we can always use good ol’
shmoop or sparknotes to provide an accurate translation of the Shakespearean dialect, many
readers often find Shakespearean texts difficult to understand because of his common use of
allusion to literacy texts which he assumed his audience would know inside out and inherently
understand. Not understanding these references definitely does not make the reading of such texts
any easier.

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So what is an allusion and what is intertextuality…

Well let’s start of with allusion…

Trusty online dictionary dictionary.com has defined an allusion as

“a passing or casual reference; an incidental mention of something,either directly or by implicatio
n” whilst the same source defines intertextuality as the “
the interrelationship between texts, especially works of literature; the
way that similar or related texts influence, reflect, or differ from each other”

http://www.dictionary.com/browse/allusion

http://www.dictionary.com/browse/intertextuality
Clearly these two topics are related and in most cases act as synonyms for each other…

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Now that we have our definition for allusions and intertextuality, let’s talk about why intertextuality
is important and what makes it worthy of creating a presentation specifically concerning it…

It is generally accepted that reading intertextually is an important stage within the process to
understanding a piece of literature. Intertextual reading often helps readers appreciate the text at a
deeper level and can provide a wealth of information about a text which may not have been
apparent previously. This process may also help you uncover new meanings within the text as it
involves analysing the texts that have influenced the author and how these different texts are then
employed within the piece to create certain meanings.

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How does this all apply to our good friend Shakespeare?

Well William Shakespeare is well known for his frequent use of allusions to popular literacy texts
within Elizabethan England, specifically the Bible and existing Classical mythology
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Although I will be focusing my presentation on the allusion to Roman mythology within the play
Othello, I believe it is important not to discount the other notable examples of intertextual
references within Othello.

An example of which is the allusion to King Stephen in the song sung by Iago in act 2, Scene 3 of the
play. This occurs just before Cassio becomes intoxicated and starts a brawl. This is a significant
allusion as it directly refences King Stephen, an English King of the twelfth century who is known to
have gained the thrown through illegal, deceptive measures and was ultimately unsuccessful in
retaining his power. It is said that his inability to hold royal power is a direct result of his mild-
mannered personality which kept him from providing firm leadership to his country.

How does this relate to the play? Well in the song Iago sings

“Osweet England!
King Stephen was a worthy peer,
His breeches cost him but a crown;
He held them sixpence all too dear,
With that he call'd the tailor lown.”

This reference to King Stephan most likely relates to the fact that both Cassio and Othello have jobs
which he firmly believes he inherently deserves. Furthermore, this intertextual link could also be
seen as hinting to the reader the type of role-models Iago looks up to and therefore ultimately the
true personality of Iago. In addition, the reference to King Stephen quite accurately foreshadows
Iago’s deception and hints at his plans at corrupting societal order in much the same way that King
Stephen is said to have done, likewise climbing the ranks of the strict societal hierarchy and
undermining the concept of the Great Chain of Being

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Another pertinent allusion within the play is the allusion to the ‘Burning Bear’ in Act 2, this time
Scene 1. For those unable to make the intertextual connection, the phrase the ‘Burning Bear’ within
Othello actually refers to one of the many constellations which goes by the name of ‘The Great
Bear’, ‘Ursa Major and Minor’ or ‘Callisto’ to name a few… Why is this of importance?

Well within the constellation Ursa, we have both the Ursa Major and Ursa minor… At the end of the
minor we are able to see the star Polaris which seems to be protected by both the major and minor
Ursa constellations. It has been suggested that this reference to the stars actually illustrates the level
of protection Venice gained from the Turks as a result of the waves “with its high and monstrous
mane”.

"The wind-shaken surge with high and monstrous mane, seems to cast water on the Burning Bear."
(Act 2 Scene 1)

Whilst this may seem like a far stretch to some, at the very least it can be agreed upon that the
allusion acts as a sort of hyperbole when Shakespeare suggests that the waves were so large the
water touched the constellation. Furthermore, the storm is casting water on the Burning Bear, a
name which may represent the ‘fiery’ conflict which occurred between Venice and the Turks.
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Othello, as is the case with the majority of Shakespearean texts, is rich in Biblical referencing and
allusions… This is probably a result of the strong familiarity an Elizabethan audience would have had
with this religious text, a product of the strict religious practices which existed with in their society
such as regular church attendance. As such many of the religious allusions are very complicated and
hard to pin point for those readers who are not very familiar with the Biblical texts. However a good
example of one of the more simple and obvious biblical allusions within this play are the intertextual
references to the Garden of Eden and the original battle between good and evil which effectively
repeats itself in the play. Of particular interest here is the Quote:
"Where is that viper? Bring the villain forth. “
If Desdemona were to be seen as acting as Eve within this text and Othello as Adam, we could come
to the conclusion that they are tempted by the deceptive serpent, represented in this play by Iago,
who will eventually cause their "fall" from perfection. This allusion suggests that Iago is the devil and
much like the serpent within the Garden of Eden acts as a tempter and corrupter.

This has by no means covered even a small portion of the biblical references that this text makes…
Should it interest you, there are plenty of online resources and articles dedicated to exploring the
intertextual links in Othello to the bible and in fact with many other literary texts. Below I have
provided a couple of links which I came across whilst researching online…

https://theopolisinstitute.com/biblical-allusion-and-the-meaning-of-othello/

https://researchpaper-examples.blogspot.com.au/2011/08/biblical-allusions-in-
shakespeare_29.html

https://manifoldgreatness.wordpress.com/2011/10/14/the-bible-and-othello-2/

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Now let’s get into Roman mythology and the intertextual reading which Othello invites…

Even from very early on in the play, Shakespeare alludes to the well-known Roman mythology.
Perhaps one of the most pertinent and interesting example of such a reference is in Act 1, Scene 2 in
Othello in which the playwright directly alludes to the Roman mythological figure of Janus, a god
characterised by his two faces, when Iago swears by this God.

“By Janus I think no

Janus is a particularly interesting God and Iago’s decision to swear by this particular God is very
significant in providing the Audience with an accurate depiction of Iago’s true character. Janus within
Roman mythology is the god of transitions, of both beginnings and endings. This is important as the
quote marks a transitional moment within the text, a point just before Brabantio’s clash with
Othello. Perhaps most importantly is the representation of Janus as a two-faced God, a depiction
which is related to his ability to look both forward and backward in time. However, Shakespeare has
drawn a direct comparison between the Roman God Janus and the character of Iago, suggesting that
Iago is a deceitful, two faced character who cannot be trusted and is dooplicitis. This reference is
one of the earliest signs provided to Elizabethan audience that Iago is in fact our antagonist and a
very deceptive, two-faced man.
Another interesting and thought-provoking allusion to a Roman mythological figure, this time a
Goddess, occurs in Act 3, Scene 3 when Shakespeare references Dian, the Goddess of Chastity as
well as Childbirth and Women.

"Her name, that was as fresh as Dian's visage, is now begrimed and black as mine own face."

This allusion to the Goddess of Chastity is by no means a mistake… Shakespeare utilises Roman
mythology to depict Desdemona as being ‘impure’, a result of her alleged sexual transgression. This
quote is interesting as it characterises Desdemona’s shift in reputation as a change in her face’s
complexion from what was once “fresh as Dian’s”, a Roman mythological construct whose virginity
and moonlight skin was often seen symbolic of purity, to becoming “black”, a description which not
only seeks to represent the moral blackness Othello is accusing her of but can also be seen as
commenting on the racial themes present in the text as well. Essentially this intertextual reference
reveals that Othello no longer believes that Desdemona is as honest and chaste as the Roman
Goddess Dian is, a direct result of the deceptive tactics utilised by Iago, whilst also highlighting the
ideal features of a woman in Elizabethan England.

In Othello Iago can be seen referencing the Roman God Jove, who is better known in Roman
mythology as Jupiter, in an attempt to attract Cassio to Desdemona through his use of deceitful
tactics. It is important to mention that Jove is the King of the Gods in roman mythology, sort of the
equivalent to the Greek God Zeus, as well as both the god of sky and thunder. This is of importance
as Iago claims that Desdemona is a “sport for Jove” in Act 2, Scene 3;

Our general cast us thus early for the love of /his Desdemona—who let us not therefore blame. / He
hath not yet made wanton the night with her, and / she is sport for Jove."

This allusion to Jove constructs Desdemona as a woman which could be, according to Iago, fine
enough to belong to the King of Gods, in turn suggesting that she is of a high social class and is
beautiful. This reference to Jove has been used intentionally by Iago in an attempt to attract Cassio
to Desdemona which will aid his plan to make Othello think Desdemona is sexually transgressing
against him later on in the future on the play. An interesting point to make is that Jove was known to
have many different wives and it could be seen that the allusion within Othello to Jove could be
suggesting that Othello likewise has had many women within the past.

Whilst there are plenty more allusions and intertextual references buried within the Shakespearean
play Othello, I hope this presentation has given you a general understanding and appreciation for
what intertextuality is and how reading intertextuality can add to a literary text’s meaning. There are
many resources online dedicated to the intertextuality of Othello and I would recommend
researching this topic in your own time should this presentation have raised any queries or interest.