© Professor Alan Hedge, Cornell University, Spring 2000

Measuring Light
Introduction to Photometry
Photometric Quantities
Luminous flux
Fundamental quantity measuring the rate of flow of radiant energy (light) from a source for its
effectiveness in creating the sensation of seeing.

Luminous flux = radiant flux X spectral sensitivity

Luminous flux is measured in lumens (lm)

Photometric Quantities
Luminous intensity
The luminous flux emitted per unit solid angle (steradian - sr) in a specified
direction.

Luminous intensity is measured in candela (cd)

There are 12.57 sr in a sphere

A 1 cd source emits 12.57 lumens (4πr2)

Photometric Quantities
Luminance (brightness)
Luminous flux per unit projected area of a surface in a given direction.

-2 -2
Luminance is measured in candelas meter (cd m )
-2
(1 cd m = 3.183 millilamberts)

Photometric Quantities
Illuminance
Luminous flux falling on a unit area of a surface at a point.

Illuminance is measured in lux (lx) in S.I. units

Illuminance is measured in footcandles (fc) in U.S. units

Photometric Quantities
Inverse Square Law
The amount of illuminance striking a surface from a point follows the inverse-square law:
2 2
Illuminance (lx) = candlepower (cd)/ D (distance m)

Example: Consider a 1 cd source:

Distance Illuminance
1 meter 1 lx
2 meters 1/4 lx
3 meters 1/9 lx

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 © Professor Alan Hedge, Cornell University, Spring 2000

Luminous flux
Converting Photometric Units

Typical field brightnesses

Field brightness
(cd m-2) Condition
30 subdued indoor lighting
60 display only workplaces
120 typical office
240 bright indoor office
480 very bright, precision indoor tasks
960 usual outdoors
1920 bright afternoon

Photometric Quantities
Reflectance
The ratio of the light arriving at a non-luminous surface and the light leaving a surface is called
reflectance. Reflectance is a unitless proportion.

For a diffuse surface:

In S.I. Units:
Reflectance = (πX luminance (cd m ))/illuminance (lx)
-2

In U.S. Units:
Reflectance = (luminance (fL))/illuminance (fc)

Light Effects on Vision

! What we “see” can be modified at several stages:
Color
Hue (color)
The wavelength(s) which give the color sensation.
Value (brightness, lightness)
How light or dark, depends on the amount of white or black added to a color.
Saturation (purity, chroma)
How vivid or dull. Degree of purity of a hue or mixture of hues.

Additive Colors (Lights)

Subtractive Colors (Pigments)
Additive and Subtractive Colors
Light Absorption
! When light is transmitted through a medium or reflected from a surface some

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 © Professor Alan Hedge, Cornell University, Spring 2000

wavelengths may be absorbed and some may be transmitted.

Color Vision - Theories
Young’s Trichromatic theory (1801)
Hering’s Opponent theory (1878)
Zone theory
Composite zone theory
Vision and Color
! This car appears yellow, but the surface is actually reflecting as follows:
– 70% yellow light
– 50% red light
– 50% green light
– 10% blue light
Munsell Color System
! Color pigment system that organizes pigments along 3 dimensions:
– Hue (color)
– Value (lightness)
– Chroma (vividness)
Munsell Color System
! Hue (color, wavelength) - circle divided into 5 main colors (red,, yellow, green,
blue, purple - described as 5R,5Y,5G,5B,5P). These in turn are divided into 5
intermediate colors (5RP, 5YR, 5GY, 5BG, 5PB), each of which has 10 steps
between each pair of intermediate colors (mid-points labeled 10RP, 10YR,
10GY, 10BG, 10PB)

Munsell Color System

! Value (lightness)- center cylinder organized in 10 steps from black through
white.
! Value helps estimate reflectance. Reflectance ~ value(value-1).
Munsell Color System
! Chroma (saturation, purity) - 16 steps from the center to the perimeter
indicating increasing saturation of the color.

Light Sources
Lamp
Generic term for an artificial light source.

Luminaire
Generic term for a complete lighting unit comprised of lamp(s) + light
distribution system (reflector/lens) + power supply connection (+ ballast, if
fluorescent).

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 © Professor Alan Hedge, Cornell University, Spring 2000

Light Sources - Lamps

Incandescent filament lamps
Light produced by electric heating of a filament or combustion of gases in a
thin mesh mantle.

Light Sources - Lamps

Gas-discharge lamps
- high intensity discharge (HID) - mercury, metal halide, high
pressure sodium
- low pressure sodium
- fluorescent
Lamp Color
Lamp color
Defined by the spectral distribution of the artificial light source.
! correlated color temperature (equivalent black body temperature - a
progression from black as coldest, through red, yellow, green, violet, blue to
white, as hottest),
! color rendering index (CRI) a gross indication of color-rendering accuracy with
a maximum of 100. Measures the degree of color shift of objects with respect
to a reference source of comparable color temperature. Where color is
important lamps with a CRI <60 should be avoided.
Color Temperature
! Effects of illuminance on preferred correlated color temperature of light
sources.
Light Spectra
! Lamps have different spectra to natural light.
Lamp Spectra
! Spectra for mercury, metal halide, sodium (low and high pressure)
and an incandescent lamp.
Fluorescent Lamp Spectra
Fluorescent Lamp Spectra
! Different fluorescent lamps have quite different spectra.
Lamp Spectra and Surfaces
! Different light sources will make the same surface appear a different color.
Color Temperature of Light -
C.I.E. Chromaticity Diagram
Color Rendering Index

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 © Professor Alan Hedge, Cornell University, Spring 2000

! CRI gives information on degree of color shift of object under light source
compared with a reference source (higher the CRI the less that color shift
occurs).
Color Balance Issues
! Light level (phototopic/mesopic/scotopic)
! Retinal spectral sensitivity
! Light source spectra
! Transmission filters
! Surface reflectances
! Task characteristics (speed, accuracy)

Lamp Efficacy
Lamp efficacy
Defined as the efficiency of the artificial light source (amount of light produced
per unit power consumed - lumens per watt).
Fluorescent lamps have a higher efficacy than incandescents. Advantages of
fluorescents are:
– 41% energy savings
– lasts 20 times longer
– yields 30% more light