Professional Documents
Culture Documents
2013 09
10:55 PM
Book Author
Introduction to Political Science Prof. Dr. Muhammad Sarwar
Political Science - Theory and Practice Mazhar ul Haq
Definitions:
1) Prof. David Easton:
Political Science studies the authoritative allocation of values in a society.
2) General:
Political Science deals with the state and the government and with all those laws which are
made for the internal security of the state and keep the external dangers away.
4) Encyclopedia Britannica:
5) Dr. Garner:
Gettle:
Robert Field:
Arguments in opposition:
1. Absence of Laboratories
2. Absence of Solid and Universal Principles
3. Absence of Authenticated Terminologies
4. Difference in Method of Research
5. Contradiction in Habits and Emotions
Arguments in Favour
1. Uniform Terminologies and Principles
a. Law of Liberty
b. Power of Sovereignty
c. Rule of Law
d. Democracy
Aristotle:
Ibn e Khaldun
The Rule of ups and downs.
Gill Crist:
Every change, battle and law of the government is an experiment for Political Science.
5. Predictions ( ):
Aristotle
Ibn e Khaldun:
Conclusion:
Although Political Science is not a pure science like natural sciences (Biology, Chemistry, Physics)
but still it could be counted as a social science like others (Economics, Psychology, Sociology).
Differences:
1. Sequence-wise study
2. Study of the Past
3. Scope
Differences:
1. Economic and Political Aspects ( )
Conclusion ( )
3. Standard Subjects
4. Religions and Ethics
5. Ethical Aspects of Rights and Duties ( )
6. Purpose of State
Differences:
1. Internal and External Aspects
2. Universality ( )
3. Philosophy (Ethics) and Practical (Pol. Sci.)
4. The Present World and the Next World
1. Social Sciences
2. Common Topics
3. Whole (Sociology) and Part (Pol. Sci.)
4. Guidance from Sociology
○ Magna Carta
5. Inseparable
6. Sociological Method
○ Ibn-e-Khaldun
○ Montesquieu
Differences:
1. Scope
Sociology ↑
Political Science ↓
2. Thorough Study
Political Science
4. Psychological Method
State
Treitschke:
The state is in itself an ethical force and a high moral good.
Angels:
The state is a product of society at a certain state of development.
Gettle:
2. Territory ( )
Russia has the largest territory i.e. 170,75,400 sq. km.
3. Government
○ Legislature
○ Judiciary
○ Executive
4. Sovereignty
a. Internal sovereignty
b. External sovereignty
Gettle:
He considers state as an organised collective entity of the individuals, occupying a particular
territory, free from external control, and having their own government, the letter is vested
legislation but is also empowered to implement law over individuals and their associations.
Laski:
regards state as a territorial social organisation consisting of ruler and ruled and which commands
supremacy over all institutions within its territorial boundaries.
Secondary Functions
1. Economic Planning
2. Social Security ( )
3. Transportation and Communication
4. Promotion of Health and Education
5. Regulation of Trade and Industry
Welfare State ( )
Laski (Father of the Welfare State):
Laski has defined welfare state as a polity that provides to its people socio-economic opportunities
and means on wider scale for social welfare.
Kant:
Heagle:
The state is God's march on the earth.
Aristotle:
considered state as a natural institute which is for the human being to build their character and to
provide the necessities of life.
Idealist:
State is an end itself and this end is the most superior.
Karl Marx
State is a form of the alliance of Lords. State is never confidered a means or the welfare of the
state. State is not a natural and original organisation.
Anarchist
deny the existence of state. They consider state as an evil but they always try to use efforts to
destroy the existence of state.
Introduction to Sovereignty
The word sovereignty is derived from the Latin word "superanaus" which means supreme.
Sovereignty is an essential element of state. State cannot exist without sovereignty. State is regarded
superior to other associations only because of sovereignty. In fact, modern theory of state got its proper
shape and perfection only when the concept of sovereignty was introduced in it. When we try to search
for the origin to this concept we find that the term sovereignty is the product of modern political
thinking but the ideas go back to the time of Aristotle who referred to it as the supreme power of the
state.
In middle ages, Roman jurist and civilians were also familiar to this idea but it was Jean Bodin
(1530-1596)who developed for the first time the theory of sovereignty, systematically, in his book, 'De la
republica'.
Definitions
Kelsen
In its original and only specific meaning, sovereignty means supreme authority.
Jean Bodin
Sovereignty is the supreme power over citizens and subjects unrestrained by law.
Pollock
says that sovereignty is that power which is neither temporary nor delegated nor subject to
particular rules which it cannot alter nor answerable to any other power on the earth.
Burgees
described the sovereignty as original, absolute, unlimited power over the undivided subjects over
all associations subjects. It is the un-derived and independent power to command and compel
obedience.
Laski
Sovereignty is legally supreme over any individual or groups. It possesses supreme coercive
power.
So, we can say that the above definitions may differ from each other but one thing is very clear and
there is no doubt; the superior authority of sovereignty.
2. Indivisibility ( )
Jellick
says that sovereignty is indivisible. Sovereignty can not be divided between or shared by a
plurality.
Gettle
If sovereignty is not absolute, no state exists. If sovereignty is divided more than one state
exists. But, with the emergence of the concept of federalism, the idea of dual sovereignty
was provided by Tocqueville, Wheaton and Halleck.
3. All-Comprehensiveness ( )
Burgees
Sovereignty of the state is universal. It extends to all within its territory.
4. Permanence ( )
Sovereignty is permanent. It lasts as long as its state. Change in government does not end
sovereignty but only transfers it to the next bearer.
5. Exclusiveness ( )
Sovereignty is exclusive state and alone has the sovereign authority and legitimate power to
make citizens obey its dictate. It is again important to note all these attributes of
sovereignty are peculiar to the legal nation of sovereignty. They are best representative by
an absolute monarchy.
Kinds of Sovereignty
Sovereignty can be classified into different kinds. This classification is based on the location of
sovereignty.
Legal sovereignty grants rights to its citizens and there can be no rights against it. It means
rights to citizens depend on the will of legal sovereign and, anytime, he can take them away.
Legal sovereignty has following attributes
1) The legal sovereignty is always definite and determinate.
2) It may reside either in one person or in a body of persons.
3) Rights of citizens are a gift of legal sovereignty.
4) The will of state is expressed by the legal sovereignty only.
3. Dejure Sovereignty (by law)
4. De Facto Sovereignty (in fact - )
2:20
•
2:255
•
1. Caliphate ( )
7:128
•
3:26
•
2. Rule of Law
4. Advisory Council ( )
42:38
•
1. System of Accountability ( )
3. Permanency
55:26-27
•
2:255
•
4. Not transferable
5. Universality/All-Comprehensiveness ( )
7:54
•
40:64
•
6. Powerness
2:165
•
Kinds of Sovereignty
5. Political Sovereignty
Background of legal sovereignty
All these influences are the real power behind the legal sovereign and this is called political
sovereignty. As Professor Gill Crist says, the political sovereignty is the sum total of the
influences in the state which lie behind the law. The political sovereignty is not known to
law. In modern representative democracy, political sovereignty is very often identified with
either the whole mass of the people or with electorate or the public opinion. The legal
sovereignty cannot act against the political sovereignty.
6. Popular Sovereignty
When the sovereignty resides in the people of the state, it is called as popular sovereignty. This
theory was expounded by Rousseau. When this letter became the slogan of French Revolution,
the doctrine of popular sovereignty regarded people as the supreme authority. It is people who
decides right or wrong. People are not bound by any natural and divine law. Government exists
only as a tool for the good of the people. It should be held directly responsible to the people. Will
of the people is not ignored. Popular sovereignty is the basis of modern democratic system
Definition:
1) Hamilton:
Federation means an association of states forming a new one. It is an organisation of states
that gives birth to a new union.
2) Montesquieu
It is a convention through which different states organise themselves into a wider union.
3) Professor Dicey
It is a political contrivance intended to reconcile national unity with the maintenance of
state rights.
Salient Features/Attributes/Characteristics
1. Division of Powers
In a federal government, the powers of administration are divided between the center and
the units. The powers may be distributed in one of the two ways. Either the constitution
states what powers federal authority shall have and leaves the remainder to the federating
units. The remainder is generally known as residuary powers. The first method was
employed in America and second in Canada
i. Basic Principles ( )
ii. Principle of Concurrent powers
Salient Features/Attributes/Characteristics
4. Independent Judiciary ( )
In a federation, there are possibilities of constitutional disputes, arising between the center
and the units or between one unit and another or between the citizens and the
government. For this purpose, independent judiciary, with wide powers, must be
established. It should act as the custodian and guardian of the constitution.
5. Double Citizenship ( )
Citizenship in a federal state has dual interest and citizens should be given rights of dual
citizenship. Citizenship of the state wherein they are domiciled and citizenship of federal
state as a whole.
6. Bicameral legislature ( )
In a federation, legislature should be bicameral; consisting of two chambers. The people and
the units should be given representation separately; people in the lower chamber while the
units in the upper chamber, on equality basis.
Advantages of Federalism
1. Every province has political, social and economical problems peculiar to the region itself.
Provincial government representative live in close proximity to the people and, or the most of the
times, from the same community so that they are in a better positions to understand these
problems and offer unique solutions for them.
2. Federalism offers equal representation to different population. Citizens of various provinces may
have different aspiration, authenticity and follow different cultures. The central government can
sometimes overlook these differences and adopt policies. Local needs, tastes, and opinions are
given due consideration by the state government. Right of the minorities are protected to e.g. in
states like Arizona, where there is large Hispanic population, and therefore, a large number of
schools provide bilingual education.
3. State government has the freedom to adopt policies which may not be followed nationally or by
any other state, e.g. same-sex-marriages are not recognised in the federal government of US but
they are given legal state within the states of Connecticut Lover Mont.
4. Division of work between the central and regional governments leads to optimum utilisation of
recourses. The central governments can focus on International affairs and defense of the country
while the provincial government can cater to the local needs.
5. Federalism has room for innovation and experimentations. Two local governments can have two
different approaches to bring reforms in my area of public domain, be it taxation or education.
The comparison of the results of these policies can give a clear idea of which policy is better and,
thus, can be adopted in the future.
Merits of Federalism
1. Suitable for large states
2. Strong government
3. Benefits of distribution of works
4. Enhancement in national dignity
5. Prevention of absoluteness
6. World State
7. Opportunities of experiments
8. Combination of unity and autonomy
9. Suitable for the cultures of all the regions
2. Very Expensive
Federal system of government is very expensive as more people are elected to office, both,
at the state and at the center, than necessary. Thus, it is often said that only rich countries
can afford it. Too many elective representatives with overlapping rules may also leads to
corruption.
3. Unnecessary Competition
Federalism lead to unnecessary competition between different regions. There can be a
rebellion by a regional government against the national government to.
4. Regional Inequalities
Federalism promotes regional inequalities. Natural resources, industries, employment,
opportunities, differ from region to region. Hence, earning and wealth are unevenly
distributed. Rich states offer more opportunities and benefits to its citizens than poor states
can. Thus, the gap between rich and poor states widens.
5. State-Government Selfishness
Federalism can make the state-government selfishness and concern only about their own
region's progress. They can formulate policies which might be determinant to other regions
e.g. pollution from a province which is promoting industrialisation in a big way can affect
another region which depends solely on agriculture and cause crop damage.
Conclusion
Thus, it is understood that there had been both, advantages and disadvantages in US. There is a
general feeling that the rights of the minorities, like blacks, are compromised in US but, at the
same time, US now has a democratically elected African-American President. Similarly, there had
been advantages and disadvantages of federalism in other countries as well.
2. Fiez
Such type of government in which all the powers belongs to a central government.
A unitary government may be defined as in which the powers are concentrated in the hands of a central
government. There may be local governments. These are created and derive their power from the
central government and as such a subordinate to the same in all respects. They are mere agents of the
central government. The best example of the unitary government is that of the Great Britain and France.
3. Simplicity in Organisation
The unitary state is simple in organisation as there is a single administrative system to
execute laws and policy. This saves money. It is therefore less expensive form of
government than the federal one.
6. Quick Decision
In unitary state, there is no concept of provincial government or decisions are made by the
central government. So, central government can make decisions easily.
Definitions → Meaning:
The state is the most universal and most powerful of all social institutions. The state is a natural
institution. Aristotle said that man is a social animal and by nature he is a political being.
The modern term 'state' is derived from the word 'status'. It was Nicedo Machiavelli (1469-1527) who
first used the term 'state' in his writings. His important work is titled as 'Prince'.
The state is the highest form of human association. It is necessary because it comes into existence out of
the basic needs of life. It continues to remain for the sake of good life.
Definition:
1) According to Garner
State is a community of people occupying a definite form of territory free of external control
and possessing an organised government to which people show habitual obedience.
Elements
1. Population
It is the people who make the state. Population is essential for the state. Greek thinkers
were of the view that the population should neither be too big nor too small. According to
Plato, the ideal number would be 5040. According to Aristotle, the number should be
neither be too large enough to be self-sufficing nor small enough to be well governed.
Rousseau determined 10,000 to be an ideal number for a state. Greek thinkers', like Plato's
and Aristotle's, thinking on the number was based on small city-states like Athens and
Sparta. However, modern states vary in population.
2. Territory
There can be no state without a fixed territory. People need territory to live and organise
themselves socially and politically. It may be remembered that the territory of the state
includes land, water and air-space.
The modern states differ in their sizes. Territory is necessary for citizenship. As in the case of
population, no definite size, with regards to extent of area of the state, can be fixed. There
are small and big states.
○ In the words of Prof. Elliott, "territorial sovereignty or the superiority of state, overall,
within its boundaries, and complete freedom from external control has been a fundamental
principle of the modern state life.
3. Government
Government is the third element of the state. There can be no state without government.
Government is the working agency of the state. It is the political organisation of the state.
○ Prof. Appadorai defined government as the agency through which the will of the state if
formulated, expressed and realised.
○ According to C. F. Strong, in order to make and enforce laws, the state must have supreme
authority. This is called government.
4. Sovereignty
The fourth essential element of the state is sovereignty. The word 'sovereignty' means
Internal sovereignty means that the state is supreme over all its citizens and associations.
External sovereignty means that the state is independent and free from foreign or outside
control.
4. Concentration of Power
Concentration of Power tends to make the central government despotic. The subordinate
position of local government deprives them of initiative and time to devote the local affairs
without first getting orders or powers from the superior central authority. Hence, they
usually neglect them. Central authority impairs the vitality of the local governments and
facilitates the development of the centralised bureaucracy.
Confederation
1. Dr. Garner
There are many sovereigns in confederation. In fact, all the states included are sovereign.
2. Hall
Confederation is union of independent states which establish for particular purpose.
A confederation is an association of sovereigns. Sovereign member states that by treaty have delegated
certain of their powers to common institutions in order to coordinate their policies in a number of areas,
without constitutions of a new member states under international law. A confederation respects the
sovereignty of its members and its constituting treaty can only be changed by unanimous. A
confederation in modern political terms is a permanent union of sovereign states for common actions in
relation to other states, usually created by treaty but often, later, adopting a common constitution.
Confederations tend to be established for deciding with critical issues such as defense, foreign affairs or
a common currency with the central government being required to provide support for all members.
Confederation
Thus confederation is union of independent states but it is quite different from federation.
The nature of the relationship among the states constituting a confederation varies considerably.
Likewise, the relationship between the member states and the central government and the distribution
of powers among them is highly virile. Some looser confederation are similar to intergovernmental
organisation, while tighter confederations may resemble federation.
In a non political context, confederation is used to describe a type of organisation which consolidates
authority from other semi-autonomous bodies. Examples include sports confederations or
confederations of Pan-European trades unions
3. Responsible Government
The cabinet is immediately responsible to the legislature. This means that this is answerable
for its policies and actions to the legislature and its tenure of office is dependent on the will
of the legislature. The responsibility of ministers is collective. A vote of no confidence
against one minister is regarded as a vote of no confidence against the entire cabinet.
4. Cabinet is Homogeneous
Members of the cabinet are the member of the legislature. They are taken from the party
commanding the majority in the legislature. The leader of the majority party becomes the
prime minister and on his advice other ministers are appointed by the head of the state or
the presidential. Thus, the cabinet is a homogeneous body. If no party in the legislative
enjoys the clear or absolute majority, two or more parties join together to form the cabinet,
known as coalition cabinet.
1. Cabinet Dictatorship ( )
659 members → House of Common
25-30 members → Cabinet members
2. Instability ( )
3. Inexperienced Ministers ( )
4. Protection of Personal Interests ( )
5. Opposite to Separation of Powers
○ The idea of separation of powers was given by Montesquieu
6. Criticism for the sake of criticism
7. Horse Trading and Floor Crossing ( )
8. Slow System of Government ( )
9. Expensive System of Government
Definition
A presidential form of government is a system of government where an executive branch is lead
by a president, who serve as both, head of the state and the head of the government.
Features
1. The president, the head of the state, exercises real executive authority.
2. The president appoints a number of ministers (in the USA, they are called secretaries) to assist him
in his works. The ministers are his subordinates and are responsible to him.
3. The president is elected for a fixed term. He cannot be turned out by the legislature before the
expiry of that term.
4. The president is not responsible to the legislature nor are his secretaries responsible to the
legislature. They may be removed only by the president.
5. The president is not a member of the legislature.
6. There is a complete separation of powers between executive and legislature with the system of
check and balance.
2. Separation of Powers
The fact that a presidential system separates the executive system from the legislature is
sometimes held up as an advantage. In that, each branch may scrutinize the actions of the
others. In a parliamentary system, the executive is drawn from the legislature, making
criticism of one by the other considerably less likely. A former condemnation of the
executive by the legislature is often regarded to be a vote of no confidence. According to
the supporters of the presidential system, the lack of checks and balance means that
misconduct by a prim minister may never be discovered. Writing about Watergate,
Woodrog Wyatt, a former MP (member of the parliament) in the UK, said, "Don't think a
Watergate could not happen here. You just would not hear about it."
3. Stability
The presidential system guarantees the stability in the country while most parliamentary
governments go long periods of time without a no confidence vote. Italy, Israel and the
French Fourth Republic have, all, experienced difficulties maintaining to relish on coalitions.
As they often do in nations, that use a system of proportional representation, extremist
parties can theoretically use the threat of leaving a coalition to further their agendas.
4. Meeting Emergencies
Many people consider presidential system to be more able to survive emergencies. A
country under enormous stress, may supporter's arguments be better, of being lead by
president with a fixed term than rotating preneurships. France, during the Algeria
controversy, switch to the semi-presidential system, as did Sri Lanka during its civil war. In
France and Sri Lanka, the results are widely considered to have been positive.
5. Independent Legislature
Under the presidential system, the legislature can always maintain its independent and can
legislate without interference of the government. Even if the president's party is a majority,
in the legislature, there is no guarantee that legislature will always follow the president
blindly. Supporters of presidential system note that parliamentary system frequently go
through disrupted cabinet shuffles where legislatures are moved between part flaws.
Whereas, in presidential system, cabinet shuffles are unheard of.
Legislature
The legislature is law making branch. The legislature has an important role in the amendment of the
constitution. The legislature is a deliberative body where matters of social, economical and political
concerns are discussed, debated and decided.
The British parliament is said to be the mother of parliaments. It is the oldest legislature in the world.
According to Professor Laski, Law making is not the only functions of the legislature but its real function
is to watch the process of administration to safeguard the liberties of private citizens.
The legislature of the union is called the parliament in Pakistan and India. It consists of two cambers;
(i) Upper House
(ii) Lower House
Kinds of Legislature
(i) Unicameral
(ii) Bicameral
Functions of Legislature
1. Law Making
2. Financial Functions
○ Auditor General
3. Executive Functions
4. Judicial Functions
5. Power to Amend the Constitution
6. Electoral Functions
7. Functions regarding to Foreign Affairs
8. Prevention of Public Grievances
9. Functions of Public Opinion
10. Investigatory Functions
11. National Policies
12. International Relation
Executive
Executive is that organ of government which enforces the will of the people as formulated in laws. The
term is used in broad and narrow sense. In the broad sense, the executive includes the supreme head of
the state, his ministers and all other officials, high and low, who are concerned with the execution of
laws and related affairs. In the narrow sense, if simply refers to the chief executive and his advisors, who
determines the policy of the government and sees that the laws are properly enforced and
implemented.
In the presidential system of government, president and the members of his cabinet are executive,
while, in the parliamentary system, prime minister and his members are executive, who are chosen by
the majority party in the parliament. They head the administrative departments, initiate legislation and
get it passed by the parliament. The implementation of laws and policies of the government is the
function of permanent civil servants who are recruited at fixed age and remain in office till the age of
retirement. With permanent carrier, thus, the executive in the Great Britain means the team of
executives and ministers, headed by prime minister; In United States, the president and his secretaries;
and in Pakistan, the prime minister and his cabinet and those subordinate officials who carry out the
policy and enforce the laws. The executive branch, the government, is the part of the government that
has sole authority and responsibility for the daily administration of state bureaucracy. The division of
power into separate branches of the government is central to the idea of the Separation of Powers.
Kinds of Executive
1. Nominal and Real Executive
2. Single and Plural Executive ( )
○ Switzerland: Federal Council is based on 7 members who become president or prime
minister every year.
3. Parliamentary and Presidential Executive
4. Permanent and non-Permanent Executive
Functions of Executive
1. Establishment of Internal Peace and Security
2. Defense of the State
3. Foreign Relations
4. Judicial Functions
5. Legislature Powers
6. Financial Powers
7. Public Welfare
8. Powers of Appointment
Judiciary
Judiciary is the third organ of the government which occupies an eminent position and performs
important functions. Its main function is to dispense justice. The demand of justice is inherent in man
and this is filled by the judiciary. The only independent judiciary can perform this function. The judiciary
is the system of courts that interprets and applies the law in the name of the state. The judiciary also
provides a mechanism for the resolution of disputes under the doctrine of the suppression of power.
The judiciary, generally, does not make law or enforce law but rather interprets law and applies it to the
fact of each case. This branch of government is often tasked with ensuring equal justice under law. It
usually consists of a court of final appeal, together with lower courts.
Lord Bryce has said that there are two better tests of excellence of government than the efficiency of its
judicial system. The welfare of citizens depends to a larger extent upon the judiciary. Judiciary is one of
the pillars of democracy. Its interpretation ensures justice, equality and liberty to all its citizens.
Independent and impartial judiciary is an essential feature of democratic setup. The Supreme Court of
Pakistan consists of chief justice and other judges. The Supreme Court has its permanent seat in
Islamabad.
According to Justice Charles Evans Hughes, we are under a constitution but the constitution is what the
judges say it is.
Functions of Judiciary
1. Provision of Justice
2. Interpretation of Laws ( )
3. Safeguard of Constitution
4. Interpretation of Constitution
○ 1954 → Governor General Sikander Mirza dissolved the assembly.
5. Advisory Functions
○ 1972 → Acceptance of Bangladesh.
6. Safeguard of Basic/Fundamental Rights
7. Supervise and to Hear Appeals
8. Preventive Justice ( )
9. Contempt of Court
2. Ensures Responsibility
It ensures the responsibility of those who govern to those who are governed. This
responsibility is firstly and directly to the members of parliament. The ministers are
constantly criticized by the members, especially by those of opposition. It is impossible for
an irresponsible ministry to hold office for long. It resigns as soon as it loses the confidence
of majority in the legislature.
3. Flexibility
Parliamentary system is flexible enough to adjust itself according to the need of the
changing circumstances. In case, public policy is not in the line with popular demands, it can
be reshaped under the presence of parliament. Moreover, proper changes can be brought in
the proper composition of the cabinet in order to meet any emergency.