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ROCK SLOPE ENGINEERING

Effects of excavation on rock masses

Displacement and rock failure

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Stress rotation

Water flow

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As soon as a slope is excavated, surrounding rock mass will be disturbed – formation of

yield zone. Design & method of construction must be carefully considered so that
disturbance to surrounding rock is reduced (thinner yield zone, less affected volume).

Excavation method

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Typical slope face .... discontinuous, fresh (Grade I)

to completely weathered (Grade V) rock mass

Modes of failure in rock slope

Modes of failure in rock slope – instability

is due to any one or combination of these

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Plane failure:

• Associated with sliding of unstable block

along a single distinctive inclined
weakness plane.
• Weakness plane can be bedding or fault
(seldom joint).

Plane failure: induced by inclined bedding

planes or a single inclined fault

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Single inclined joint (and fault) leads to plane failure

Single inclined joint (and fault) leads to plane failure

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Parallel & inclined bedding planes lead to plane failure

Parallel & inclined bedding planes lead to plane failure

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Parallel & inclined bedding planes lead to plane failure

Larger unstable blocks resting

on an inclined joint plane (and
bedding) can lead to plane
failure

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Wedge failure:

Associated with sliding of unstable

block (wedge) along two
intersecting & inclined weakness
planes.
Plane can be joints or faults (not
bedding plane).
Common in rock exhibiting more
than 2 joint sets.

Closely spaced & intersecting joints

(> two sets) lead to wedge failure

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Closely spaced & intersecting joints (> two sets)

lead to wedge failure

Rock fall:

Associated with toppling of

unstable small rock blocks, not
sliding along weakness planes.
Common in rock mass exhibiting
more than 3 joint sets that are
closely spaced.
Weakness planes are joints only

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Closely spaced & intersecting joints

lead to rock fall

Plane failure + rock fall

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Closely spaced joint in weathered rock

may lead to rock fall

Closely spaced joint in weathered rock may

lead to rock fall

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Flexural toppling:
Associated with bending of
unstable (slender) rock blocks, not
associated with sliding along
weakness planes.
Common in rock exhibiting more
than 2 joint sets and folded
beddings that are almost vertical in
orientation.

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Near vertical joint sets and folded strata

lead to flexural toppling

Near vertical joint sets and folded strata

lead to flexural toppling

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Folded strata in tectonically disturbed rocks.

Flexural failure may occur in slope excavated in
rock mass exhibiting fold type B, C and D.
→ geological information of project area is
important!!!!

Very often rock slopes display more than

one mode of failure, e.g. wedge + rock fall
or plane failure + rock fall

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RQD (evaluated during core logging) can indicate

mode of failure – RQD between 25 to 50 may give
rise to rock falls + wedge failure

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ROCK STABILISATION

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Instability in rock & method of stabilisation

Different mode of instability requires different stabilisation method

hence, it is important to understand 2 aspects before one can
select an effective method:

What is the mode of prevailing instability (plane, wedge, flexural or

rock fall)?
How specific stabilisation method works (mechanisms) to produce
effective stability?

Most rock stabilisation methods are different from those used in

soils. This is mainly due to the mode of instability in rock (the less
weathered ones) which is always associated with weakness
planes rather than its material strength

Rock vs soil slopes

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Principally in rock slope we need to stabilise only the

unstable key-blocks, not the whole rock mass!!

… this is why method like

retaining wall is not
practical for rock slope.

The principal → to mobilise

the inherent strength so
that the rock can support
itself.
Key-blocks
In soil, due to weak bonding
between soil grains, the
‘weakness planes’ are
throughout the soil mass &
in every direction, you need
to stabilise the whole slope.

Usually stabilisation of structure is an aspect that must be

implemented.

Stabilisation method is basically to increase FOS, by increasing

resisting forces

FOS = [Σ resisting forces] / [Σ disturbing forces].

Disturbing forces are factors that sometimes beyond our control

(uncertainties) – rainfall, weathering rate, groundwater, rock mass,
earthquakes etc.

Resisting forces are methods that can be implemented to increase

FOS – slope profiles, avoiding problem areas & installing
stabilisation method

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Considerations for selecting

stabilisation method:

(1) Types, size and geometrical orientation of weakness planes in rock

(joint, fault & beddings).

(2) Mode/type of instability in rock mass (plane, wedge, flexural & rock
fall). The mode of unstability is dictated by the type, orientation and
sets of weakness plane.

(3) Understanding of the reinforcement mechanisms (reinforcing mode)

of each method i.e. how each element reacts with the existing
instability so to increase FOS.

(4) Type of rock, strengths, weathering grade (HW & CW). Weaker rocks
like schist & highly weathered granite are not suitable to be reinforced
with rockbolt & dowel.

Types of discontinuities in rock mass

Indicates modes of failure & approximate size of unstable
blocks

In terms of size:
Fault: is the largest, more than 1000s km length and extends
several 10 km in the earth’s crust.
Bedding plane: may extend more than 100s km and thickness
of few m.
Joint: is the smallest length of few m.

The size of the discontinuity in general determines the size of

the unstable block

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Type & size of discontinuities may indicate size of unstable blocks.

In general, in terms of size, the largest is fault, followed by bedding
plane, and the smallest is joint

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Minerals arrangements due to sedimentation (lamination) and due to metamorphism

(foliation) are is small scale discontinuities rock (e.g. shale, sandstone slate & schist)

SCALING
Rock scaling is generally defined as the removal rock loose
rock from slopes. This process is done by removing loose
surface material presenting a rockfall hazard, usually with
pry-bars and picks.
Where large sections of rock or large boulders require
removal, a variety of techniques can be utilized including
winching, air bags/pillows, and breaking up in situ using
power tools.
Temporary rockfall protection measures are often used in
the rock scaling and rock removal process. Scaling can be
an individual slope stabilization measure, but is often
performed as an initial process in a slope stabilization
project, as rock scaling alone is considered a temporary
solution.

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Stabilisation and reinforcement of rock:

The basic principle of rock mass stabilisation method is to

help rock mass to stabilise itself. Correct installation of
method can help to mobilise the inherent / internal strength
available in the rock (e.g. frictional or residual strength of
fractured rock, shear strength of discontinuities).

Rock stabilisation methods are divided into 2 main groups:

(1) SUPPORT SYSTEM (penyokong)

(2) REINFORCEMENT SYSTEM (pengukuhan)

Principles of rock stabilisation methods

To help the rock mass to support itself by

improving stability & maintaining the load-
carrying capability of rock near the boundaries of
excavation (within the yield zone!)

To mobilise & conserve the inherent strength of

rock mass so that it becomes self-supporting!

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SUPPORT SYSTEM:
The use of support elements (e.g. steel U-section, pre-cast
slabs, shotcrete & wiremesh) that are installed on rock
surface. This system increase the stability of rock body by
imposing a confining pressure into the rock. The confining
pressure increases the contact between fracture surfaces
(joints) and consequently increase the existing frictional
strength in the fractured rock.

Effect of confinement on highly jointed rock

Confining pressure increases

contacts between loose unstable
blocks, consequently this increases
frictional strength between unstable
joint blocks → increase resisting
forces

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Stabilisation of large tunnel using shotcrete +

concrete slab + rock bolt + wire mesh

Steel U-section as support with concrete slabs as

lining in between the U-sections

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Shotcrete is to reduce infiltration of surface run-off water into

the slope & occasionally to prevent falling of smaller rock
blocks. Bonding between the shotcrete & rock surface must be
strong or otherwise the shotcrete will detach

Since shotcrete is impermeable to water it must be

installed with weep-holes. This to drain water out of
the slope or otherwise there will be built-up of pore-
water pressure in the slope

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Steel wiremesh (chain-link or welded mesh) is used to

restrain smaller size unstable rock blocks from falling
down especially the ‘key-blocks’. Falling of smaller rock
blocks may lead to a larger slope failure - ravelling.

Rock bolt or dowel is used to secure/anchor the wire

mesh on rock surface. If this anchorage is not effective
(bolting in weak rock) then, the wire mesh may be
detached from the rock surface & become ineffective

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Mixing of shotcrete

Steel welded mesh to

restrain smaller size
unstable rock blocks
from falling down
especially the ‘key-
blocks’. Falling of
smaller rock blocks
may lead to a larger
slope failure - ravelling.

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Spraying of shotcrete on rock

surface which has been fixed
with welded mesh. Shotcrete
is impermeable, thus weep-
holes must be installed to
drain water out of the slope

Shotcrete + wire mesh + weep holes.

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Shotcrete + weep holes.

The difference in properties

between soil and rock must be
understood, methods
applicable to rock may not be
suitable for soil (or weak rock
e.g. schist) – shotcrete is only
applicable for strong rock for
good bonding between
shotcrete & slope face

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REINFORCEMENT SYSTEM:

The use of reinforcement elements (e.g.

dowel, rockbolt, rock anchor & grout) that
are installed inside the rock body. This
system stabilises the rock by increasing its Key-blocks
internal inherent strength. The element
must be installed across a weakness
plane. In principal it is similar to the action
of rebars in reinforced concrete or pre-
tensioned rebar in pre-stressed concrete.

Rock bolt & dowel are used to

stabilise unstable blocks.

Bolt must be of sufficient length so

that it extends well beyond the
weakness planes thus anchoring
the unstable blocks to a stronger
rock .

The orientation of the bolt must be

in such a such a way so that it
intersects an optimum number of
weakness planes.

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Main components of rock bolt & rock dowel

Various types and surface finished of rebar used

as for rock bolt, material can steel, fibre
reinforced concrete (FRC)

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ROCK BOLT: 25 mm Steel rebar (15 to 30 mm diameter) with

threaded length & locking nut

Installation of dowel:
1. Drill hole

2. Insert grout/resin

3. Insert bar

4. Twist to mix resin

5. Install bearing plate & nut

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Installed rock bolt with spherical bearing plate &

tensioning nut. Spherical seat ensure even
distribution of bolt tension

Rock bolting to prevent sliding:

One of the most effective method in stabilising unstable rock

block is using rockbolt or rock anchor. Procedures of
installation are important in these methods to ensure its
effectiveness:

Bolt orientation.

Type of bonding (resin or grout) and bonded length (full-
bonded).

Tension level of the bolt (designed tension).

Borehole condition and diameter.

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A rock bolt is an active (tensioned) dowel used for stabilising rock

joints. Similar to the use of tensioned rebar in pre-stressed
concrete. Tension induced immediately during installation

Tensioning rock bolt during installation;

hydraulic jack & stressing chair

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Effect of rock bolt in stabilising unstable rock block

The bolt must be installed in
such a way that it
elongates/extents when the
reinforced block starts to slide.

The bolt (if possible) must pass

through the c.g. of the block
being stabilised & installed at an
angle equals to the friction angle
of the sliding plane for effective
reinforcement

The resolved component of the

β (along the inclined
bolt: T cosβ
plane) & Tsin β (perpendicular to
the inclined plane).

The resolved component of

the bolt: T cos α (along the
inclined plane) & T sin α
(perpendicular to the
inclined plane).

Rockbolt becomes more effective if it is installed at an angle (α ≈ φ)

to the sliding plane & the orientation is in such away that the bolt
elongates when the ustable block starts to slide

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Sliding of rough joint surfaces may lead to dilation

(opening of joint). Dilation induces tension into rock
dowel and additional tension to rock bolt.

Rock bolt intersecting rough clean joint: dilation

leads to an increase in bolt tension (positive effect)

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Rock bolt intersecting filled joint: no dilation due to

compressibility of infill, this leads to eventual loss
(creep) in bolt tension (negative effect)

Roof section is the most critical part of a tunnel. Rock bolt of

different lengths are used to reinforced highly jointed/fractured
roof section (reduce roof failure rock fall & wedge failure)

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Excavation of rectangular tunnel in horizontally bedded sedimentary rock may induce a

phenomenon called ‘bed separation’ at the tunnel roof. If the lower bed is thinner this leads
to a larger deflection δ (as δ ∝ 1/h3). When the lower bed deflects more downwards, it will be
separated from the upper bed creating a gap between the beds

‘Bed separation’ can be reduced by installing rock bolts at the roof tunnel. When the lower
& upper beds are bolted together they form a composite beam (beam setara), the
resulting bed is thicker (thus smaller δ) and higher shear strength at the bedding plane.

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Rock dowel, rock bolt and Rock Anchor

In principle, these three reinforcement elements are similar in

design. The only differences are their stabilisation capacity,
purpose and installation.

They consist essentially of tendon/bar, anchorage (bonding agent)

bearing plate & tensioning device

Rock bolt is more expensive to install than rock dowel, they are
effective for long-term stabilisation (civil engineering structure).

Rock dowel is for short-term reinforcement (for mining &

temporary support in tunnel).

They are used to increase the inherent strength of weakness

planes in rock e.g. shear strength of unstable joint

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For larger unstable blocks (e.g. unstable blocks of several tonnes

in plane failure) rock anchor is recommended. Instead of tendon
rock anchor consists of high capacity multiple strands steel
cables (cables used in suspension bridge)

The difference between dowel and rock bolt

Dowel is passive bolt, installed without any tension. Tension in

dowel develop eventually after there is movement in joints it
intersect.

Rock bolt is active dowel, installed with pretension (usually about

(60 – 70 % Tb). Due to this pre-tension, rock bolt exhibits several
positive characteristics as permanent reinforcement.

Use of rockbolts for larger unstable blocks

Rockbolt has limited tensile strength (150 – 200 kN per

bolt) and length is between few m to about less than 12
m. Installation is complex & expensive.

In stabilising a larger unstable block (e.g. wedge of

several thousands tonne), the number of bolts required
may exceeds its economical limit and their effective
lengths may not be sufficient

Need for a larger size and higher capacity rock

reinforcement method

Option is ROCK ANCHOR with length exceeds 20 m and

capacity few thousands tonnes

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Fully-grouted rock anchor & anchor

head; debonded over free tendon
length with fixed anchor protection –
material is multiple strands steel
cables, similar to the cables used in
suspension bridge

Tensioning of rock anchor

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Weathered strong rock like granite (Zone 4 – 6) are not

suitable to be reinforced using rockbolt. In weak rock the
bonding between bolt and surrounding rock are weak.
Weak bonding will not produce sufficient tension in the bolt

Minerals arrangement (slatey & schistosity) in

metamorphic rocks may weakening these rocks
(similar to grannular soil). Reinforcement method like
rock bolt & rock anchor are not recommended in
these rocks, mainly due to weak bonding

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Stability & drainage are the main problems with

slope excavated in schist & slate (metamorphic
rocks). Even with gentle & low angle profile (2 m
height with benching) the slope remains unstable

DRAINAGE

Comprehensive drainage system (surface & internal drainage] for

large size slopes and where water is a critical factor.

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Drainage system (method of stabilisation) is an essential measure for

rock slopes excavated in tropical countries (high annual rainfall). The
drain also acts as buffer zone for any fallen rock

Drainage system (method of stabilisation) at the crest of

protected slope

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Maintenance costs on slope & stabilisation methods (after construction)

can be costly. Selection of appropriate & effective method, & correct
installation procedures ensure stabilisation methods are functioning
effectively for the required safety level and duration .

Rockbolt is a method recommended for long-term stabilisation however,

its effectiveness greatly depending on how it is installed e.g. borehole
size, tension level & tensioning device (bearing plate & nut.

Usually more than one methods are required to stabilise a rock slope.

Commonly used method are: rockbolt + wiremesh + shotcrete. Long-

term effect due to weathering is reduced by minimising the presence of
weathering agents through drainage system: surface drainage & weep-
holes.

Sprayed concrete/shotcrete (special cement mix of 20-30mm thick)

applied on the slope face helps to reduce weathering agent from
seeping into the slope

Use of shotcrete + wiremesh:

It is a normal practice to spray shotcrete on slope face

which has been protected with wiremesh, this is mainly
due to:

Both methods compliment with each other although

each method delivers different mechanisms of
stabilisation.

Thin layer of shotcrete is weak and exhibits lower

stiffness, wiremesh can act as ‘reinforcement’ for this
layer of shotcrete. By covering the wiremesh (steel) with
layer of shotcrete provide protection against corrosion
(contact with water & O2)

This procedure ensures both methods to function

effectively for a long period of time

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Shotcrete + wire mesh + weep holes.

Plane failure is usually associated with a ‘large unstable block’ that

tends to slide along a weakness plane (e.g. bedding or fault planes).
Reinforcing the unstable block to a more stable rock mass is highly
recommended, using rock bolts and rock anchor.

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Wedge failure is associated with unstable medium to large size

block that tends to slide along intersecting weakness planes (joints
or faults). Similar to plane failure, reinforcing the unstable block to a
more stable rock mass is recommended using rock bolts (for
medium block) or rock anchor (for large blocks).

Rocks fall is associated with smaller size blocks. Failure is not along distinctive sliding
planes. The unstable rocks are blocks that have been separated from the main rock body
by intersecting joints (> 3 sets). Water can penetrate the slope easily due to many joint
sets. Reinforcement alone is not suitable for this type of unstability. Support system like
wire-mesh & shotcrete together with rock bolts are recommended.

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Flexural toppling is unstability due to rock blocks that are separated by

at least one set of near vertical joints or bedding planes. Failure is
associated with sliding plane. The slender (thin) vertical rock blocks can
be made stronger by bonding them together (composite beams) using
rock bolts (thinner blocks) or rock anchor (thicker blocks)

Methods of stabilisation for civil engineering structures and

mining activities (after Stacey & Page, 1986)

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ROCK BARRIER

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Racetrack Playa in Death Valley: The Walking Rock

High winds? Slippery slopes of algae? Aliens?
There is a magnetic force field that is drawing the rocks towards it. As the
earth turns on it’s axis the magnetic force field moves and drags the rocks
across the desert bed. The rays of the sun is what’s causing it

That the lifting by an “ice collar” reduces friction with the ground, to the point
that the wind now has enough force to move the rock. The rock moves, the ice
doesn’t

The first step requires the playa's basin to fill with just enough water to
surround the rocks but not too deep to cover them. Next, as nighttime
temperatures fall, the water freezes into a quarter-inch thick sheet of ice. In the
morning, as the rising sun begins to melt the ice sheet, it causes it to break into
smaller floating panels. Finally, light winds - as light as 10mph in strength -
gently blow these panels into the rocks and push them across the playa at a
speed of only a few inches per second. Since the movement of the rocks is
synchronized, even if someone was observing the phenomenon directly, they
may not notice the rocks are moving.
Trail tells the tale http://www.sciencebuzz.org/blog/death-valleys-walking-rocks-mystery-solved

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