Technical Paper
Rolf Breitenbücher
Günther Meschke*
Fanbing Song
Yijian Zhan
Experimental, analytical and numerical analysis of the
pullout behaviour of steel fibres considering different
fibre types, inclinations and concrete strengths
The pullout behaviour of single steel fibres embedded in a con-
crete matrix is investigated for various configurations of fibre
types and embedment lengths and angles by means of laboratory
tests and analytical models. Laboratory tests for fibre pullout are
performed to investigate the fibre-matrix bond mechanisms.
Parameters influencing the fibre pullout response, such as fibre
shape, fibre tensile strength, concrete strength and fibre inclina-
tion angle are systematically studied. The effects of these para-
meters on the pullout force versus displacement relationship,
fibre efficiency and fibre/matrix failure response are analysed
based on the experimental results. For the analytical modelling of
the fibre pullout behaviour of straight fibres, an interface law is
proposed for the frictional behaviour between fibre and matrix.
In the case of inclined fibres, the plastic deformation of the fibre
and the local damage to the concrete are also considered. For
hooked-end fibres, the anchorage effect due to the hook is
analysed. Combining these sub-models allows the pullout
response of single fibres embedded in a concrete matrix to be
predicted. In addition, numerical simulations of pullout tests are
performed to obtain insights into the local fibre-concrete inter-
actions and to provide supporting information for the analytical
modelling. The models are successfully validated with the experi-
mental results.
Keywords: steel fibre, pullout behaviour, laboratory test, analytical modelling,
numerical simulation
1 Introduction
Concrete, as one of the most important construction ma-
terials, is a quasi-brittle material, exhibiting low tensile
strength and fracture toughness. A common way of im-
proving its load-carrying behaviour in tension is to add
steel bars as reinforcement in concrete structural ele-
ments. Alternatively, steel fibres can be added to the con-
crete matrix to enhance the performance of concrete sub-
jected to tensile stresses [1]. The primary contribution of
fibres is enhanced post-cracking behaviour and material
ductility, since fibres bridging the cracks transfer stresses
across these cracks and retard crack opening and propa-
gation, leading to smaller crack opening widths. There-
* Corresponding author: guenther.meschke@rub.de
Submitted for review: 22 July 2013
Revised: 12 September 2013
Accepted for publication: 30 September 2013
126 © 2014 Ernst & Sohn Verlag für Architektur und technische Wissenschaften GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin · Structural Concrete 15 (2014), No. 2
DOI: 10.1002/suco.201300058
fore, fibre-reinforced concrete has a distinct advantage
with respect to durability. Even for structures reinforced
with conventional reinforcement, steel fibres are suitable
for enhancing the ductility and durability of concrete
structures, e.g. when placed within the concrete cover.
The bridging effect across a crack opening in steel
fibre-reinforced concrete is governed by the total contribu-
tion of all the fibres intercepting the crack. The bridging
efficiency of every individual fibre depends largely on the
fibre-matrix bond characteristics [2]. It is therefore essential
to study the bond mechanisms in order to understand the
mechanical behaviour of steel fibre-reinforced concrete at a
structural level. Laboratory tests, measuring the reaction
forces during the pullout of one single fibre embedded in
the matrix, are indispensable when investigating fibre-matrix
interactions for different fibre types and concrete mixes [3].
The experimental research provides the basis for de-
veloping analytical models that predict the pullout behav-
iour of various types of fibre. As a standard case, for the
analysis of straight fibres without inclination with respect to
the loading direction, analytical methods typically treat the
fibre as a cylinder and focus on the interfacial behaviour,
characterized by a frictional slip mechanism along the in-
terface between the fibre and the cement-based matrix [4].
Modelling the pullout behaviour of inclined fibres in-
volves additional complexities connected with the lateral
pressure on the interface, inelastic deformations of the
fibre and partial damage to the matrix [5]. An extensive
literature survey on this topic can be found in Laranjeira
et al. [6], which also presents an analytical model to pre-
dict the pullout load-displacement relations of inclined
straight fibres. Besides straight steel fibres, one of the most
widely used types of fibre is the fibre with hooked ends.
During the pullout of a hooked-end fibre, the resistance of
the hook to straightening contributes considerably to the
total pullout force. Only a few analytical models describ-
ing hooked-end fibre pullout without inclination are avail-
able [7–10]. The inclined situation only seems to be con-
sidered in the “semi-analytical” models proposed by
Laranjeira et al. [11] and Soetens et al. [12]; the former
combines the hook effect extracted from the experimental
results with a straight fibre pullout model; the latter uses
the results obtained experimentally and the principles of
virtual work [8] to describe the pullout load–slip relation.
In the present paper, an analytical method is proposed for
directly calculating the anchorage forces during the pull-
R. Breitenbücher/G. Meschke/F. Song/Y. Zhan · Experimental, analytical and numerical analysis of the pullout behaviour of steel fibres considering different fibre types, inclinations and concrete strengths

out procedure; this allows the development of an analyti-

cal model for the pullout of inclined hooked-end fibres.
The present research plays a fundamental role in the
development of a multiscale framework for investigating
the material properties and structural behaviour of fibre-
reinforced concrete. In this context, the laboratory tests
and analytical models of single-fibre pullout behaviour
constitutes the lowest scale. The overall goal of this re-
search is the analysis, design and optimization for robust
and damage-tolerant tunnel linings made of steel fibre-re-
inforced concrete. Therefore, the main purpose of the ex-
periments in this paper is to investigate the pullout behav-
iour of steel fibres in high-strength concrete (84 MPa),
which corresponds to the concrete typically used for tun-
nel lining segments (70–90 MPa).
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows:
Section 2 describes the experimental programme for vari-
ous configurations of single steel fibre pullout from a con-
crete matrix and discusses the results obtained. The ana-
lytical models predicting the pullout response of steel
fibres, straight and hooked-end fibres as well as with and
without inclination with respect to the loading direction,
are introduced in section 3. Numerical simulations for the
pullout problem are also shown in section 3.
2 Experiments
The experimental programme conducted in the present re-
search aims to study the bond mechanisms of steel fibres
in a concrete matrix. Various parameters controlling the
pullout behaviour, such as fibre shape (straight, crimped,
hooked-end and twin-cone), fibre tensile strength (normal
and high), concrete strength (normal and high) and incli-
nation angle (0°, 15°, 30°, 45° and 60°) with respect to load-
ing direction were systematically investigated.
Fig. 1. Pullout specimen with embedded steel fibre
crete mixes used as the pullout matrix are described in
Table 2. The cement used in all concrete mixes was Port-
land cement CEM I 52.5 R (DIN EN 197-1). The aggre-
gates consist of Rhine river sand and crushed stone with a
maximum size of 8 mm. The compressive strength of these
two concretes was determined at an age of 28 days by
means of 150 mm cubes in accordance with DIN EN
12390-3. A compressive strength of 84 MPa was deter-
mined for concrete type 1, 44 MPa for concrete type 2.
Six cylindrical specimens measuring 60 × 60 mm
(Fig. 1) were prepared in a special steel mould for each
pullout test series. While casting the concrete mixture, the
fibres were fixed in the intended position by two bars
clamped with two fine screws. After casting, the specimens
were placed in a plastic box and stored for 24 h at a room
temperature of 20 ± 2 °C. After demoulding the next day,
they were cured in a lime-saturated water curing tank for
six days. After this period they were stored in a climatic
chamber at a temperature of 20 ± 2 °C and relative humid-
ity of 65 ± 5 % for another 21 days. The pullout tests were
performed at an age of 28 days.

2.1 Experimental programmes 2.1.2 Test setup and test procedure

2.1.1 Material characteristics and specimen preparation
The pullout tests were performed using a universal testing
The types and properties of the steel fibres chosen for the machine with a 5 kN load cell (Zwick 1435; machine cali-
pullout tests are listed in Table 1; the two different con- brated according to class 1, equivalent to ASTM E 4 re-

Table 1. Types and properties of steel fibres

Shape Length [mm] Diameter [mm] Aspect ratio [l/d] Tensile strength [MPa]

Dramix RC-80/60-BP hooked-end 60 0.71 85 2600

Dramix RC-80/60-BN hooked-end 60 0.75 80 1250

Stratec FWW 60/0.8 crimped 60 0.80 75 1250

Arcelormittal Twincone 1/54 twin-cone 54 1.00 54 1100

Table 2. Mix proportions of concretes

Concrete Cement Fly ash Aggregate Superplasticizer Water Compressive strength

[kg/m³] [kg/m³] [kg/m³] [kg/m³] [kg/m³] [MPa]

1 400 100 1644 1.5 180 84

2 425 – 1542 – 255 44

Structural Concrete 15 (2014), No. 2 127

R. Breitenbücher/G. Meschke/F. Song/Y. Zhan · Experimental, analytical and numerical analysis of the pullout behaviour of steel fibres considering different fibre types, inclinations and concrete strengths
Steel fibre
Mounting ring
Concrete specimen
Fig. 2. Schematic view of pullout test setup
quirement of 1.0  % precision tolerance). As shown in
Fig. 2, the concrete specimen was glued to a thick cylindri-
cal steel block attached to the testing rig with one bolt.
The protruding end of the steel fibre was then clamped se-
curely by the grip. The pullout displacement was mea-
sured continuously by three LVDTs; the three LVDTs were
mounted in an aluminium frame with an angle of 120° be-
tween each other and the frame attached to the specimen
using three screws. The tips of the LVDTs touched the
bottom surface of a thin aluminium plate fixed to the fibre
by means of two fine screws. Load was applied at a cross-
arm travel rate of 0.5 mm/min; the tests were conducted
up to a maximum displacement of 10 mm.
2.2 Results and discussion
Each pullout test for each configuration investigated was
repeated six times. Fig. 3 illustrates the typical scatter of
experimental results and the average curve for the case of
fibre RC-80/60-BN tested with an embedment angle of 0°
and a length of 20 mm, the results of which will be dis-
cussed in section 2.2.2. The standard deviation of the
peak pullout forces is 23.85 % and the maximum standard
deviation of the pullout forces in the post-peak regime is
39.28 %. The deviation varies depending on the testing
450
400
350
Pullout load [N]
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Displacement [mm]
Fig. 3. Typical scatter of experimental results for the case of fibre RC-80/60-BN
tested with embedment angle 0° and embedment length 20 mm
128 Structural Concrete 15 (2014), No. 2
parameters and pullout stages. In order to analyse the gen-
eral pullout responses, average curves obtained from tak-
ing mean values of the resulting forces for each stage of
Aluminium Plate
pullout displacement are included and discussed in the
following sections.
LVDT
2.2.1 Effect of fibre shape
Fig. 4 depicts the load-displacement relationship for vari-
ous fibre shapes with embedded length Lf = 20 mm and in-
clination angle θ = 0° in a high-strength concrete matrix
Glue
(fc = 84 MPa). Based on the experimental results, it was
found that for deformed (hooked-end) fibres, the mechani-
cal anchorage has a dominant influence on the pullout re-
sponse and the embedment length is less dominant.
Therefore, in this paper, as an example, the fibre pullout
behaviour with an embedment length of 20 mm is dis-
cussed. In order to perform pullout tests for straight fibres,
the hooked end of a normal-strength steel fibre (Dramix
RC-80/60-BN) was chopped off with pliers. Every curve in
the figure represents the average result of six specimens
for one test case.
As shown in Fig. 4, the pullout responses of the
fibres differ from each other significantly. For the straight
fibres, only the interfacial friction between fibre and ma-
trix is relevant for the bond; after fully debonding at a very
low load of 80 N, the pullout force drops noticeably. In
contrast, due to their mechanical anchorage, the pullout
loads of deformed fibres continue to increase after
debonding. As a consequence of the stronger anchorage in
the high-strength concrete matrix, both crimped and twin-
cone fibres broke in all test series shortly after the ultimate
load was exceeded. It was observed by other researchers
that all aligned twin-cone fibres (tensile strength = 1198
MPa) ruptured in both normal (40 MPa) and high-strength
(85 MPa) concretes; however, for aligned crimped fibres
(tensile strength = 1037 MPa), no fibre fracture has been
observed even in high-strength concrete [14].
In the case of hooked-end fibres (RC-80/60-BN), af-
ter the peak load, the hooked end tended to be progres-
sively mobilized and straightened, which was accompa-
nied by a decrease in pullout force and a further increase
in pullout displacement. After a certain displacement
1000
fc = 84 MPa
900
RC-80/60-BN Lf = 20 mm
800 Twin-coned
Lf = 20 mm
θ = 0°
θ = 0° 700
Pullout load [N]
Test-1 600
Test-2
500
Test-3
Hook-ended
Test-4 400
Test-5
300
Test-6
Average 200 Crimped
Straight
100
6 7 8 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Displacement [mm]
Fig. 4. Influence of fibre shape on pullout response
R. Breitenbücher/G. Meschke/F. Song/Y. Zhan · Experimental, analytical and numerical analysis of the pullout behaviour of steel fibres considering different fibre types, inclinations and concrete strengths

Table 3. Average results from pullout tests of steel fibres with various 2.2.2 Effects of fibre and concrete strength
shapes
The effects of fibre and concrete strength on the fibre pull-
Fibre shape Ppeak Δpeak Wpeak σmax σmax/fy out responses are depicted in Fig. 5. In both concretes
[N] [mm] [N × mm] [MPa] [%] tested, high-strength steel fibres (RC-80/60-BP) achieved
nearly double the pullout resistance up to the frictional
straight 83.0 0.03 2.1 188 15.0
sliding stage compared with the normal-strength fibres
crimped 298.2 0.14 35.8 593.6 47.5 (RC-80/60-BN). Fibres embedded in high-strength con-
crete exhibited a comparatively larger pullout load than
hooked-end 356.1 0.45 133.4 806.4 64.5
those in normal-strength concrete, which is in accordance
twin-cone 907.0 0.25 189.3 1155.4 105.0 with the findings in reported experiments [3, 4]. This effect
was more pronounced in the case of fibres made of high-
strength steel.
In comparison with normal-strength fibres, which
(approx. 4.5 mm), the pullout process is mainly controlled showed a similar configuration of the load-displacement
by frictional resistance. Since the hook is usually partially curves in both concretes tested, the high-strength fibres ex-
straightened, an additional frictional force can be generat- hibited significantly different load-displacement curves.
ed [15], which leads to a higher frictional pullout resis- For high-strength fibres tested in normal-strength concrete
tance than for straight fibres. This force can be calculated (Fig. 5), the ultimate pullout load was reached at a rela-
by an empirical formula proposed by Soetens et al. [12]. tively large level of displacement. After the first peak of the
The load-displacement curves were further analysed load-displacement curve, the pullout curve dropped rela-
by comparing displacement Δpeak, work Wpeak, tensile tively slowly. Moreover, a second peak in the pullout curve
stress in fibre σmax and utilization of tensile capacity (fibre was not observed. Such a pullout response indicated that
efficiency, σmax/fy) at peak pullout load Ppeak. Table 3 the mechanical anchorage of the hook was only utilized to
shows that the twin-cone fibres had the highest Ppeak and a low level due to the low concrete strength. In other
Wpeak values. The tensile capacity of this fibre has a uti- words, less energy was consumed to straighten the hook in
lization rate exceeding 100  %. However, final rupture of this situation.
these fibres occurred at a very small displacement in all Hence, the fibre efficiency for high-strength fibres
series. Therefore, the overall absorbed energy is consider- tested in normal-strength concrete showed the lowest val-
ably lower when compared with the hooked-end fibres un- ue, 42.7 % (Table 4). It should be noted, however, that
der complete pullout without rupture. these fibres in high-strength concrete showed a remark-
To obtain ductile behaviour of concrete after crack- ably higher efficiency of 61.6 %. This was nearly at the
ing, fibre rupture at a small crack width (i.e. fibre slip)
should be avoided. Rather, the fibre should be pulled out
of the concrete matrix with a high utilization of its tensile 700
capacity. RC-80/60-BP Lf = 20 mm
Besides fibre shape, the pullout behaviour of a single 600 fc = 84 MPa
θ = 0°
steel fibre in a concrete matrix can be affected by other RC-80/60-BP
factors as well, e.g. fibre dimensions or surface properties. 500 fc = 44 MPa
Pullout load [N]

The effect of fibre geometry and surface roughness on

400
pullout response has been investigated in [13]. It has been
observed that longer and thicker fibres exhibit consider- 300
ably larger maximum pullout loads and also higher overall
pullout energies than shorter and thinner fibres. However, 200
in terms of fibre efficiency, both types of fibre had almost RC-80/60-BN
fc = 84 MPa RC-80/60-BN
the same value. A surface treatment by roughening the 100
fc = 44 MPa
fibre surface with abrasive paper had a significant influ-
0
ence on the pullout response of straight fibres; for hooked-
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
end fibres, the pullout behaviour is dominated more by the Displacement [mm]
mechanical anchorage, so such roughening improves the
results in these cases only marginally. Fig. 5. Influence of fibre and concrete strength on pullout response

Table 4. Average pullout results for various fibre and concrete strengths

Concrete strength Fibre type Ppeak [N] Δpeak [mm] Wpeak [N × mm] σmax/fy [%]

fc = 44 MPa RC-80/60-BN 321.9 0.38 119.7 58.3

RC-80/60-BP 439.0 1.06 461.6 42.7

fc = 84 MPa RC-80/60-BN 356.1 0.45 133.4 64.5

RC-80/60-BP 633.6 0.59 304.3 61.6

Structural Concrete 15 (2014), No. 2 129

R. Breitenbücher/G. Meschke/F. Song/Y. Zhan · Experimental, analytical and numerical analysis of the pullout behaviour of steel fibres considering different fibre types, inclinations and concrete strengths

450 900
RC-80/60-BN RC-80/60-BP
30° 45°
400 fc = 84 MPa 800 fc = 84 MPa
30° 60° 15°
45° Lf = 20 mm Lf = 20 mm
350 700

300 fiber rupture 600

Pullout load [N]

Pullout load [N]

0°
250 500
15° 60°
200 400 0°

150 300

100 200

50 100

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Displacement [mm] Displacement [mm]

Fig. 6. Influence of fibre inclination angles on pullout response: normal-strength fibre (left) and high-strength fibre (right) embedded in high-strength
concrete

same level as could be proven for normal-strength fibres in
high-strength concrete (64.5 %).
2.2.3 Effect of fibre inclination angle
In terms of the inclination angle, pullout tests were per-
formed on both straight and hooked-end fibres. These re-
sults are considered for the validation of analytical models
in section 3. Here, the pullout behaviour of hooked-end
fibres will be discussed in detail. Considering the findings
by Robins et al. [3] (especially that the pullout responses of
hooked-end fibres with 10–20 mm embedment length
were generally the same for each respective orientation)
and the overall goal of this research, pullout tests were car-
ried out on normal- and high-strength hooked-end fibres
in high-strength concrete (84 MPa) with an embedment
length of 20 mm and inclination angles of 0°, 15°, 30°, 45°
and 60°.
The pullout curves for normal-strength fibres
(RC-80/60-BN) and high-strength fibres (RC-80/60-BP)
embedded with different inclination angles in high-
strength concrete are shown in Fig. 6. In the case of fibre
pullout without rupture, the ultimate load for normal-
strength fibres did not change significantly with the in-
crease in inclination angle. This has also been observed in
previous experiments [14]. In comparison with the aligned
fibre (0°), a slight increase in the maximum pullout force
at an inclination angle of 30° could be identified; however,
increasing the angle to 45° caused the maximum pullout
force to decrease. Indeed, in the pullout tests with high-
strength fibres a remarkable increase in the maximum
pullout load was found at inclination angles between 30°
and 45°.
In general, the pullout displacement at ultimate load
increases and the slope of the pre-peak branch decreases
as the inclination angle rises, particularly for inclination
angles > 30°. For inclined fibres, an additional stress, de-
rived from the pullout force, is exerted on the concrete
matrix wedge where the fibre enters the matrix [16]. With
rising inclination angles, the effect of this stress concentra-
tion increases as well, resulting in an increase in localized
matrix crushing and spalling at the exit point. This phe-
nomenon was more relevant for high-strength steel fibres
[13]. Meanwhile, fibre rupture also occurred, depending
on fibre strength and inclination angle. As demonstrated
in Fig. 6 and Table 5, fibres tend to break more easily with
the increase in inclination angle, especially for the normal-
strength fibres. At an inclination angle of 60°, three to six
fibres out of six pullout tests ruptured, i.e. under these con-
ditions 50–100 % failed due to fibre rupture.
In terms of usability and durability, in most concrete
structures the maximum allowable crack width is designed
(according to the code) to be < 0.4 mm [17]. However, in
order to investigate the material/structural behaviour at
the ultimate limit state, experiments on steel fibre-rein-
forced concrete are mostly performed until a deformation
or displacement of several millimetres occurs in the post-
cracking stage. In this paper, in order to compare fibre ef-

Table 5. Number of broken fibres for different fibre strengths and inclina- Table 6. Influence of inclination angle on pullout work up to a fibre slip of
tion angles 1.0 mm

Fibre type Inclination angle Fibre type Wpeak [N × mm]

0° 15° 30° 45° 60° 0° 15° 30° 45° 60°

RC-80/60-BN 0 0 3 4 6 RC-80/60-BN 321.7 322.1 289.6 156.5 107.6

RC-80/60-BP 0 0 0 2 3 RC-80/60-BP 574.5 544.5 568.5 496.8 194.9

130 Structural Concrete 15 (2014), No. 2

R. Breitenbücher/G. Meschke/F. Song/Y. Zhan · Experimental, analytical and numerical analysis of the pullout behaviour of steel fibres considering different fibre types, inclinations and concrete strengths

ficiency between inclined and aligned fibres, the tensile x

a) τ
stress ratio σinclined/σaligned was determined at pullout dis- F,U Debonding
placements of 0.1, 0.25, 0.5 and 1.0 mm; the results indi- τ
cated that, except for the 1.0 mm displacement, aligned fi- τmax
Le Ld
Sliding
bres (or fibres with a very small inclination angle)
achieved the highest fibre efficiency (more details are in-
cluded in [13]). This tendency was independent of the b) τ0
fibre tensile strength. The same tendency was also ob- Bonded
τ F,U
served for the absorbed energy up to a displacement of
1.0 mm (Table 6). Ld Lp s0 s1 sref s
c)
3 Analytical modelling Fig. 7. Straight fibre pullout without inclination: a) debonding stage, b) slid-
ing phase, c) proposed idealized interface law
In this section, analytical models are developed for vari-
ous types of fibre and embedment configurations. Firstly,
the case of straight fibres, either without or with inclina- (τmax, τ0 and sref) for the interface law are calibrated ac-
tion with respect to the loading direction, is considered in cording to the experimental results of straight fibre pullout
section 3.1. In section 3.2 the model is extended to without inclination.
hooked-end fibres.
3.1.2 Pullout of an inclined straight fibre
3.1 Straight fibre pullout
3.1.1 Pullout without inclination For the pullout of a steel fibre embedded in a concrete ma-
trix at an angle with respect to the loading direction, it is
It is generally accepted that the pullout procedure can be necessary to consider additional complexities, including
divided into three stages: inelastic deformations of the fibre, local damage to the
– Bonded state: The surface of the fibre is well connected matrix and the lateral pressure along the interface. These
to the surrounding matrix. aspects are captured by recent analytical models [20]. In
– Debonding stage: Due to the increasing pullout load, the present work, a similar model is proposed, making use
the interface along the fibre is partially destroyed. of the simplified interface law shown in Fig. 8 and robust
– Pullout phase: Once interfacial debonding has fully de- algorithms.
veloped along the axis, the whole fibre starts to slide in The geometrical situation of an inclined steel fibre
the channel, with frictional stresses acting on the fibre- for a certain pullout state is illustrated in Fig. 8. In Fig. 8a,
concrete interface, and is finally pulled out of the ma- θ indicates the inclination angle, S the concrete spalling
trix. depth, point A the initial clamping point, point C the tip of
the embedded fibre and point B the current exit point of
According to the shear lag model [18], an interfacial fric- the fibre from the matrix.
tion law is proposed as follows (Fig. 7): For a certain pullout state determined by Δ and S, the
fibre-concrete interaction is represented by two sub-mod-
 Gs, s  s0 els referred to as cantilever AB (Fig. 8b) and beam on elas-
 tic foundation BC (Fig. 8c).
  max, s0  s  s1 (1)
 (s)    s  s For section AB, applying Timoshenko’s beam theory
  
 0

max   0 exp 

1
 , s  s1
sref 
and considering the elastic-plastic deformation of the
 fibre, the shear force at the free end VA is determined as

where: VA  VA( ) (2)

τ interfacial shear stress
s relative displacement, defined as the displacement of
a point on the fibre axis with respect to the boundary FA
of the matrix A φ
Δ θ
G corresponding relative bond modulus [19]
VA
τmax bond strength of interface S
A
τ0 asymptotic value of frictional stress θ Β
B b)
s1 starting value of sliding
C TB
sref parameter controlling descending branch of curve
Crack surface

B
MB
Based on this interface law, the differential equations for
force equilibrium and strain compatibility along the fibre VB
k
axis can be solved. The distribution of interfacial slip and C
frictional stress, as well as fibre stress and strain along the a) c)
fibre axis, and finally the pullout force and displacement
relations (F-U diagram) at the free end can be solved for Fig. 8. Straight fibre pullout with inclination: a) idealized geometrical state,
the complete pullout process. The essential parameters b) section AB as cantilever, c) section BC as beam on elastic foundation

Structural Concrete 15 (2014), No. 2 131

R. Breitenbücher/G. Meschke/F. Song/Y. Zhan · Experimental, analytical and numerical analysis of the pullout behaviour of steel fibres considering different fibre types, inclinations and concrete strengths

with ψ = θ – ϕ denoting the rotation angle of the beam.

For details of the model, we will refer to a forthcoming
publication, which also contains the adopted values for all
model parameters.
For fibre section BC remaining in the matrix, we ap-
ply the beam on elastic foundation theory [21]. The gener-
al solution for deflection along the fibre axis is given as

  
w x  exp  x C1 sin  x  C 2 cos  x  
 
exp  x C 3 sin  x  C 4 cos  x 
(3)

1/4
 k 
with    as the stiffness coefficient, where k is
 4EI 
the elastic foundation stiffness. Using the boundary condi-
tions (MB and VB) obtained from the analysis of fibre sec-
tion AB, the constants C1–4 are determined and the deflec-
tion along section BC is obtained, as well as the resulting
lateral pressure connected with additional frictional shear
stresses along the interface. The integration of the stresses
along the fibre generates the tensile force TB at the current
exit point B.
These two sub-models are accompanied by the deter-
mination of the spalling size S from the following criteri-
on, assuming a uniform tensile stress distribution over the
lateral area Asp of a cone-shaped spalling of the matrix:
VB  ft Asp(S)
where ft is the tensile strength of the concrete matrix and
Asp a function of the spalling size S. The spalling size is
computed from geometrical considerations assuming a
generic, drop-like cross-section for the spalling cone.
A numerical algorithm has been developed to solve
the unknowns and to compute finally the free end pullout
force P = FA cos ϕ + VA sin ϕ corresponding to the increas-
ing pullout displacement Δ; a force–displacement diagram
(P – Δ relation) is generated. The model presented above
was validated successfully by means of the experimental
results presented in section 2 (Fig. 9). The considerable in-
crease in the pullout force in the last stage is caused by the
very short fibre segment remaining embedded in the ma-
High strength concrete, normal strength steel, 30°
180
Experiments
160 Model
140
120
Load [N]
Fig. 10. Results of numerical simulation for a low-strength fibre with 30°
inclination angle: distribution of the scalar damage variable at the end of
pullout
trix, which has very high bending stiffness and is even
“cutting” into the concrete.
In the present work, in addition to the analytical
model described above, 3D finite element simulations
were performed using the commercial software Abaqus in
order to obtain more insights into the pullout behaviour of
a straight fibre with an arbitrary inclination angle. In the
numerical simulations, an ideal plastic J2 plasticity model
and the concrete damage plasticity model implemented in
(4) Abaqus are used as material models for steel fibre and
concrete matrix respectively. Frictional contact is defined
along the steel-concrete interface. Cracking and compres-
sive crushing of the concrete as well as large deformations
have been considered. Fig. 10 shows the contour plot of
concrete damage obtained from the pullout simulation of
a fibre with 30° inclination angle.
3.2 Hooked-end fibre pullout
At the very beginning of pullout, the whole fibre is elastic.
As the load increases, some regions become plastic. Only
when both curved segments of the hook are plastic does
the fibre start to slide in the channel. Another favourable
factor for the slip of the fibre is the inelastic deformation
of the surrounding concrete due to the lateral pressure at
the interface, which leads to a widening of the channel in
the matrix.
In order to support the analytical formulation, 3D
numerical models for the hooked-end fibre pullout behav-
iour were also developed. The finite element model com-
prises approx. 46 000 tetrahedral elements; one analysis
performed on a normal desktop PC takes approx. 20 h.

100
The numerical simulation provides not only the pullout
80
load-displacement relation at the free end, but also an in-
60 sight into the problem and support for the formulation of
40 the analytical model (Fig. 11).
20
0 3.2.1 Anchorage effect of hook
0 5 10 15 20
Displacement [mm]
The anchorage effect of the hook during pullout was
Fig. 9. Pullout load-displacement relation for inclined straight fibres: model analysed in the analytical model, which is included as an
results vs. experimental results for normal-strength fibre in high-strength additional component in the straight fibre pullout model
concrete with 30° inclination angle described in the previous section.

132 Structural Concrete 15 (2014), No. 2

R. Breitenbücher/G. Meschke/F. Song/Y. Zhan · Experimental, analytical and numerical analysis of the pullout behaviour of steel fibres considering different fibre types, inclinations and concrete strengths

b) Me
a) e
Tc d Te
Vc
Ve
f1
μf1
c Mc c μf2 f2
Vc
a b Tc Mc

c) d) Me
Tc
g1 Vc e
Te
d
μg1 Mc
c μg2 Ve
b g2

Fig. 11. Numerical simulation of the hooked-end fibre pullout: pullout load-
displacement diagram (top), contour plot of von Mises stress (bottom left,
[MPa]) and concrete compressive damage variable during pullout (bottom
right)
Fig. 14. Force diagrams for fibre segments in channel to be used for
analysing different key states: for KS-1 and 2 use a) and b); for KS-3 use b)
and c); for KS-4 use b); for KS-5 use d) (arrows indicate predicted positive
forces)

Tc cos    f1  Vc sin 
e
d Tc sin   Vc cos   f1 (5)
ρ α α
ρ f1 sin    f1(1  cos  )  Mc
c l2
a We shall consider the yield condition of the cross-section
b
at point c in the following simplified form, which is often
l1
applied as a design criterion for steel structures:

Fig. 12. Idealized hook geometry Vc Tc Mc

  1 (6)
Vp Tp Me

where V p, T p and M e are the limit elastic shear force, ten-

KS-1 KS-2 KS-3 sile force and bending moment at the cross-section respec-
tively. The unknown forces f1, Tc, Vc and Mc can be solved
by means of equations (5) and (6).
KS-4 KS-5 KS-6 For section c–e, the unknown forces are obtained in
a similar way, including the tensile force Te at point e,
which represents the contribution of the anchorage effect
Fig. 13. Key states for a hooked-end fibre during pullout of the hook to the total pullout force for this state.

3.2.2 Pullout of inclined hooked-end fibre

As shown in Fig. 12, the shape of the hook is idealized as
the combination of four segments: a straight section a-b
with length l1, a first curved section b-c with radius ρ and
angle α, a second straight section c-d with length l2, and a
second curved section d–e.
The anchorage effect is represented in a multi-linear
load-displacement relationship by capturing a sequence of
so-called key states (KS) (Fig. 13) and combining them ac-
cordingly.
For every key state, the equilibrium of forces and mo-
ments acting on the fibre segments and the resulting an-
chorage force is calculated according to the schematic il-
lustrations in Fig. 14.
For example, KS-1 represents the end of the elastic
state characterized by the initiation of plasticity at points c
and e. The hook in the channel is divided into two sec-
tions: section a-c, from the current position of the fibre tip
to point c in the channel, and section c-e, from point c to
point e.
For section a-c, equilibrium of forces in the horizon-
tal and vertical directions and the rotational moment
takes the following form (Fig. 14a):
The analysis of the anchorage effect of the hook is com-
bined with the analytical model for inclined straight fibre
pullout described above. The contribution of the hook cor-
responding to a certain axial slip is taken into account as an
additional axial force acting on the embedded section BC.
Performing the same algorithm, it is possible to generate the
complete load-displacement relationship of a hooked-end
steel fibre pullout from concrete matrix with arbitrary incli-
nation angle with respect to the loading direction.
This model is validated by means of the experimen-
tal results of section 2. As shown in Figs. 15 and 16, the
model in the present work is able to capture the major fea-
tures of the pullout behaviour of hooked-end steel fibres
with different combinations of material properties and in-
clination angles. For the normal-strength fibre embedded
in normal-strength concrete without inclination (Fig. 15),
the computed peak load is 278 N; the corresponding
mean value from the experiment is 339 N. For the high-
strength fibre in high-strength concrete with 30° inclina-
tion (Fig. 16), the computed peak load is 696 N; the corre-
sponding mean value from the experiment is 720 N.

Structural Concrete 15 (2014), No. 2 133

R. Breitenbücher/G. Meschke/F. Song/Y. Zhan · Experimental, analytical and numerical analysis of the pullout behaviour of steel fibres considering different fibre types, inclinations and concrete strengths
Normal strength concrete, normal strength steel, 0°
500
Experiments
Model
400
Load [N]
300
200
100
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Displacement [mm]
Fig. 15. Validation of pullout model: model results vs. experimental results
for normal-strength hooked-end fibres in normal-strength concrete without
inclination
4 Summary and conclusions
In this paper, the pullout behaviour of various configura-
tions of steel fibres embedded in a concrete matrix has
been systematically investigated by means of laboratory
tests, analytical models and numerical simulations.
The following conclusions can be drawn from the experi-
mental results:
– Non-straight fibres achieved a higher pullout resistance
and fibre efficiency than straight fibres. Due to strong
anchorage in high-strength concrete, crimped and twin-
cone fibres ruptured prematurely in all test cases. In
contrast, hooked-end fibres showed a complete pullout
behaviour and exhibited a more ductile response.
– In general, pullout resistance increased with fibre
strength as well as with concrete strength. Compared
with normal-strength hooked-end fibres, the concrete
strength had a greater influence on the pullout respons-
es of high-strength hooked-end fibres. Regarding fibre
efficiency, normal-strength and high-strength fibres
reached nearly the same level in high-strength concrete.
– With increasing fibre inclination, the pullout displace-
ment corresponding to the ultimate load increases; fibre
efficiency and pullout work decreases; fibre rupture was
more likely to occur, especially in the case of normal-
strength hooked-end fibres; localized concrete spalling
at the fibre exit point was more pronounced, especially
in the case of high-strength hooked-end fibres.
An analytical model for the fibre pullout behaviour has
been developed and successfully validated by means of
the experimental campaign. Finite element simulations of
the complete pullout process were carried out to support
the development of the analytical model. It was demon-
strated that the model is capable of capturing the major
mechanisms involved in various situations of the pullout
of single fibres. In particular, the following components of
the model have been proposed:
– An interfacial friction law serves as the basis for the so-
lution to the equilibrium and compatibility equations
along the fibre. In the case of straight fibres inclined
with respect to the loading direction, the additional
complexities induced by fibre misalignment, i.e. the
134 Structural Concrete 15 (2014), No. 2
High strength concrete, high strength steel, 30°
1000
Experiments
Model
800
Load [N]
600
400
200
0 2 4 6 8 10
Displacement [mm]
Fig. 16. Validation of pullout model: model results vs. experimental results
for high-strength hooked-end fibres in high-strength concrete with 30° in-
clination angle
transverse loading on the interface, fibre yielding and
matrix damage are taken into account.
– For steel fibres with hooked ends, the contribution of
the hook is captured by a series of key states during the
pullout; for every key state, the additional pullout force
is calculated directly from the equilibrium conditions.
This force is considered in the model for straight fibres,
allowing prediction of the pullout load-displacement re-
lations of an inclined hooked-end steel fibre in a con-
crete matrix.
Acknowledgements
Financial support was provided by the German Research Foun-
dation (DFG) within the scope of projects B1 and B2 of the Col-
laborative Research Centre SFB 837. This support is gratefully
acknowledged.
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