Figure 24.

1 The Components of the Digestive

System

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Functions of the digestive system

• Ingestion
• Mechanical processing
• Digestion
• Secretion
• Absorption
• Excretion

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Figure 24.3 The Structure of the Digestive Tract

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Movement of digestive materials

• Visceral smooth muscle shows rhythmic cycles of

activity
• Pacemaker cells
• Peristalsis
• Waves that move a bolus
• Segmentation
• Churn and fragment a bolus

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Figure 24.4 Peristalsis

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Control of the digestive system
• Movement of materials along the digestive tract is
controlled by:
• Neural mechanisms
• Parasympathetic and local reflexes
• Hormonal mechanisms
• Enhance or inhibit smooth muscle
contraction
• Local mechanisms
• Coordinate response to changes in pH or
chemical stimuli

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Figure 24.5 The Regulation of Digestive
Activities

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The mouth opens into the oral or buccal cavity

• Its functions include:

• Analysis of material before swallowing
• Mechanical processing by the teeth, tongue,
and palatal surfaces
• Lubrication
• Limited digestion

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The tongue

• primary functions include:

• Mechanical processing
• Assistance in chewing and swallowing
• Sensory analysis by touch, temperature, and
taste receptors

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The pharynx

• Common passageway for food, liquids, and air

• Lined with stratified squamous epithelium
• Pharyngeal muscles assist in swallowing
• Pharyngeal constrictor muscles
• Palatal muscles

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Histology of the esophagus

• Distinctive features of the esophageal wall

include
• Nonkeratinized, stratified squamous
epithelium
• Folded mucosa and submucosa
• Mucous secretions by esophageal glands
• A muscularis with both smooth and skeletal
muscle portions
• Lacks serosa
• Anchored by an adventitia
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Figure 24.10 The Esophagus

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Figure 24.11 The Swallowing Process

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Functions of the stomach

• Bulk storage of undigested food

• Mechanical breakdown of food
• Disruption of chemical bonds via acids and
enzymes
• Production of intrinsic factor

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Digestion and absorption in the stomach

• Preliminary digestion of proteins

• Pepsin
• Permits digestion of carbohydrates
• Very little absorption of nutrients
• Some drugs, however, are absorbed
• Mucous secretion containing several hormones
• Enteroendocrine cells
• G cells secrete gastrin
• D cells secrete somatostatin
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Figure 24.12 The Stomach

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Figure 24.13 The Stomach Lining

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Figure 24.13 The Stomach Lining

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Histology of the stomach

• Gastric glands
• Parietal cells
• Intrinsic factor, and HCl
• Chief cells
• Pepsinogen
• Pyloric glands

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Figure 24.14 The Secretions of Hydrochloric
Acid

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Figure 24.15 The Phases of Gastric Secretion

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Figure 24.15 The Phases of Gastric Secretion

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Figure 24.15 The Phases of Gastric Secretion

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Small intestine

• Important digestive and absorptive functions

• Secretions and buffers provided by pancreas,
liver, gall bladder
• Three subdivisions:
• Duodenum
• Jejunum
• Ileum
• Ileocecal sphincter
• Transition between small and large intestine

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Figure 24.16 Regions of the Small Intestine

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Histology of the small intestine

• Plicae
• Transverse folds of the intestinal lining
• Villi
• Fingerlike projections of the mucosa
• Lacteals
• Terminal lymphatic in villus
• Intestinal glands
• Lined by enteroendocrine, goblet and stem
cells

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Figure 24.17 The Intestinal Wall

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Figure 24.17 The Intestinal Wall

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Figure 24.17 The Intestinal Wall

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Intestinal juices

• Moisten chyme
• Help buffer acids
• Maintain digestive material in solution

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Small Intestine

• Duodenal glands (Brunner’s glands)

• produce mucus, buffers, urogastrone
• Ileum
• aggregated lymphoid nodules (Peyer’s patches)

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Intestinal movements

• Peristalsis
• Segmentation
• Gastroenteric reflexes
• Initiated by stretch receptors in stomach
• Gastroileal reflex
• Triggers relaxation of ileocecal valve

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The pancreas
• Pancreatic duct penetrates duodenal wall
• Endocrine functions
• Insulin and glucagons
• Exocrine functions
• Majority of pancreatic secretions
• Pancreatic juice secreted into small intestine
• Carbohydrases
• Lipases
• Nucleases
• Proteolytic enzymes
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Figure 24.18 The Pancreas

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The liver

• Performs metabolic and hematological regulation

and produces bile
• Histological organization
• Lobules containing single-cell thick plates of
hepatocytes
• Lobules unite to form common hepatic duct
• Duct meets cystic duct to form common bile
duct

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Figure 24.19 The Anatomy of the Liver

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Figure 24.19 The Anatomy of the Liver

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Figure 24.20 Liver Histology

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The gallbladder

• Hollow, pear-shaped organ

• Stores, modifies and concentrates bile

PLAY Animation: Accessory Organ

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Figure 24.21 The Gallbladder

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Coordination secretion and absorption

• Neural and hormonal mechanisms coordinate

glands
• GI activity stimulated by parasympathetic
innervation
• Inhibited by sympathetic innervation
• Enterogastric, gastroenteric and gastroileal
reflexes coordinate stomach and intestines

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Figure 24.22 The Activities of Major Digestive
Tract Hormones

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Functions of the large intestine

• Reabsorb water and compact material into feces

• Absorb vitamins produced by bacteria
• Store fecal matter prior to defecation

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Figure 24.23 The Large Intestine

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Figure 24.23 The Large Intestine

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The rectum

• Last portion of the digestive tract

• Terminates at the anal canal
• Internal and external anal sphincters

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Histology of the large intestine

• Absence of villi
• Presence of goblet cells
• Deep intestinal glands

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Physiology of the large intestine
• Reabsorption in the large intestine includes:
• Water
• Vitamins – K, biotin, and B5
• Organic wastes – urobilinogens and
sterobilinogens
• Bile salts
• Toxins
• Mass movements of material through colon and
rectum
• Defecation reflex triggered by distention of
rectal walls
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FOODS

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DIGESTION OF FOODS

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ENZIMES

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DIGESTIVE HORMONES

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 GASTRIN

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 SEKRETI
N

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Figure 24.25 The Defecation Reflex

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Processing and absorption of nutrients

• Disassembles organic food into smaller

fragments
• Hydrolyzes carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and
nucleic acids for absorption

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Carbohydrate digestion and absorption

• Begins in the mouth

• Salivary and pancreatic enzymes
• Disaccharides and trisaccharides
• Brush border enzymes
• Monosaccharides
• Absorption of monosaccharides occurs across the
intestinal epithelia

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Lipid digestion and absorption

• Lipid digestion utilizes lingual and pancreatic

lipases
• Bile salts improve chemical digestion by
emulsifying lipid drops
• Lipid-bile salt complexes called micelles are
formed
• Micelles diffuse into intestinal epithelia which
release lipids into the blood as chylomicrons

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Protein digestion and absorption

• Low pH destroys tertiary and quaternary

structure
• Enzymes used include pepsin, trypsin,
chymotrypsin, and elastase
• Liberated amino acids are absorbed

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Absorption
• Water
• Nearly all that is ingested is reabsorbed via
osmosis
• Ions
• Absorbed via diffusion, cotransport, and active
transport
• Vitamins
• Water soluble vitamins are absorbed by
diffusion
• Fat soluble vitamins are absorbed as part of
micelles
• Vitamin B12 requires intrinsic factor
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Figure 24.27 Digestive Secretion and Absorption
of Water

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