Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2 - Pressures

2 FLUID PRESSURES
By definition, a fluid must deform continuously when a shear stress of any
magnitude is applied. Therefore when a fluid is either at rest or moving in
such a manner that there is no relative motion between adjacent particles,
there will be no shear forces acting and, therefore all forces exerted
between a fluid and a solid boundary must be normal (i.e. right angle to
the given surface).

2.1 Pressure at a Point

Pressure is used to indicate the normal force per unit area at a given point
acting on a given plane.

By considering the equilibrium of a small fluid element in the form of a

triangular prism in the fluid subject to a pressure px in x-direction, py in y-
direction and ps in normal to any plane inclined at an angle θ to the
horizontal.

δz ps

δs
px
δy
θ
δx
py

Fig. 1 Equality of pressure in all directions at a point

For simplicity, the forces in the z direction are not shown.

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2 - Pressures

The equation of motion in the x and y directions are respectively,

ΣFx = px δy δz - ps δz δs sinθ
ΣFy = py δx δz - ps δz δs cosθ - γ δxδyδz/2

By geometry, δx = δs cosθ; δy = δs sinθ

Since the fluid element is in equilibrium,

i.e. ΣFx = 0 &
ΣFy = 0

∴ px δy δz - ps δy δz = 0
⇒ px = ps

and py δx δz - ps δx δz -γ δxδyδz/2 = 0
⇒ py - ps = γ δy/2

As δy approaches to zero, pz = ps

Therefore, the pressure at a point in a fluid is the same in all direction -

Pascal’s Law.

Fig. 2 General Case of Direction of Force of Pressure

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2 - Pressures

2.2 Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Depth

Considering an element of vertical column of constant cross-sectional area

A and totally surrounded by the same fluid of mass density ρ.

p+dp
Area, A
h+dh

Fluid
density ρ

p
Fig. 3 Vertical variation of pressure

Suppose Pressure at h =p
Pressure at h + δh = p + δp (h increases in upward direction)

Since the fluid is at rest, the element must be in equilibrium with no

shearing force and the summation of vertical force must be zero.

Force due to p on area A acting up = pA

Force due to p + δp on area A acting down = (p + δp)A
Force due to the weight of element = ρgA(δh)

pA - (p + δp)A - ρgA(δh) = 0
δp
= -ρg
δh
dp
or = -ρg
dh

Thus, in any fluid under gravitational attraction, pressure decreases with

increase of height h.

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2 - Pressures

2.3 Equality of Pressure at the Same Level in a Static Fluid

If P and Q are two points at the same level in a fluid at rest, a horizontal
prism of fluid of constant cross-sectional area A will be in equilibrium.
The forces acting on this element horizontally are P1A at P and P2A at Q.

Area A Fluid density ρ

p1 p2

mg
Fig. 4 Equality of pressure at the same level

Since the fluid is at rest, there will be no horizontal shear stresses on the
sides of the element. For static equilibrium the sum of the horizontal
forces must be zero.

p1A = p2A
p1 = p2

Thus the pressure at any two points at the same level in a body of fluid at
rest will be the same.

2.4 Pressure and Head

dp
In a fluid of constant density, = -ρg can be integrated immediately to
dh
give
p = -ρgh + constant

However in practice, the depth of liquid is usually measured from the top
free water surface downward, i.e. h = -h, the pressure will then be

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2 - Pressures

Patm

Liquid
h Density ρ

Fig. 5 Pressure and head

p = ρgh + constant

and since the pressure at the free surface will normally be atmospheric
pressure patm (i.e. at h = 0, p = patm),

p = ρgh + patm

It is often convenient to take atmospheric pressure as a datum. Pressure

measured above atmospheric pressure are known as gauge pressure.
Pressure measured above perfect vacuum are called absolute pressure.

Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure

A
Gauge pressure A
Atmospheric Pressure
Gauge pressure B
B Absolute
pressure A
Barometer
Absolute reading
pressure B

Vaccum

Fig. 6 Relationship between Pressures

The region of pressure below atmospheric pressure is generally referred to

as vacuum. If the pressure is at absolute zero, it is called perfect vacuum.

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2 - Pressures

If the pressure is between atmospheric pressure and absolute zero, it is

called partial vacuum.

By considering the gauge pressure only,

p = ρgh

which indicates that, if g is assumed constant, the pressure increases

linearly with depth.

The gauge pressure at a point can be defined by stating the vertical height h,
called the head, of a column of a given fluid of mass density ρ.
p
i.e. h= m
ρg

Note that when pressure is expressed as head, it is essential that the mass
density ρ is specified.

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2 - Pressures

Worked examples:

1. Calculate the pressure at a point on the sea bed 1 km deep. The

density of sea water is 1025 kg/m3.

Answer

ρ = 1025 kg/m3
g = 9.81 m/s2
h = 1000 m (pressure head)

Since p = ρgh
= 1025 * 9.81 * 1000
= 10,055,000 N/m2
= 100.55 bar (1 bar = 105 N/m2)

2 The pressure at a point on the sea bed is 100.55 bar,

(a) express this pressure as a head of fresh water , and
(b) what is the pressure as a head of mercury of S.G. = 13.6?

Answer

(a) ρwater = 1000 kg/m3

Since p = ρgh
∴ 100.55 x 105 = 1000 * 9.81 * h
h = 1025 m, i.e. 1025 m head of water.

(b) ρHg = 13.6 * 1000 kg/m3

∴ 100.55 x 105 = 13.6 * 1000 * 9.81 * h
h = 75.37 m of mercury.

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2 - Pressures

2.5 Measurement of Pressure

Many instruments for pressure measurement use the fact that a pressure is
equivalent to a head of liquid.

2.5.1 Piezometer

If a transparent tube is inserted into some point of a liquid under pressure,

then the liquid will be seen to rise in the tube until its height balances the
pressure in the liquid. This is the simplest pressure-measuring instrument,
the piezometer.

open open open

open Pressure h Vaccum
h

p = γh vacuum = γh
or pressure = -γh

Fig. 7 Piezometers

This device is only suitable if the pressure in the container is greater than
atmospheric pressure, and the pressure to be measured must be relatively
small so the required height of column is reasonable.

2.5.2 U-Tube Manometer

If a heavier liquid is used to balance the pressure, the gauge will become
more compact. For example, 2 m of water is equivalent to only 147 mm of
mercury. However a different arrangement is necessary in order to prevent
the mixing of two liquids of different densities.

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2 - Pressures

open water
open 13.6h
h Level of
separation

Heavier Hg (S.G. = 13.6)

liquid

Fig. 8 Manometers

Pressure measuring instruments using the U-tube are called manometers.

In the design of a U-tube manometer, it is essential to provide sufficient of

the heavier liquid to ensure that it always occupies the bend of the tube.

Notice that it is only necessary to consider the equalizing of pressure due

to the liquids above the level of separation.

When equating pressures it is convenient to work in terms of pressure

heads, converting all heads to one specified liquid.

For a U-tube manometer shown below.

open

γ1

1
A
h2
h1
2 3
γ2

By starting at point A and work around to the open end.

pA = p1

(pressure at equal elevations in a continuous mass of fluid at rest must be

the same)

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2 - Pressures

As we move from point (1) to point (2) the pressure will increase by γ1h1.

Also p2 = p3

At open end, pressure is zero. Therefore the pressure decreases by γ2h2.

∴ pA + γ1h1 - γ2h2 = 0

or pA = γ2h2 - γ1h1

A major advantage of the U-tube manometer lies in the fact that the gauge
fluid can be different from the fluid in the container in which the pressure
is to be determined.

2.5.3 Bourdon Pressure Gauge

High air pressures are more conveniently measured using a bourdon

pressure gauge.

Pointer

Flattened
tube

Fig. 9 Bourdon Pressure Gauge

The instrument consists of a hollow coil closed at one end and the other
end being connected to the pressure being measured. When the internal
pressure is greater than the outside pressure, the tube tends to straighten,
causing the pointer to move.

This gauge measures pressure relative to the pressure surrounding the tube,
and therefore gives values of gauge pressure.

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2 - Pressures

One disadvantage of Bourdon gauge is that it is limited to the measurement

of pressure that are static or only changing slowly. Because of the
relatively large mass of the Bourdon tube it cannot respond to rapid
changes in pressure.

Worked examples:

1 In the following figure, determine the pressure of the water flowing

in the pipeline at point A based on the manometer reading shown.
(S.G.Hg = 13.6)

Answer

60mm

D
40mm
B C

Hg

Let pressure at A be pA

pB = pA + (60+40)/1000*γw (+ means going down)

= pA + 0.1*γw

pC = pB (level of separation)
= pA + 0.1*γw

pD = pC – 0.04*γHg
= pA + 0.1*γw – 0.04*γHg (-ve means going upward)

Considering gauge pressure, pD = patm = 0

∴ pA + (9.81 * 0.1) + (13.6*9.81* -0.04) = 0

pA = 4.36 kN/m2 or 4.36 kPa

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2 - Pressures

2 Determine the difference in pressure between pipeline A and

pipeline B in the following figure.

Ethylene glycol
SG=1.1
B
10mm
A
Gasoline
SG=0.72
30mm

E
Hg
50mm
C D

Answer

Let pressure at A be pA

pC = pA + (30 + 50)/1000*γeg (+ means going down)

= pA + 0.08*γeg

pD = pC (level of separation)
= pA + 0.08*γeg

pE = pD – 0.05*γHg
= pA + 0.08*γeg – 0.05*γHg (-ve means going upward)

pB = pE – 0.04*γgas
= pA + 0.08*γeg – 0.05*γHg – 0.04*γgas

∴ pA + (1.1*9.81*0.08) - (13.6*9.81* 0.05) - (0.72*9.81*0.04) = pB

or pA - pB = 6.09 kPa

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2 - Pressures

3 Water is flowing through a pipe device as shown below. The pressure

between the two pipes is measured by a mercury manometer .
Determine the pressure difference between point 1 and 2.

1 2

water

0.6m

A A0.12m

mercury

Answer

Let the pressure at point 1 be p1.

pA = p1 + (0.6-0.12)*γw + 0.12*γHg
= p1 + (0.6-0.12)*9.81 + 0.12*13.6*9.81
= p1 + 20.72 kPa

pA = p2 + 0.6*γw
= p2 + 0.6*9.81
= p2 + 5.89 kPa

Hence p1 + 20.72 = p2 + 5.89

p2 – p1 = 14.83 kPa

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2 - Pressures

Class Exercise 2.1:

A mercury manometer connects the entrance 1 and throat 2 of a Venturi

meter. Find the head difference (h1 – h2) between the entrance and the
thoat if a liquid of specific gravity, s is flowing through the meter. (h1 and
h2 are measured as heads of the liquid in the meter)
6 7 h
A 3 4 A
5
z
Hg

1 2
S.G. = s

venturi meter
13.6
[( – 1)*h]
s

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2 - Pressures

Class Exercise 2.2:

For a gauge pressure at A of –10.89 kPa, find the specific gravity of the
gauge liquid L in the figure below.
air
3.429m E
D
3.2m A
F 3.048m
G
2.743m
B C
Liquid L
S.G.=1.6
(0.994)

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Fluid Mechanics Chapter 2 - Pressures

Tutorial: Fluid Statics - Pressure

1 For the inclined-tube manometer shown below, the pressure in pipe A

is 5kPa. The fluid in both pipes A and B is water and the gauge fluid
in the manometer has a S.G. of 2.6. What is the pressure in pipe B
corresponding to the differential reading shown?

water

B
water 75mm
200mm
A
75mm
30 S.G.=2.6

2 Vessels A and B contain water under pressure of 276 kPa and 138 kPa,
respectively. What is the deflection of the mercury, h in the
differential gauge?

A 4.877m

h B 3.048m

3 For a gauge reading at A of -15 kPa, determine (a) the levels of the
liquids in the open piezometer columns E, F, and G and (b) the
deflection of the mercury in the U-tube gauge in the figure below.

E F G
A

12.5m Air

9.5m S.G. 0.7 h L N

M Q
6m Water
R
4m S.G. 1.6

2m D h1
C S.G. 13.6

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