THE COLLEGE OF NORTH EAST LONDON AND ENFIELD

ACCESS TO HE DIPLOMA – ENGINEERING

UNIT TITLE: STUDY SKILL

Sustainable substitutes for

diminishing fossil fuels
Where will the world get its next energy
supply?

Table of Contents

1. Introduction 1
2. Fossil fuels 2
2.1 Contributions of fossil fuels 4
2.2 Effects of diminishing fossil fuels 4
3. World energy needs 2
4. Alternative sources of energy 4
4.1 Non-renewable energy resources 4
4.1.1 Nuclear energy 5
4.1.1.1 Nuclear fission 6

4.1.1.2 Nuclear fusion 6

4.2 Non-renewable energy resources 4

4.2.1 Hydroelectric power 6

4.2.2 Solar energy 6
4.2.3 How it works 6
4.2.3 Challenges facing the sector 6
4.2.3 Wind power 6
4.2.3.1 Initiatives undertaken and the prospects 6
4.2.4 Biomass 6
4.2.4.1 Scope for growth 6

4.2.5 Hydrogen 6
 4.2.6 Geothermal energy 6
4.2.6.1 Prospects 6

4.2.7 Tidal and wave energy Geothermal energy 6

4.2.7.1 Global status, potential and prospects 6

4. Conclusion 4

5. References 4

1. Introduction
The great pace of global technological boom and economic growth that was witnessed in the past century
is coming to an end soon. Various researches have pointed out that the world is quickly approaching an
era of energy crisis as the fossil fuels on which our growth heavily relied for decades are reaching the
maximum level possible beyond which they will begin a permanent and irreversible decline. This is the
phenomenon concerned groups refer as global ‘Peak Fossil Fuel’.

The general understanding of this critical scenario is that these sources of energy are consumed much
more than the rate we produce which may leave our energy-intensive industrial age to the shadow of
human history. This is not a question of ‘if’ but ‘how soon’ that a great collective effort must be done
before the price of fossil fuels in the world market skyrocket and the global economy starts to crumble,
and a fierce war to control the remaining resources erupt.

Most people did not understand the magnitude of the problem that has been brewing for decades. They
forward the idea that cutting edge technologies, a government intervention, or probably the market itself
will bring some kind of ‘Almighty’ solution that would soften or completely solve the impending
challenge. Considering the present levels of resource usage we are approaching a stage in which the
existence of the few remaining fossil fuels will fail to support the constantly booming global economy. As
our production capacity is getting far outpaced by the global need for energy, the challenge is not to
explore the fuel fields left but to also attain economically extractable fuels in a satisfying amount. As the
Stone Age that we know in history ended not due to lack of stones, our current ‘Fossil Fuel Age’ will not
disappear just because of lack of fossil fuels.

The implications from the scope of the problem at hand and the possible substitutes considered suggest
that what we look for as potential successor will be a congress, but not a king. Most of the alternative
energy sources picked such as nuclear, hydroelectric, solar, wind, bio-fuels and geothermal etc do have
question marks on their energy efficiency at the current status of the technology we deploy as they take
more energy to manufacture than they produce, working mostly on fossil fuel platforms and being their
derivatives. As most people expect eco-friendly alternative energy sources are not silver bullets to be
considered as immediate replacements to sustain the ever-growing global energy need in place of fossil
fuels, but under most favorable circumstances they may produce meaningful results through their
collective contributions in the long run.

Hence, this brief document aims to evaluate the world energy needs in light of the finite energy resources
we currently rely upon and sustainable substitutes suggested by industries and environmental analysts.

2. World energy needs

Most of the world's energy resources are originally from the Sun except nuclear energy. Some of that
energy has the potential to be used in the form of solar energy whilst some is preserved in fossil fuels.
Other forms of energy like wind and hydropower are also bottled versions of the Sun’s energy.

According to the Statistical Review of World Energy by the British Petroleum Company (BP), 2009, the
total global energy consumption in 2008 was equivalent to an average power consumption rate of 15
terawatts (1 TW=1×1012 W). With its 22% share of the global Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and 5% of
world population, the US consumes the highest percentage of the global energy, 25%. In line with the
5.5% annual growth for the last 25 years China is leading the world in having enormous growth of energy
consumption. The country faces huge scarcity of electric power to support its 20% of world population.
To enrich the energy base it has started building nuclear reactors at a brisk pace. [1]

As per International Energy Outlook 2007, published by United States Department of Energy, 37% of the
total global energy need is consumed by the industrial sector. The transport sector holds no less than 20%
of the global energy consumption whilst household energy expenditure amounts to 11%. The amount of
energy consumed by the public and commercial sectors reaches 5% of the total 15TW. The remaining
27% of the world’s energy is lost in energy transmission and generation because of the low efficiency of
existing power plants that are mostly fueled by coal. [2]

3. Fossil fuels
Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons such as coal, oil and natural gas formed many hundreds of millions of
years ago from the organic remains of prehistoric plants and animals. [3] Since they take millions of years
to form, fossil fuels are non-renewable resources that will be depleted once we have burned them all.
Burning of fossil fuels releases an immense energy that is used to produce electricity, power vehicles,
heat homes, cook food and its byproducts deployed in the production of important materials such as
plastics.

3.1 Contributions of fossil fuels

The 2007 Annual Energy Review by the US Energy Information Administration reported that primary
sources of energy from the global perspective consisted of petroleum 36.0%, coal 27.4%, and natural gas
23.0%. The 86.4% share for fossil fuels in the total worldwide energy consumption clearly indicated how
the world is heavily dependent on them. The share of alternative sources of energy in 2006
included hydroelectric 6.3%, nuclear 8.5%, and (geothermal, solar, tide, wind, wood, waste) amounting
0.9 percent. [4]

World Energy Consumption, 2006-7

40%
35%
30%
25%
20% World Energy Consumption,
15% 2007
10%
5%
0%
l al as ic r rs
Oi Co lg ctr lea he
a l e c t
tu
r
ro
e Nu O
Na d
Hy

Figure 1. World energy consumption in 2006-2007

3.2 Effects of diminishing fossil fuels

Energy reserves are being depleted much faster than new ones are being formed because of the high rate
of global fossil fuel consumptions.

According to Oil & Gas Journal, World Oil, the years of production left in the ground with the most
optimistic proved reserve estimates are 417 years for coal, 43 years for oil, and 167 yrs for natural gas. [5]
It is a startling fact to know that the estimated figures only account for a scenario where the product could
be produced at a constant level for that number of years and that all of the proved reserves could be
recovered. The practical fossil fuels production curve is much more like a bell curve that goes in line with
the fact that the consumption of fossil fuels has nearly doubled every 20 years since 1900, and the world
energy consumption was growing about 2.3% per year as per the 2007 Annual Energy Review. [4][6]
Production theories suggest that in practice none of them would actually run out as natural
constraints will force production to decline as the remaining reserves dwindle.
The fate of oil in particular is horrendous challenge considering its diverse applications in light of its short
life expectancy. Though there are suggestions that we could stretch the resource base from tar sands and
oil shale, it is far from being feasible from the angle of energy economics. Most forms of modern
technology actually come from petroleum products, which are the major sources of energy for power
plants and vehicles. Everything we can think of has its own share in petroleum. Oil is made into many
different products – pesticides and fertilizers for farms, clothing apparels, toothbrushes, most of the
plastic products that we use in our daily routine, the microchips in our computer and memory devices, the
infrastructure that build cities etc.

Alex Kuhlman puts the scenario ‘The End of the Oil Age’ on ‘Peak Oil’ as:

“It is a coming crisis that few understand but with far reaching implications. Nations will fight
over the remaining oil. Without hydrocarbons, this planet can only produce enough food to
sustain a population of 2.5 billion. The current world population is in excess of 6 billion and
growing (UN projection: 7.3 billion by 2050). In the US, without industrial agriculture, it is
estimated that only 2/3's of the current population can be fed. Fossil fuels effectively temporarily
raised the carrying capacity of the Earth.” [7]

Apart from oil, the remaining fossil fuels coal and natural gas have a little bit longer life. But they are also
near their global production peak as the increase in oil price drifted industries heavily to the remaining
reliable sources of energy after the millennium.

Huge reliance on coal would mean building more coal plants to extract remaining deposits for few
centuries in which the processes are detrimental to the ecological balance. The effects of over production
of coal to compensate for oil shortage are clearly stated by Alex Kuhlman as:

“Coal is abundant, but its net energy profile is poor compared to oil and its conversion process
to synthetic fuels is very efficient. Coal would have to be mined at much higher rates to replace
declining oil field. In addition, coal production is extremely harmful to the environment. One
large coal burning electric plant releases enough radioactive material in a year to build two
atomic bombs, apart from emitting more greenhouse gases than any other fuels.  Coal is
implicated in mercury pollution that causes 60,000 cases of brain damage in newborn children
every year in the US.” [7]

The other limitation of coal to be picked as a global energy powerhouse for an extended few centuries is
the reason that it is unevenly distributed in the rest of the world. The three major energy-consuming
nations China, US and Russia possess almost 70% of the total reserves which indicates the less
probability that other countries would benefit from their reserves in the upcoming highly-depleted era. [7]

Natural gas, a fossil fuel found in oil fields, natural gas fields and coal beds, is a diminishing energy
resource that has been projected to deplete in the 21 st and 22nd centuries and cannot satisfy the growing
global demand for energy, not to mention its transporting difficulty. Accounting for over 40 percent of the
country's total energy needs, natural gas is UK's primary source of energy. [8] It is used to generate
electricity, provide heat and power homes and industries all over the country.
The natural gas production in UK, fourth largest producer, is declining since it peaked in 2000 and the gas
supplies are still struggling to get the better of the harsh winters and be energy self-sufficient. According
to a study by the consultant Logica CMG, demand for energy in UK could outstrip supply by 23% at peak
times in less than a decade in UK. The loss to the economy could be £108 billion each year. [9]

The war on terrorism in the Middle East, which is region of the world that holds two-thirds of the
remaining oil, has been a subject of much debate as it has been viewed as a fierce attempt to control or
retain access to the remaining oil reserves on the planet. Western powers keep on desperately attempting
to protect and stabilize the supply side despite numerous calls to address the demand side of the problem
through launching various initiatives for alternative sources of energy and principles of energy
conservation.

4. Alternative sources of Energy

Most alternative systems of energy including solar panels/solar-nanotechnology, windmills, hydrogen
fuel cells, biodiesel production facilities, nuclear power plants, etc. all rely on sophisticated technology
and energy-intensive forms of metallurgy. In other way rounds, alternative sources of energy are actually
‘derivatives’ of fossil fuels, particularly oil.

John Michael Greer in his article, Paradox of Production, puts the tie between fossil fuels and alternative
sources of energy in the following manner:

“Every other energy source currently used in modern societies gets a substantial "energy
subsidy" from oil. The energy used in uranium mining and reactor construction, for example,
comes from diesel rather than nuclear power, just as Sunlight doesn’t make solar panels. What
rarely seems to have been noticed is the way these "energy subsidies" intersect with the
challenges of declining petroleum production to [preemptively sabotage] the future of alternative
energy production in industrial societies.” [10]

Alex Kuhlman’s lucid explanation on ‘peak oil’ scenario strengthens the fallacy of alternatives as:

“Alternative energies will never replace fossil fuels at the scale, rate and manner at which the
world currently consumes them, and humankind's ingenuity will simply not overcome the facts of
geology & physics.” [7]

The challenge we are faced with to solve the world’s energy needs is the big figures associated with
global consumption rates.

4.1 Non-Renewable Energy Alternatives

According to the free encyclopedia, a non-renewable resource is ‘a natural resource that cannot be
produced, re-grown, regenerated, or reused on a scale which can sustain its consumption rate.’ It includes
the major global energy needs, fossil fuels, and nuclear power. [11]
 4.1.1 Nuclear Energy
Nuclear energy is still a contender for the ‘energy crown’ as it produces huge amounts of energy from
small amounts of fuel, but various incidents in the past have raised safety concerns that hindered its
progress. It is not a renewable energy resource as only a limited amount of Uranium, Plutonium and
Thorium (less common) are found in the Earth’s crust. Nuclear power stations work in pretty much the
same way as fossil fuel-burning stations, except that a "chain reaction" inside a nuclear reactor makes the
heat instead.

According to the International Energy Agency, nuclear power accounted for 6.3% of world's total primary
energy supply in 2005 whilst 8.9% for 2006. [4][12] In terms of sector-specific contribution, 16% of world's
total electricity production in 2006 came from this source of energy. [13]

Michael Parfit in his ‘Powering the Future’ article for National Geography puts the position of nuclear
energy as:

“Nuclear fission appeared to lead the race as an energy alternative decades ago, as countries
began building reactors. Worldwide, about 440 plants now generate 16 percent of the planet's
electric power, and some countries have gone heavily nuclear. France, for instance, gets 78
percent of its electricity from fission. The allure is clear: abundant power, no carbon dioxide
emissions, no blots on the landscape except an occasional containment dome and cooling tower.
But along with its familiar woes—the accidents at Three Mile Island and Chernobyl, poor
economics compared with fossil fuel plants, and the challenge of radioactive waste disposal—
nuclear power is far from renewable. The readily available uranium fuel won't last much more
than 50 years.” [14]

The uneasy tie of UK with nuclear energy can be evidenced from its 22% share in generation of
electricity in 2006 which comes from both the aging 19 nuclear reactors all over the country and via
imports from France. [15] Despite defiant approach towards expanding this sector in the past, the
government is holding a firm agenda to erect ten new nuclear plants in England and Wales since 2006
with the motto of ‘energy security concerns and need to limit carbon emissions’, most of the areas picked
do have plants already. [16] This reviving quest for nuclear energy is boldly put in the UK’s Road to
2010 strategy as:

"Nuclear power is a proven technology which generates low carbon electricity.  It is affordable,
dependable, safe, and capable of increasing diversity of energy supply. It is therefore an essential
part of any global solution to the related and serious challenges of climate change and energy
security... Nuclear energy is vital to the challenges of sustaining global growth, and tackling
poverty." [15]

Any plans to add to the already running two nuclear stations in Scotland are rejected by the SNP
government, who proposed to cut greenhouse emissions by a staggering 42% by 2020 in the recent UN
Climate Change Summit in Copenhagen. [17] Ben Ayliffe, from Greenpeace, denounced the recent UK
plans as:

"You can't justify building more nuclear power stations when there is no solution to radioactive
waste and when international regulators are saying there are huge uncertainties surrounding the
basic safety of new reactor designs." [16]
But the UK government is adamant in the belief that it would be hardly possible to attain the 2008 target
of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 80% by 2050 and achieve energy security without the
involvement of nuclear energy. Despite environmental woes for a reliable interim storage, UK’s
Radioactive Waste Management Advisory Committee (CoRWM) recommended deep geological disposal
of high and intermediate-level wastes long-term with early closure of the repository. The geologically
suitable location chosen would be subject to community agreement. [15]

Energy analysts argue that nuclear power plants are too expensive to build, let alone the fatal problem
with waste disposal, when compared with other conventional sources of energy. They further add that
they rely on diminishing fossil fuel platform for all stages of construction, maintenance, and extracting &
processing.

4.1.1.1 Nuclear fission

Nuclear fission reactions use Uranium rods as fuel, which is discovered, extracted, and transported using
oil powered machinery, and the heat is generated as neutrons smash into the nucleus of the uranium
atoms, which split roughly in half and release energy in the form of heat. In due process carbon dioxide
gas or water is pumped through the reactor to take the heat away, this then heats water to make steam,
which drives turbines that in turn drive generators. [18]

Had it not been for the problems associated with the small amounts, yet fatal, of radioactive nuclear waste
disposed from power stations and accidental releases, this reliable energy could have been able to replace
fossil fuels with available resource and technology base. Handling the radioactive wastes is difficult as
the highly-reactive, long-lived, toxic substance must be sealed up and buried in distant places from human
population to allow the radioactivity die away.

Breeder reactors enhance the limited resource base for nuclear fission through converting uranium into
other nuclear fuels or fissile material whilst producing energy simultaneously. [19] Currently there exist
two sorts of these reactors: one that make weapons-grade plutonium and others that are for energy
production. However, this technological move is not warmly welcomed by the international community
because of all the plutonium it would put in circulation. They claim it would easily help the development
of nuclear power by countries such as Iran and Syria.

4.1.1.2 Nuclear fusion

Nuclear fusion results in a more eco-friendly huge sum of energy which is produced when fusing the
nuclei of hydrogen or helium isotopes that are commonly derived from seawater. [20]

Various initiatives towards research in fusion are being carried out in the US and EU as it would produce
no long-lived radioactive waste and nothing for terrorists or governments to turn into weapons. However,
it requires some of the most complex machinery on the planet to be able to control the temperatures and
pressures needed to sustain the difficult process. An uncontrolled fusion might result in devastating
consequences (with the prospect of hydrogen bombs at stake). [20]
What makes fusion the kind of energy that the world needs is its amazing theoretical ability to supply vast
quantities of energy with relatively little pollution and lasting almost millennia. [14][20] A low research fund
to the sector is the major factor that impaired this sustainable substitute from having large contributions to
the energy cause.

4.2 Renewable Energy Alternatives

According to the free online encyclopedia, renewable energy is ‘energy that comes from natural
replenished resources such as sunlight, wind, tides and geothermal heat.’ [21]

According to the 2007 Renewable Energy Global Status Report, about 18% of global final energy
consumption came from renewable sources, where biomass accounted the highest share of 13% followed
by hydroelectric that accounted 3%. [22] In the world’s largest energy consuming country, US, 10.66% of
domestic energy consumption in 2009 came from renewable energy sources as per the monthly energy
review by Energy Information Administration (EIA). The report also showed the rise of this sector
roughly approaching the level of nuclear power, which accounted for 11.33% of domestic energy
production in 2009. [23]

Though the ‘100% Renewable Energy Source Supply’ slogan from various activists of sustainable
development sounds unlikely, there is belief in Germany, a country with tremendous budget for the
sector, that the country would be able to power itself entirely using renewable sources. [24]

4.2.1 Hydroelectric Power

This form of energy is a very old energy source that can produce a great deal of power very cheaply with
no waste. To realize it a dam is built across a water body, and the trapped water is then allowed to flow
through tunnels in the dam to turn turbines that in turn drive generators.

According to the World Energy Statistics, hydroelectric power supplied 16.4% of world electricity in
2005 through large plants and small hydro-dams. [12] Developed countries like Canada, which is the
largest producer of hydroelectricity, halted the erection of large hydro-plants in recent times in fear of
devastating effect on the local environment and habitation areas through over development and
unrestricted harnessing of water power. [25]

Hence, though the most utilized and developed renewable energy source, hydroelectric power lack the
potential for expansion, particularly little room to develop in most of the developed countries. The trend
nowadays has been to construct micro-hydro dams that would have negligible ecological impacts. In
addition, it favors geographical locations that are mountainous as it can be evidenced from countries such
as Switzerland and New Zealand where hydro-electric power provides more than half of the countries’
energy needs. [18]

4.2.2 Solar Energy

The source of all forms of energy apart from nuclear energy is solar energy. In theoretical terms, the
available solar energy resources can easily supply the global energy needs with little ease as long as
humans exist as the available solar energy resources are estimated to reach 3.8 YJ/yr (120,000 TW, where
1TW= 1000 GW). This massive figure heavily dwarfs all non-renewable energy sources. Capturing less
than 0.02% of this immense renewable energy base is adequate to entirely replace fossil fuels and nuclear
power as an energy source. [26] But the ironic truth is this massive source of energy has currently less than
1% contribution to the world’s energy needs. [4]

4.2.2.1 How it works

There do exist three main ways to harness this inexhaustible supply of energy. [18]

The first one is Solar Cells, also referred as photovoltaic cells or PV in short, which converts Sun light
directly into electricity. Solar cells operate in simple principle where the Sunlight directly falls on a layer
of semiconductor creating electron collisions, and thus a current. It was planned originally as cost-
effective energy base for satellites. Current voltaic cells are also equipped with lead-acid batteries to store
power when the Sun doesn't shine.

The other form is Solar Water Heating where heat from the Sun is used to heat water in glass panels,
which possess dark colored fitted pipes through which water will be piped, on your roof. This approach
cuts the amount of gas or electricity used to heat water at home and for places like swimming pools. It
would have huge applications in sunny parts of the world such as Australia, Africa and southern US
states.

The remaining application is Solar Furnaces that deploy a huge array of mirrors to concentrate the Sun's
energy into a small space and produce very high temperatures, basically to be used as solar cookers.

There are recent calls for the construction of non-experimental solar towers, or thermal plants, which
involve building a huge greenhouse warmed by the Sun. The design would incorporate a big tower in the
middle to help the hot air within the greenhouse rise up quickly and thereby drive turbines to generate
significant amounts of energy along the way. [18] However, solar energy application currently infers
dominantly solar cells.

4.2.2.2 Challenges facing the

sector
The major hurdles to exploit the sun’s endless energy include the unaffordable price of solar cells and the
failure of current technology to come up with economically feasible energy storage means. Incapability to
have efficient sort of storage device leaves us to rely on weather patterns to generate power. The other
scenario that complicates solar cells desirability is the fact that they are built from hydrocarbon feedstock,
thus need excess resources. [7]

Solar energy is the fastest growing source of energy with an annual average growth of 35% over the past
few years. [26] Developed nations, particularly Germany and Japan, have launched big projects on this
sector, and the former, geographically disadvantaged nation, is now the largest consumer of photovoltaic
cells in the world followed by the latter. [27] Olmedilla PV Park, Spain, is the largest PV power station in
the world with a 60 MW power generation capacity. Germany’s Strasskirchen Solar Park is second with
54 MW plant. Liebrose PV Park with 53 MW is also located in Germany. [28] US would start to top the
chart once the proposed solar PV plants to be built around California Valley start operation. The first one,
Topaz Solar Farm, is expected to generate 550 MW which is capable of powering 190,000 homes whilst
High Plains Ranch plant would provide 250 MW. [29] The once astronomical price of solar panels is also
showing signals of decrement to an affordable margin in the near future to light up the renewable market.
[30]

Despite the recent progress in solar cells’ efficiency and reduction in cost, solar energy is still decades
away from being a sustainable substitute to meet the world’s energy needs. There are estimates that a
global solar energy system would take a century to build and could potentially endanger the world iron
production. [7] This fact can even be exacerbated by the daunting clear land requirement (30,000 square
kilometers), equivalent to Vermont State, solar panels would ask to satisfy all of the US’ electricity needs
at the present levels of efficiency. [14] But there is a huge belief in the industries that the current dwindling
energy base would call for massive scale-ups for raising efficiency and improved storing capacities.
Attaining a cheap access to diverse ways of utilizing solar energy could potentially trigger a big
revolution and allow developing nations to have easier access to green energy source. Current advances in
technology along with demand for eco-friendly energy sources have put Solar cells, or PV, as front runner
for the energy crown to replace nuclear and fossil fuels.

4.2.3 Wind Energy

Wind energy is an indirect way of collecting solar energy as it is driven by sun-warmed air. A study
conducted by Stanford University calculated the available wind energy to range from 300 TW to 870 TW.
Only 5% of the available minimum threshold estimate of wind energy would supply the current global
energy needs comfortably. However, most of this wind energy is available over the oceans where there
exists highly consistent wind speeds and minimal turbulence. [31]

The energy from wind on is captured through constructing a tall tower to which a large propeller would
be fitted at the top via gear box and generator in rotating housing. The blowing effect of the wind on the
propeller turns the generator to produce power. To get the best out of this source of energy, we need to
build a ‘wind farm’ as the more towers and the larger the propellers we possess, the more wind and the
more electricity we can make. [18]

The preferred location for wind farms is on top of hills in coastal areas or offshore where the wind blows
in a steady, strong and reliable fashion though it costs more to build and maintain turbines offshore than
land. That indicates why most wind farms in the UK are located in Cornwall, Wales or Scotland. [18]

4.2.3.1 Initiatives undertaken and

the prospects
This oldest as well as cleanest form of energy has the capacity to generate large amounts of energy with
little ecological disturbance. It is reported as the cause of birds’ death in rare occasions. [32] The Global
Wind Energy Council is forecasting that the global wind market will grow by over 155% to reach 240
gigawatts (GW) of total installed capacity by 2012. [33]

Wind power is the biggest success story of renewable energies in developed countries. Europe as
manifested in the recent World Climate Summit in Copenhagen has been exemplary in terms of creating
initiatives to reduce carbon emissions and foster search for alternative energy sources. [34]

The continent’s gain from wind power is encouraging, with almost 35,000 megawatts (MW), equivalent
to 35 large coal-fired power plants. Germany and Denmark have advanced projects aimed at using wind
energy on a large scale. About 20% of the Denmark’s electrical needs, 3000 MW, are met through
installed wind powers. [14] An important milestone in the expansion of this renewable energy production in
Denmark has been boosted in the new project submitted by wind power giant, DONG Energy, to the
Danish Energy Agency. The proposed offshore wind farm on the Danish island of Anholt, worth £1.2
billion, will generate 400 MW which is adequate to supply energy to the equivalent of 400,000 Danish
households, or able to cover 4% of the nation's total power consumption, starting from 2012. [23] Germany
has installed a total of 17 GW of wind power, which accounts for 6% of its electricity consumption. [14]
France has also joined the wind revolution by starting the construction of 140MW Fruges Wind Farm in
Pas de Calais, close to the English border. [23] North America has also huge potential for wind energy
though it just reached 25,170 MW. [35]

Europe’s largest onshore wind farm, Whitelee Wind Farm, is found Scotland, which is the windiest state
in the continent. This wind farm has capacity to generate 322 megawatts (MW). Beatrice Wind Farm, also
located in Scotland, is the deepest offshore wind installation in the world with 10MW capacity. Its wind
turbine generators are dug 44 meters under water. [36][37] The Scottish government has vowed to achieve
31% of the nation’s electricity needs by 2011 from renewable sources of energy where half of the current
energy contribution towards this sector comes from wind energy. This is manifested in the approval to
build 548 MW, Cyde Wind Farm, in South Lanarkshire which is expected to power 320,00 homes.
Scotland’s total onshore wind installed generation capacity has reached 1.88 GW, and there is a lot of
room to expand the benefit from this source of energy. [38]

The serious challenge that could potentially handicap wind power is the unpredictable nature of wind
itself. To address the effect of wind bonanza, automatically adjustable diminishing fossil fuel-driven
machineries should be prepared as standby to compensate for the slack in a more controlled manner. [14]
The noise emitted by wind generators forced their erection far from residential places. However, the
common consensus among industries is that state-of-the-art future technologies and advance in other
sectors of renewable energy are expected to address those issues. Complaints regarding damaging the
aesthetics of natural landscapes are also limiting its expansion. For instance, England's Lake District is a
spectacular landscape that is ideal to build wind farms, but various oppositions in fear of distracting its
aesthetics has been an obstacle to realize the energy ambition. [14]

4.2.4 Biomass
Biomass was the predominant fuel in older periods where logs were deployed to produce and maintain
fire. But now biomass encompasses fuels produced from timber, agriculture and food processing wastes
or from fuel crops that are particularly grown or reserved to generate power. It also includes sewage
sludge and animal manure. [39]
The way biomass combustion plant operates resembles a fossil fuel power station as it burns the fuel
directly and the steam created would drive turbine generators. There is also biomass gasification that
biomass plants use to generate power. Here the biomass will be converted into methane gas that would
fuel steam generators or fuel cells. Ethanol is extracted from either sugarcane or corn, and after proper
fermentation, it can be burned like any other fossil fuel to generate power. Alternatively, the plants could
be crushed and burned like any solid waste to produce steam to drive turbines that generate power.
Bioconversion techniques use plant and animal wastes to produce other bio-fuels such as methanol,
natural gas, and oil. Biodiesel is made from vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled greases, and they can
be used in pure form as a fuel for vehicles but preferred as additive to diesel in order to reduce levels of
pollution. [18]

4.2.4.1 Scope for growth

National Geography correspondent, Michael Parfit, explains the scope of applications for bio-fuels as:

“…today biomass means ethanol, biogas, and biodiesel—fuels as easy to burn as oil or gas, but
made from plants. These technologies are proven. Ethanol produced from corn goes into
gasoline blends in the US; ethanol from sugarcane provides 50 percent of automobile fuel in
Brazil. In the US and other nations, biodiesel from vegetable oil is burned, pure or mixed with
regular diesel, in unmodified engines.” [14]

According to the Renewable Global Status report, 2006, the total global energy consumed from biomass
had reached around 264 GW. [40] Bio-fuels supplied 1.8% of the world’s transport fuel in 2008, as per the
report on assessing bio-fuels by United Nations Environment Programme. Global production of ethanol
fuel also jumped 8% in 2005 whilst biodiesel increased by 85%. Three percent of Germany’s total diesel
consumption comes from biodiesel in addition to its 50% global production share for this fast growing
renewable energy. According to US Energy Information Administration (EIA), among the 10.10%
domestic energy consumption generated by renewable sources in 2009, 51% came from biomass. [41][40][23]

World energy giant, E.ON, announced in 2008 that it would build 150MW biomass-fuelled power station
at Portbury, near Bristol, its third in UK, where wood fuel would be brought by boats. The energy
produced will be capable of powering a quarter of a million homes. [42] According to Paul Golby, chief
executive of E.ON UK, the project is expected to have a ‘major contribution to the UK's renewable
energy targets and help cut carbon emissions by about 500,000 tonnes a year’ upon completion.

The advantage of this source of energy over other alternatives is its suitability to slot into existing
infrastructures with little ease. For instance, there will be no need to replace millions of vehicles and
engines over night. As the infrastructure is already in place, biomass fuels can be poured directly into gas
tanks and used in most vehicles and engines with immediate effect.

Though much debate exists over ‘food for fuel’ issue, the resource base has expanded to burning waste
products to reduce greenhouse emissions. This has left biomass industry under fire over incinerators from
environmental groups like Friends of the Earth who questioned the green credentials of many waste-to-
energy biomass projects in UK which are believed to be more carbon-intensive than natural gas, on top of
being quite inefficient. [43] There is a lot of opposition towards the biomass gasification process where
methane is used. Though burning methane releases carbon dioxide, the process itself greatly reduces
greenhouse gas emissions for the reason that carbon dioxide is 23 times less hazardous than methane. [44]
Though biomass has a huge potential to satisfy the world’s energy needs, there are factors that limit its
potential with present levels of efficiency. Michael Parfit puts this bottleneck as:
“What limits biomass is land. Photosynthesis, the process that captures the sun's energy in
plants, is far less efficient per square foot than solar panels, so catching energy in plants gobbles
up even more land. Estimates suggest that powering the entire world's vehicles with bio-fuels
would mean doubling the amount of land devoted to farming.” [14]

There are various studies being conducted to make fuel-farming more efficient. For instance, to reduce
pressure on farmland switchgrass, plant native to North America, could be used instead of corn for
ethanol production since it grows faster with less fertilizer. [14] Sugar cane is used instead of corn in Brazil
because of its energy efficiency. [45] The quest for efficient bio-fuel technologies will raise the level of
exploitation towards this sector in the near future.

4.2.5 Hydrogen
The mantra ‘hydrogen as a fuel’ is going to have tremendous impact is day dreaming. What people fail to
understand is hydrogen is not even a source of energy to start with, but a form of energy storage. [7]

This delusional opinion is discredited by Michael Parfit as:

“Enthusiasm about hydrogen-fueled cars may give the wrong impression. Hydrogen is not a
source of energy. It's found along with oxygen in plain old water, but it isn't there for the taking.
Hydrogen has to be freed before it is useful, and that costs more energy than the hydrogen gives
back. These days, this energy comes mostly from fossil fuels. No silver bullet there.” [14]

Hydrogen is the most common element in the universe. But free hydrogen does not exist on Earth, and the
current source of hydrogen is natural gas which is a diminishing resource by itself. Its production takes
more energy to manufacture than it produces. [7] Though it is an environmentally friendly fuel in arsenal,
its energy efficiency is not feasible enough to replace fossil fuels-driven economy until the other
alternative sources of energy are fully developed.

The famous alternative energy proponent, Laurence O’Sullivan, puts the prospect of this source of energy
when coupled with other sources of energy as:

“Hydrogen can be produced from abundant domestic resources including natural gas, coal,
biomass, and even water. To make hydrogen a renewable fuel it should use renewable energy,
such as wind power or solar power, for production. As an alternative fuel hydrogen is ideal,
producing little or no emissions, with a plentiful supply available. But hydrogen produced by
conventional means is not renewable or carbon neutral.  Wind power is a totally renewable
energy source with no greenhouse gas emissions, but due to its unpredictability, has problems
integrating with national grids. Combined together, wind and hydrogen can cancel out their
inherent defects and be an effective tool in the battle against carbon dioxide and global
warming.” [46]

4.2.6 Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy is one of the cleanest and natural sources of energy that uses the Earth’s heat to
generate power. Building a geothermal station does not produce any pollution, nor does it contribute to
the greenhouse effect. There is great potential to benefit from this enormous heat content of Earth to
generate electricity using enhanced technology with careful management to avoid local depletion, if any.

It works through drilling holes down hot molten rocks in the Earth’s crust, and pour cold water so that
steam will come up through the effect of the high temperature, which after being purified will be used to
drive turbines that run electric generators. The efficiency of the energy produced depends on how hot the
rocks found at hand are which both limits how hot the water would get and how much cold water should
be pumped down. The energy required to pump the cold water is small that it can be taken from the
energy being generated. [18]

4.2.6.1 Prospects
Geothermal energy has commercial applications in several parts of the world. This energy source is used
to generate electric power and heat homes in Iceland. According to Global Status Report on Renewable
Resources, geothermal heat pumps-aided 28 GW of direct heating and generated 10GW of electricity
around the world in 2007. [22]

According to a study conducted by Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), 2006, out of the total
heat content of the Earth, 13,000,000 YJ (1 YJ=32,000 TW), the world’s total Enhanced Geothermal
System (EGS) resources are over 0.000001% (13 YJ). With technological advancements it is expected
that the extractable potential would reach 2 YJ which is a figure adequate enough to cover the global
energy need for several millennia. The report released by MIT also forwarded the estimate that the US
could be able to generate more than 100 GW of economically feasible electricity by 2050 through
deploying EGS. The project is believed to have a life time of 15 years with a maximum amount of 1
billion dollars budgeted for it. [47]

The Geysers, north of San Francisco in California, is the world’s largest power plant based on geothermal
applications capable of generating 750 MW. [48]

The main drawback of geothermal energy is the fact that it is geographically limited. Not many places in
the globe are naturally favored to use it unless volcanically active places such as Iceland and New
Zealand. [18] The list also includes other countries with significant recent growth and potential in
geothermal energy such as El Salvador, Guatemala, Indonesia, Kenya, Mexico, Nicaragua, Papua New
Guinea, and Turkey. [49] 17% of Philippines’s total power consumption is supplied from its 2000 MW
installed capacity geothermal power plants. [50] Hence, this renewable energy does not have the potential
to single-handedly satisfy the global energy need with current efficiency, but it can be of great use as an
alternative energy in areas where nature favors its deployment.

4.2.7 Tidal or Wave Energy

Tidal energy is one of the ancient forms of energy used. Due to the fact that three-quarters of Earth is
covered by oceans, this renewable source of energy has immense potential for future power generation.
Tidal and wave energy sources are two sides of the same coin. The former is based on extracting energy
from tidal movements and the water currents that accompany the rise and fall of the tide whilst the latter
uses the movement of ocean surface waves to generate electricity. [51]

Electricity from tidal power plants is generated using the potential energy from the difference in height
between low and high tides. The Ocean Energy Council explains how the energy from this source will be
harnessed as:

“Traditional tidal electricity generation involves the construction of a barrage across an estuary
to block the incoming and outgoing tide. The dam includes a sluice that is opened to allow the
tide to flow into the basin; the sluice is then closed, and as the sea level drops, the head of water
(elevated water in the basin) using traditional hydropower technology, drives turbines to
generate electricity. Barrages can be designed to generate electricity on the ebb side, or flood
side, or both.” [52]

Tidal energy can also exploited through harnessing offshore tidal streams. In this case large underwater
turbines will be placed in areas with high tidal movements, and are designed to capture the kinetic motion
of the ebbing and surging of ocean tides in order to produce electricity. [18] Offshore approaches have the
advantage of being much cheaper to build, and does not have enormous environmental problems that a
tidal barrage would bring.

The advantage of tidal energy over other renewable forms of energy such as solar and wind is its very
much predictable currents. This will help develop other power stations generating at slack periods.

4.2.7.1 Global status, potential and

challenges
The immense global potential for tidal energy exceeds 450 TW, where most of it is believed to be found
in Asia and North America. [53] Despite the existing technology capability to harness this reliable and
plentiful source of energy, it is not up for grabs to easily convert it to electrical power due to the high
financial requirements associated. As a result, there only exists one large tidal power station in the world
currently with electricity generation capacity of 240 MW which is equivalent to one quarter the
generation capacity of a large coal or nuclear power plant. It is located at La Rance River in northern
France. It is followed by other small stations with a capacity of 20 MW at Annapolis, which is the first
and only modern tidal generating plant in North America, and 0.2 MW plant at White Sea in Russia. [54]

According to the Ocean Energy Council, various studies have been conducted in search of potential tidal
power sites across the globe. One of the findings from this study includes an estimate that a barrage
across the Severn River in western England could supply as much as 10% of the country's electricity
needs (12 GW). [52] The wave and tidal study report by European Marine Energy Centre (EMEC) named
potential global sites for possible tidal power station erections and discussed prospect of harnessing them
as:

“…the best wave climates – with yearly average power levels of 20 to 70 kW per meter of wave
front or higher – are where strong storms occur. Experts say the most energetic wave resources
are along the coasts of the Americas, Europe, Southern Africa, Australia, and New Zealand.
However, the extent to which these resources will prove practical to harness depends upon the
successful development of near-shore and deep-water technologies.” [51]
According to The Pembina Institute, the Bay of Fundy between New Brunswick and Nova Scotia is the
most promising location in Canada for tidal energy and could potentially produce as much as 30,000 MW
of energy. [53]

There are various factors that hinder the growth of this sector including the difficult conditions along
coastlines or offshore to install wave and tidal power stations. Constructing tidal barrages is expensive
when compared to hydroelectric dams, and they reduce the time mud flats are exposed and covered. This
will potentially affect birds, wild life and fisheries. There is also the additional burden that all machineries
deployed in operation must be resistant against salt corrosion and crashing waves. [53] [18]

Oliver Wragg, Marine Energy Policy Officer for Renewable UK, puts the need to have more research on
current challenges hindering the sector as:

"We believe that marine energy can make a significant contribution to Europe's 2020 targets and
can be a major part of the energy mix by 2050. However, there is still a pressing need for
industry-wide research and significant financial support for pre-commercial development and
this is where we believe Europe should play a greater role." [23]

5. Conclusion
With the once-firm energy base dwindling and the increase in fossil fuels predicted to skyrocket, all
concerned groups have started panicking towards quest for sustainable substitutes. The rate at which the
remaining fossil fuels deplete would immensely influence and dictate funding for research and
development towards replacements.

In order to pick an energy source as a viable substitute, the costs of exploration and exploitation from
technical perspective and the associated ecological impact should be economically feasible and sound.
The prospect of solar energy is attractive, but it is currently expensive and inefficient. Wind energy,
though started to contribute well in recent years, is unpredictable and limited mostly on water bodies
where there is a steady wind. Hydropower has decent contributions before, but lack the potential to be a
primary source as overdevelopment will disturb natural habitats. Nuclear energy is inevitable to fill the
gap that fossil fuels would leave despite the safety concerns and problems with waste disposal that
impaired its contribution. Hydrogen consumes more energy than it produces with current levels of
efficiency. The combustion process for biomass fuels emit greenhouse gases though it can be more
reliable source of energy than solar and wind, particularly for the transport industry as it can blend easily
with the other fuels already in the market. Geothermal energy is available in volcanically active places.
Tidal energy is currently limited in application with the difficulties associated with installation and salt
corrosion, and it is expensive to construct with present levels of practice.

Energy analysts argue that one ‘source of energy’ that is so often easily forgotten is conservation, which
can be met through improving the efficiency we produce and transmit our conventional source of energy.
But the world will be forced to opt out of fossil fuels eventually, though to abandon using them straight
away is not a likely event. No one alternative source of energy will solve the problems posed by the
diminishing fossil fuels. Though there is a huge potential associated with the various alternative sources
of energy, it is questionable that they would currently have any hopes to single-handedly supply enough
for the world energy needs. As current production efficiencies are decades away from becoming
economically feasible, the best alternative energy to replace fossil fuels would be a mix of all those that
are suggested. Each one of the alternative sources will have significant contribution in the future
depending upon what technologies are available, at what cost, and where the energy is needed. The world
has to learn that it is relying heavily on fossil fuels alone that brought us to the era of energy crisis.
Hence, coupled with more investment and better technology, a diverse energy economy would be the best
for our future. 

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