Abstract

The tallest building in the world, the Burj Khalifa, symbolizes a

major leap in structural engineering through its innovated buttressed core
structural system. In the 32 years between the completion of one World
Trade Center and Taipei 101, the height of the world’s tallest building had
only been increased by 22 percent. Upon its completion, the Burj Khalifa,
standing at a height of 828 meters, surpassed Taipei 101 by more than 60
percent [1]. This massive jump in height can be attributed to the invention
of the buttressed core structural system. This structural system was first
developed in the Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill (SOM) architectural and
engineering firm’s design of Tower Palace III in Seoul, South Korea.
Tower Palace III exhibited very good structural behavior and performed
well in the wind tunnel, implying to engineers that it could be built much
higher [1]. This building, however, could not reach its height potential
because of zoning issues, and so the design was not fully developed.
During the design process for the Burj Khalifa, engineers altered the
Tower Palace III design, allowing for an even greater maximum height [1].
The Burj Khalifa was designed to be a sustainable building. Engineers and
architects worked together to reduce the environmental impact of the
building and to minimize its energy consumption. Through a number of
techniques, the Burj Khalifa became a leader in the sustainable design of
skyscrapers. This paper will explore the buttressed core structural system
of both the Burj Khalifa building and Tower Palace III and explain how its
tripod shape base and stepped setbacks allow for extreme building height.
The stepped setbacks’ ability to prevent organization of wind vortexes will
also be explored and explained. Through stability principles derived from
solid mechanics, the effectiveness of the codependence of the three wings
and the central core will be explained, allowing for an overall more in-
depth understanding of the buttressed core structural system.

1
1-Introduction

.Throughout the history of tall buildings, structural engineers have

invented the means to go higher. In the 1970s Fazlur R. Khan’s tube
concept was a dramatic shift from the traditional portal frame system used
on such structures as the Empire State Building. Later developments,
including the core plus outrigger system, also provided architects with the
tools to design taller, more efficient buildings. However, the resulting
growth was gradual, each innovation marking a point on the progressive
scale of the tall building. The buttressed core is a different species.
Permitting a dramatic increase in height, its design employs conventional
materials and construction techniques and was not precipitated by a
change in materials or construction technology. The development of the
buttressed core structural system led to a paradigm shift in tall building
design that brought a dramatic increase in the height of buildings. In the 32
years between the completion of 1 world Trade center 1972 and Taipei
101 2004, there was only a 22 percent increase in the height of the world’s
tallest building. In 2010, the Burj khalifa claimed the title at 828 m,
eclipsing Taipei 101 by more than 60 "percent. With its innovative
buttressed core, the tower represents a major lead in structural design,
elicited by a change in the approach to the tall building problem through
an examination of scale. A buttress is an architectural structure built
against or projecting from a wall which serves to support or reinforce the
wall. Buttresses are fairly common on more ancient buildings, as a means
of providing support to act against the lateral (sideways) forces arising out
of the roof structures that lack adequate bracing. The essence of the system
is a tripod-shaped structure in which a strong central core anchors three
building wings.

2
Buttressed core system is a solution to spread gravity loads out from the
center and also use that to give improved lateral stabilization with the
ability to construct higher buildings. The design of a building with
buttressed core is a structure where the core is stabilized with outgoing
wings. The central core, providing torsional resistance, is attached with
building wings, providing shear resistance and prohibiting overturning
moment by an increased moment of inertia. The wing’s wall could be
formed as an elongated box instead of one continuous piece given better
torsional resistance. A virtual or direct outrigger can be used to engage the
perimeter columns, stabilizing each wing. If smaller shear walls are placed
orthogonally and connected to the wings the need for columns can be
abandoned. This paper will describe and demonstrate the use of the
buttressed core, the newest and most cutting edge design being used in the
infrastructures of some of the tallest and the tallest building in the world,
these otherwise known as skyscrapers. The infrastructures and designs of
these buildings will be explained thoroughly as well as the direction that
these skyscrapers and modern buildings are heading for. Further
discussion will show the values of the known and proven advantages of
this innovation of the buttressed core. Its three Wing design which extend
out of the central core and firmly anchor the skyscrapers will be described
and told as well its use in the future building of our cities most iconic
landmarks. In this paper, the buttressed core will be examined in detail,
describing the different components and parts which make up the
buttressed core and the materials which go into making it like the use of
fly ash in the cement of the core (sheath), describing in part how it
operates as a whole, making the world’s tallest skyscrapers more
structurally sound even at their ridiculous heights.

3
2- A new era in the design of skyscrapers

The Tower Palace III introduced the engineering and architectural

worlds to an entirely new approach to building skyscrapers, known as the
buttressed core structural system. This structural system then evolved and
extended its potential for incredible building heights in the design and
construction of the building that currently boasts the title of tallest in the
world, the Burj Khalifa. The designers of the Burj Khalifa, a sustainable
building, utilized a number of techniques to reduce the building’s energy
consumption. The much-anticipated Kingdom Tower will also utilize the
buttressed core structural system to climb to a height of over 1,000 meters
(exceeding the Burj Khalifa by more than 100 meters). The crux of the
buttressed core structural system is its tripod-shaped design featuring a
sturdy central core surrounded by three building wings. In this system, the
wings are codependent and each is supported (buttressed) by the other two
[1]. The torsional resistance for the building is supplied by the strong, six-
sided central core (or hexagonal hub). The three wings afford the shear
resistance and increase the moment of inertia, and as the building rises,
each wing sets back in a clockwise pattern [2]. This tapering as the
building rises is necessary to “minimize the wind effects” and prevent the
organization of wind vortices over the height of the tower [1]. The give-
and-take between the core of the building and its wings are the key to the
structural system and allow for taller, more stable skyscrapers.

4
3. The buttressed core system

A buttressed core framing system is built around a strong central core,

which is further reinforced by shear walls or other rigid elements that
radiate out from it, in manner similar to a tripod though not necessarily
three in number. Buttressed core, is a kind of three-winged spear that
allows stability, viably usable space (as in not buried deeply and darkly
inside a massively wide building) and limits loss of space for structural
elements.

Figure (3-1) The Buttressed core System

5
The Tower palace III introduced the engineering and architectural worlds
to anentirely new approach to building skyscrapers, known as the
buttressed core structuralsystem. This structural system then evolved and
extended its potential for incredible building heights in the design and
construction of the building that currently boaststhe title of tallest in the
world, the Burj khalifa. Permitting a dramatic increase in height, its design
employs conventional materials and construction techniques and was not
precipitated by a change in materials or construction technology. The
essenceof the system is a tripod-shaped structure in which a strong central
core anchors three building wings. It is an inherently stable system in that
each wing is buttressed by theother two. The central core provides the
torsional resistance for the building, while the wings provide the shear
resistance and increased moment of inertia. The buttressed core represents
a conceptual change in structural design whose evolutionary development
began with Tower palace III, designed by Chicago-based
Skidmore,Owings and Merrill (SOM). The designers of the Burj Khalifa,
asustainable building, utilized a number of techniques to reduce the
building’s energyconsumption. The much-anticpated Kingdom Tower will
also utilize the buttressedcore structural system to climb to a height of over
1,000 meters (exceeding the Burj Khalifa by more than 100meters).The
crue of the buttressed core structural system is its tripod-shaped design
featuring a sturdy central core surrounded by three building wings. In this
system, the wings are codependent and each is supported (buttressed) by
the other two. The torsional resistance for the building is supplied by the
strong, six-sided central core or (hexagonal hub). The three wings afford
the shear resistanceand increase the moment of inertia, and as the building
rises, each wing sets back in aclockwise pattern. This tapering as the
building rises is necessary to “minimize the wind effects” and prevent the
organization of wind vortices over the height of the tower.

6
The give-and-take between the core of the building and its wings are the
key to the structural system and allow for taller, more stable
skyscrapers.The buttressedcore allows for these skyscrapers to go up tall
and fast with enough usable floor spaceto maximize clients chances of
making a profit[3]. The buttressed core’s design is most prevalent and well
recognized in the beautiful and extravagant building in Aubaithe Burj
Khalifa (Web Buildings Directory). The Burj Khalifa offers a social
impactas well bringing in extra profit and much publicity to Dubai Overall
civilengineering in the future is set to explode and people and cities want
more beautiful and taller buildings, the buttressed core allows for us to
create these buildings of thefuture and show engineers that next step in
innovation.

3.1 Constructing the core

The buttressed core may seem to many to have a more ‘simple’ design to
its structure. To engineers, the buttressed core is a thing of incredible
ingenuity and there is much more to what meets the eye when it comes to
the recognizable, “Y” design. As engineers, to us it is not what a piece of
machinery or what a structure may look like a whole but more as to how
the whole is made up of from the many different parts. The buttressed core
is something which is an incredible innovation as a whole but is also
something that is made up of many parts and without each and every part
accounted for the structure will fail, this is why they found it so important
to mention their conference paper the actual construction of a buttressed
core and what goes into giving it such amazing structural quality. One of
the major components when it comes to constructing the buttressed core is
the actual cement used to make it. One of the interesting things about this
structural innovation is that it actually is not pure cement or concrete.

7
What is used to make the buttressed core is a newer and more cost
effective way to make cement-like substances known as fly ash. The
development and use of mineral admixtures like fly ash are becoming
more common in the construction industry mainly due to the consideration
of a more cost-effective, energy saving, and the environmental production
and conservation of resources. There is even currently a study that is
looking at replacing cement in concrete more and more with the more
flexural fly ash, testing its behaviors in certain support beams and other
structural uses. In the buttressed core the fly ash is a key component and is
even growing more popular in the entire world of construction.
Another key component in the construction of the buttressed core is its
intriguing design. The buttressed core is designed in such a way that it
makes it perfect for constructing such amazingly tall heights. One of the
major issues when it comes to constructing buildings that challenge the
heights of the tallest in the world is the wind. At very tall altitudes the
wind can be so strong at times that it causes the structure itself to sway and
this can be very dangerous if engineers do not use the correct type of
structures when building these huge buildings.
For instance the Burj Khalifa that is known to all as the tallest building in
the world, as stated earlier uses the buttressed core for its amazing
structural strength. This tri-axial design consists of three tiers that are
staggered throughout construction of each floor as the building gets taller
and taller. This design is the key to the building itself staying in that safe
zone where the building can sway with the wind but not to the point where
it becomes a dangerous risk. This three-tier design allows the wind to not
hit one side directly or head on, diverting the wind from the hitting the
building straight on at any point.

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3.2 Hexagonal hub

Perhaps the most crucial aspect of the buttressed core structural system is
its six-sided center piece. This feature not only provides torsional
resistance and prevents twisting of the tower, it “acts as an axle that
encloses the elevators” [6]. The central core allows for torsional resistance
through corridor walls built of high performance concrete that extends
from the core down the axis of each wing. These corridor walls
strategically end in thickened hammerhead walls which lie perpendicular
to length of the corridor walls. The closed hexagonal core, a unique feature
of the buttressed core system, acts like a tube surrounding the building and
helps to make it torsional stiff. As buildings get taller, they become more
susceptible to twisting about their vertical axis. The buttressed core system
solves this problem by using the three building wings to buttress (support)
the center core, with the center core in turn allowing the wings to be
supported by each other. These wings make it harder for the entire
building to twist about its vertical axis. Thickened hammerhead walls
located at the end of the corridors running down through the wings also
prevent the building from twisting about its vertical axis (providing it with
torsional stiffness) because of moments of inertia. A large amount of
concrete placed this far away from the center of the structure results in
large moments of inertia. This means that the structure not only has large
torsional stiffness but that it also has a very large lateral bending stiffness
to resist bending effects from lateral loads (such as wind).

9
 Figure (3-2) Hexagonal hub

4. Evolution of buttressed core system

Completed in 2004, Tower palace III, located in Seoul, South Korea,

promoted a new standard in high-rise residential development. Its tripartite
arrangement provides 120 degrees between wings, affording maximum
views and privacy. Although Chicago’s lake point Tower set the
architectural precedent for the residential high-rise, the design of Tower
palace III revealed a new structural solution for the super tall residential
tower. Tower palace III was originally designed at more than 90 stories, its
height supported by a By Y-shaped floor Plan. Because its architectural
design called for elevators within the oval floor Plate of each Wing,
(SOM) engineers opted to connect the elevators via a central cluster of
cores (figure 4-1). In doing so, the hub became the primary lateral system
of the building

10
 Figure (4-1) Connection of elevators via central cores

At the two upper mechanical floors, the perimeter columns also were
engaged to assist in resisting lateral loads by means of virtual outriggers
(floor Plates above and below in conjunction with a perimeter belt wall).
While not as effective as direct connections, these virtual outriggers spared
the builders the numerous connection and construction problems typically
associated with direct outriggers. Throughout the design process, the
building exhibited very good structural behavior and performed well in the
wind tunnel, and it became obvious to the engineering team that the
structure could go much higher. However, because of zoning issues, the
design of the tower’s tallest wing was cut from 93 to 73 stories (the other
wings were then elevated to compensate for the loss of area). Despite the
decrease in height, the project provided the SOM team with the
opportunity to explore a new approach to the tall building problem.

11
 Civen Tower palace III’s efficiency, the structural design team inferred
that, if a project had a sufficiently large parcel, this system could be used
in building at extreme heights. Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill (SOM), a
prestigious architectural and engineering firm based in Chicago, Illinois,
designed the buttressed core structural system for both the Tower Palace
III and the Burj Khalifa. The firm’s practice of having architects and
engineers work together closely on projects seems to have assisted in the
conception of many of the firm’s greatest creations, including the Willis
Tower (formerly known as the Sears Roebuck Tower). William Baker, the
head structural engineer in SOM is recognized as the main engineer behind
the creation of the buttressed core structural system [3]. The Tower Palace
III. Completed in 2004, was originally planned to be a 320 meter, all-
residential building in the Kingman district of Seoul, South Korea [4].
When SOM undertook the project, the architects and engineers were faced
with the challenge of “controlling the dynamic response of the tower and
managing its wind engineering aspects” [4]. The design team drafted three
different schemes for the building with the same total floor area and
similar number of apartment units. The third scheme, which was the
shortest of the three options, was eventually chosen as the final design.
SOM created the Tower Palace III based on a set of goals. These goals
include: “optimize [the] tower structural system for strength [and]
stiffness,” using gravity loads to resist lateral loads, and limiting the
torsion on the building [4]. These goals were accomplished through the
shaped structural system, which was designed to maximize views from the
tower and for the intake of natural light. Engineers and architects then
discovered that this shape was incredibly stable and strong [4].

12
 Figure (4-2) the Tower Palace III

4.1 Limitations of the Tower Palace III

Upon completion, the Tower Palace III became the tallest building in
South Korea, but it did not fulfill its height potential. Strict zoning issues
in Seoul prevented SOM from designing the 93 story building that had
once been envisioned (the Tower Palace now stands at 73 stories tall).
Local residents and authorities also expressed concerns over the building’s
height and possible traffic congestion [4]. Despite the Tower Palace III’s
solid structural behavior, SOM architects and engineers encountered issues
with the building’s torsional resistance. This lack of torsional resistance
means that, as the building grows in height, it will begin to twist along its
vertical axis. Baker identified this as a major problem in the design of
skyscrapers and sought to invent a solution.

13
5. Burj khalifa

The idea for the tallest structure ever constructed in the history of mankind
came to William Baker while he was working with SOM. The difficulties
and challenges that arise while designing and building the tallest building
in the world demand that architects and engineers collaborate to push
“current analytical, material, and construction technologies to new
heights” [5]. Architects and engineers worked together to alter orthodox
systems, resources, and building methods to create the Burj Khalifa in
Dubai. Baker’s goal of the project was to design a building that reached
great heights without consuming a large volume of space while also
“resisting the forces of nature in a simple way” [6]. He also was
responsible for meeting owner Emaar Properties Public Joint Stock
Company’s expectations. The Burj Khalifa needed to have enough width
to support itself and to be narrow enough to “create economically viable
real estate for the client” [6]. The Burj Khalifa is the focal point of a large
development also containing a low-rise office annex, a two-story pool
annex, and an adjacent podium structure. The tower itself serves mostly
residential and office purposes, but also contains retail stores and a
Giorgio Armani hotel.

14
 Figure (5-1) Burj Khalifa

Throughout the design Process, SOM engineers made critical changes to

the Tower palace III design that were essential to the evolution of the Burj
khalifa’s buttressed core. The design of the tower’s central core relied
upon close collaboration on the part of SOM architects and engineers, and
that multidisciplinary approach successfully fit all of the tower’s elevators
and operating systems within the core while maintaining good structural
behavior. In contrast to the case of Tower Palace III, Burj Khalifa’s central
core houses all vertical transportation with the exception of egress stairs
within each of the wings. Each of the three wings forming the Burj
Khalifa’s buttressed core is on a 9 m module.

15
As in Tower palace III, the walls in each wing of the Burj Khalifa were
initially spread apart in such a way as to separate the living components
from the bath and kitchen components. This provided four interlocking
tubes, but the dimensions were much greater. This plan later proved
problematic because there were numerous doors in the structure and little
flexibility in unit layout. It was thus difficult to comply with Dubayy code
requirements, which dictate accessibility to natural light in the Kitchen. As
a result, the team embarked on a series of studies to see if the central core
could resist all of the torsional effects of the building. Following a round
of parametric studies carried out in the autumn of 2003, it was clear that
the central core had enough strength and stiffness to serve as the building’s
torsional hub. Also in 2003, the wing walls were adjusted so that the
primary walls now lined the corridors at the center of each wing, instead of
protruding into the units. Besides improving the efficiency of the units,
this adjustment improved the efficiency of the entire structure. The tower
itself serves mostly residential and office purposes, but also contains retail
stores and a Giorgio Armani hotel. The $1.5 billion structure holds the title
of tallest building in the world in three categories measured by the Council
on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat. These categories include: height to
tip, height to architectural top, and height to highest occupied floor. The
Burj Khalifa measures 829.8 meters to tip, 828 meters to architectural top,
and 584.5 meters to highest occupied floor. It claimed these records by
beating out the Willis Tower (527 meters), Taipei 101 (508 meters), and
Shanghai World Financial Center (474 meters), respectively [7]. The
record-shattering height of the Burj Khalifa can be largely credited to its
use of the buttressed core structural system “featuring high-performance
concrete wall construction” with a hexagonal hub and three buttressed
wings [5].

16
 Fig (5-2) Vertical transportation in central core

Upon further analysis, it was discovered that the results were more closely
related to the geometry and orientation of the tower than to the structural
system. Therefore, the dynamic properties of the structure were
manipulated in order to minimize the harmonics with the wind forces.
Engineers were able to accomplish this by essentially ‘tuning’ the building
as if it were a musical instrument in order to avoid the aerodynamic
harmonics that are residual in the wind. A key component of the Burj
Khalifa’s structural design was ‘managing gravity’. This meant moving
the gravity loads to where they would be most useful in resisting the lateral
loads. Structural engineers manipulated the tower’s setbacks in such a way
that the nose of the tier above sat on the cross-walls of the tier below,
yielding great benefits for both tower strength and economy. Engineers
also employed a series of ‘rules’ to simplify load paths and construction.
These included a rigorous 9 m module and a philosophy of no transfers.

17
several rounds of high-frequency force balance tests were undertaken in
the wind tunnel as the geometry of the tower evolved and as the tower was
refined architecturally, the setbacks in the three wings following a
clockwise pattern (in contrast to the counter clockwise pattern in the
original scheme). After each round of wind tunnel testing, the data were
analyzed and the building was reshaped to minimize the wind effects and
accommodate unrelated changes in the client’s program. In general, the
number and spacing of the setbacks changed, as did the shape of the
wings. The designers also noticed that the force spectra for certain wind
directions showed less excitation in the important frequency range when
winds impacted the pointed, or nose, end of a wing than when they
impacted the tails between the wings. This was kept in mind when
selecting the orientation of the tower relative to the most frequent
directions of strong wind in Dubayy, which are from the northwest, south,
and east. The careful selection of the tower’s orientation, along with its
variant setbacks, resulted in substantial reduction of wind forces. By
‘confusing ‘the Wind, the design encourages disorganized vortex shedding
over the height of the tower (see figure 5-3). In order to have an efficient
super tall building, it is best to use all the vertical elements for both gravity
and wind loads. In order to achieve this on the Burj Khalifa, it was
necessary to engage all of the perimeter columns of the structure. Because
of the tower’s extreme height, the virtual outrigger used on Tower palace
III was replaced by a direct outrigger. In addition to engaging the
perimeter for lateral load resistance, the outriggers allow the columns and
walls to redistribute loads several times throughout the building’s height.
This helps control any differential shortening between the columns and the
core. By the time the building meets the ground, the loads in the walls are
somewhat ordinary, and in contrast to the case of many buildings in which
the columns at the base are massive, most of the Burj Khalif’s base
columns are relatively thin and only slightly thicker than those at the to".
The Burj Khalifa’s structural system was created with a conscious effort to
conform to and complement current construction technology. The goal
was to use a highly organized system with conventional elements that
would provide a high repetition of formwork. Initially the team

18
contemplated a composite floor framing system, as well as an all-concrete
floor framing scheme. It was later decided that the all-concrete scheme
was more appropriate and economical. Although the tower’s floor plate
changes as the structure ascends, the segments near the core repeat
themselves for as much as 160 levels. As the loads accumulate from the
top down, the sizes of the structural elements are relatively constant since
walls were added as the loads accumulated.

Figure (5-3) typical floor plan

5.1 Hexagonal hub

Clearly, the Burj Dubai has a much greater useable to un useable space
ratio than the hypothetical willis Tower. Although this building has much
more useable space, itcan only reach a smaller maximum height. The
design that SOM created alsominimizes the effects of differential
shortening (shrinkage), which is a major consideration for very tall
buildings. The design team addressed this issue by changing wall thickness
and column sizes on select features of the Burj Khalifa.Outrigger walls
scattered up the building provide equal gravity loads throughout the
building, minimizing differential creep movements [9]. Because shrinkage
occursmore quickly in thinner walls and columns, the perimeter column

19
thickness mimicsthe typical corridor wall thickness. The thickness of these
perimeter columns is determined by stress on the interior corridor walls.
Overall, the building was designed with different thicknesses and column
sizes such that the concrete would shrink uniformly throughout the
building without distorting the shape of the tower.

5-2 Necessity of Three Wings

The three wings of the Burj Khalifa allow for greater building height by
buttressing one another via the central core (hence the name “buttressed
core structural system”). The wings support the core against lateral loads,
and as the height of the building increases, one wing on each tier sets back
in a spiraling pattern, emphasizing the height of the tower. These setbacks
are also aesthetically pleasing for occupants of the tower because they
maximize natural light and the number of rooms with views. The wings
were constructed such that the perimeter columns on each floor lined up
with the walls below them, providing a smooth load path [5]. The wings
were constructed such that the perimeter columns on each floor lined up
with the walls below them, providing a smooth load path, which ultimately
results in a more efficient building. Throughout the Burj Khalifa, five
mechanical floors are strategically placed about 30 floors apart. On each of
these mechanical floors, outrigger walls attach the perimeter columns with
the interior wall system. This allows the perimeter columns to contribute
to the lateral load resistance, permitting all of the vertically placed
concrete to participate in resisting both gravity and lateral loads [5]. These
outrigger walls are only placed on the mechanical floors because they
would interfere with the usage of functional floors.

20
5.3 Wind at High Heights

One of the biggest obstacles facing structural engineers in the design of

skyscrapers is wind. For very tall and slender structures, such as the Burj
Khalifa, two major influences on the structural design are the forces of
wind and the motion caused by these forces [9]. Architects and engineers
were aware that building a tower of great height such as the Burj Khalifa
would require “understanding, taming, and working with the forces of
nature” [6]. Wind tunnel models were used to “account for the cross wind
effects of wind induced vortex shedding on the building” [9]. Some of the
wind tunnel tests, such as the aero elastic and force balance studies, were
done with models at a scale of 1:500 (although the pedestrian wind tests
also used a model of scale 1:250) [5]. Despite the design team’s awareness
of the challenges presented by wind at such great heights, the first wind
tunnel results for the Burj Khalifa were poor. This was, in part, due to an
overestimation of the wind climate but mostly due to lack of aerodynamic
behavior by the building. After each set of wind tunnel testing, the design
team altered the shape of the tower to “confuse the wind” and minimize
the effects of vortex shedding on the building [9]. Setbacks were organized
to change the tower’s width at each setback. This prevents the wind
vortices from becoming organized because the building is constantly
changing shape. The design team also used gravity to counter the wind
forces similar to the way one would spread his/her legs in a strong wind
for stability. High strength concrete was used in the Burj Khalifa, varying
in strength between 80 MPa and 60 MPa throughout the height of the
building from bottom to top. There is a 232 m high steel structure in the
upper part of the building, consisting of brace elements and with self-
resistance against lateral and vertical loads, which is supported by the
central core.

21
 Figure (5-4) disorganized vortex shedding

5.4 Liquefaction and Seismic Considerations

Seismic activity is always a major concern in the construction of

skyscrapers. In the Uniform Building Code, Dubai is classified as zone 2a
(moderate seismic activity). This means that Dubai’s seismic activity is
comparable to that of New York City and Boston [5]. Because of this low
classification, seismic activity did not have a large effect on the
reinforced-concrete tower design, but it did direct the design of the steel
spire structure at the top of the Burj Khalifa which holds the
communications and mechanical floors. Soil liquefaction is also a potential
issue with the construction of skyscrapers. Soil liquefaction occurs when
an applied stress causes solid soil to temporarily behave as a viscous
liquid. However, when potential of soil liquefaction in the area was
examined, it was deemed structurally irrelevant for the building’s deep-
rooted foundations [5].

22
What this means is that at such extreme heights the things experience on
the surface have to be magnified. The Burj Khalifa is immense in size and
what this means is that gravity affects it greatly pushing down on all parts
of the incredible building, meaning that to withstand such a large force of
gravity the strength of the building in the upward direction must be
incredibly powerful. The upward force must be large enough to withstand
gravity so that the structure itself does not collapse in on itself. The
buttressed core allows for structures to become very rigid and give them
the strength vertically to resist the forces that cause it to collapse. This is
directly accredited to the design of the buttressed core where the three
wings are attached to a very strong central core. The central core is the key
factor in giving the structure the strength to withstand intense weight of
gravity. To be strong vertically as well as torsion ally or otherwise the
ability to resist twisting as a result of winds. The Burj Khalifa was
constructed in Dubai where the average wind speed over fifty years has
been just over twenty-two miles per hour. For the Burj Khalifa to stand at
a height where no other structure has ever been built it would need to have
a design where the resistance of the natural act to twist in the high winds is
fought against. The buttressed core is what allows the structure to stand at
the height of over 800 meters in the air. The three wings use each other to
build that strength. If one wing is feeling the force of the winds, the other
two wings act as supports to help keep it from twisting. This design is
perfect to have the Burj Khalifa stand at such a mind-boggling height
without twisting on itself. All these components of the buttressed core
gives structures like the Burj Khalifa Avery efficient structure for the fact
that the gravity load resistant system is utilized so it can maximize its use
in resisting the lateral forces like that of the incredible wind gusts. On the
top of the Burj Khalifa there is about a 230 meter tall spire and the
complete structure of the tower founded on a 3.7-meter thick reinforced
concrete pile supported raft foundation.

23
 Figure (5-5) picture of foundation

Constructing the buttressed core involves very precise and exact

measurements, like every other part of a well bit structure it takes much
time and effort to be able to construct such an integral part of a skyscraper.
Every step in the process of constructing the buttressed core is a key to its
success and holds all the answers to how it allows such amazing structural
power for these ‘super’ skyscrapers that are reaching new heights every
day. Civing structures the amazing ability to both resist the vertical force
of gravity as well as having the lateral strength to resist the force of the
wind.

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5.5 A Leader in Sustainable Design
A sustainable building has the capacity to be maintained for a long
period of time. The Burj Khalifa was constructed with the future in mind.
It is remarkable not only because of its height, but also because of its
integration of sustainable design. The building employs many different
energy and cost saving methods to remain sustainable and more
environmentally friendly the design team for the Burj Khalifa made
extensive efforts to address the high energy consumption that is usually
associated with skyscrapers and cities. Currently, urban areas account for
about sixty percent of the world’s energy consumption [11]. To minimize
unnecessary energy consumption, the Burj Khalifa utilizes a special
building management system with “smart lighting and mechanical control”
[2]. This system, created by Asia Brown Boveri, Ltd., uses computer based
systems to monitor and control electricity [11]. The resulting effect is a
more efficient use of energy and a smaller environmental impact. To fulfill
the water heating needs of the building’s residents, the Burj Khalifa
utilizes solar power. 378 collector panels, each with an area of 2.7 square
meters, lie on the roof of the office annexes. These panels have the ability
to heat 140,000 liters of water when supplied with just seven hours of
daylight. This is equivalent to 32,000 kilo watts of energy per day [12].
The building also employs other water-related sustainable practices. The
Burj Khalifa uses a massive condensate recovery system, one of the largest
in the world [13]. This condensate recovery system collects water
condensate from the air conditioning system and diverts it to an irrigation
tank located on-site. This prevents the condensate discharge from
becoming waste water and, in total, provides about 15 million gallons of
supplemental water per year [12]. The water collected is used for irrigation
of the landscape around the Burj Khalifa and is enough to fill 14 Olympic
sized swimming pools [13].

25
This condensate recovery system reuses millions of gallons of water each
year, lowering the water-related expenses of the building and making it
more environmentally friendly. The air conditions at the top of the Burj
Khalifa allow for reduced energy consumption as well. Sky sourced
ventilation uses air ventilation at the top of the building to reduce the
amount of energy consumed by air conditioning, ventilation, and
dehumidification. The air drawn in at the top of the building is cooler and
has a lower density and relative humidity than the air at the bottom of the
Burj Khalifa [13]. These conditions are ideal for ventilation of buildings,
and so less energy is required to maintain comfortable conditions within
the building. Because of its sustainable design, the Burj Khalifa has
lowered its energy consumption impact on the world and is more
environmentally friendly than a lot of other skyscrapers. However, super
tall buildings, such as the Burj Khalifa, still have a huge impact on the
environment, and so sustainable design will continue to be a major factor
in the future design of these buildings.

6. Controversial ethics and disadvantages of skyscrapers

As buildings grow in size, so do the number of ethical controversies that
accompany this size. Higher buildings typically require larger bases. Bases
for skyscrapers (which typically stand in cities) require large plots of land
and cause the destruction of “the neighboring urban fabric” [10]. These
structures also darken cities by casting large shadows and making sunlight
less accessible at street level. Perhaps the most pressing ethical
controversy stemming from skyscrapers is the safety of the people inside
of them. Very limited safety protocols can be made for a building as tall as
the Burj Khalifa. Is it practical to expect a timely and calm evacuation
from the top floor of a mile-high building in the case of a fire? An
evacuation plan more efficient than calmly using the stairs needs to be
developed for skyscrapers so that the lives of the residents and occupants
of these buildings are no longer at great risk.

26
The first canon of the Civil Engineering Code of Ethics states that
“engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the
public and shall strive to comply with the principles of sustainable
development in the performance of their professional duties” [14]. The
question for engineers is no longer how high can a building be constructed,
but how high can it be constructed safely for its occupants? Since the Twin
Towers fell on September 11, 2001 in New York City, there has been an
even greater stigma surrounding the topic of skyscrapers. Because of their
large number of occupants and often iconic status, skyscrapers can be
targets for terrorist attacks. The events of September 11, 2001 directly
affected SOM itself by preventing a kickoff meeting for a 160 story
building (which would have become the tallest building in the world at
that time). The project was postponed and then altered to reach a smaller
maximum height of only 92 stories [3]. With taller buildings also come
much higher prices. Construction costs of skyscrapers increase
exponentially as the building grows in height. Baker estimates that for a
building that has the same footprint but twice as high, “the cost of every
square foot becomes somewhere between four and eight times as much”
[3]. A major issue with taller skyscrapers is transportation. More floors
mean longer waits for elevators and longer elevator shafts. More effective
transportation systems in skyscrapers need to be developed to address this
issue

7. The future of the buttressed core structural system

SOM and Baker made history with the innovation of the buttressed core
structural system, and the competition to build the tallest building in the
world continues. The idea of a central core and three wings revolutionized
the way that skyscrapers are structured and altered the approach that many
engineers take when designing a building. Adrian Smith, an architect and
former Design Partner at SOM, worked closely with Baker on the Burj
Khalifa. Smith is one of the architects behind what is expected to become

27
the world’s tallest building in 2018 [15]. In 2009, Prince AL weed bin
Talal of the Saudi royal family invited eight design firms to submit designs
for the tallest building in the world. The aim for the design was to
represent Saudi Arabia as a global icon. The submission by Smith and his
colleague at Adrian Smith + Gordon Gill Architecture (AS+GG) was
chosen as the winner of the competition. The Kingdom Tower, to be
located in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, is expected to be over 1,000 meters tall
(172 meters taller than the Burj Khalifa). The skyscraper will stand at the
heart of a 57 million square foot development and will contain a Four
Seasons Hotel, apartments, office space, and the world’s highest
observatory [15]. The Kingdom Tower shares the same buttressed core
structural system with the Burj Khalifa, but architects and engineers made
alterations to the design to accommodate for height, wind climate, and the
client’s wishes. The wings of the Kingdom Tower will not setback in the
way that the wings of the Burj Khalifa do. The Kingdom Tower’s wings
will be “tapered rather than stepped as they ascend toward the sky” [15].
For a more dynamic appearance, each will terminate at a different angle.
Like the engineers and architects at SOM during the design process for the
Burj Khalifa, the design team for the Kingdom Tower focused on
minimizing the effects of wind on the skyscraper. Because of the
structure’s unique shape, the structural engineers on the project are
working with the wind consultant to conduct “extensive wind tunnel tests
on the building” [15]. Engineers believe that the concave curvature of the
sides of the Kingdom Tower will help to alleviate the effects of wind on
the skyscraper.

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8. Conclusion

Beginning with the Tower Palace III, then expanding its potential with
the Burj Khalifa, and now reaching even greater heights through the
Kingdom Tower, the buttressed core structural system has forever altered
the design of skyscrapers. Sustainable design, such as that seen in the Burj
Khalifa, must continue to be used to make skyscrapers more
environmentally friendly and less energy consuming. From 1972 to 2004,
the world saw only a 22 percent increase in the height of the world’s tallest
building. Upon its inauguration on January 4, 2010, the Burj Khalifa
became the tallest building in the world (surpassing the previous title
holder by over 60 percent). This massive jump in building height cannot
be overlooked by the engineering community. Baker’s y-shaped structural
system is the future of designing skyscrapers and may be the key to
reaching unfathomable building heights. The buttressed core structural
system has, without a doubt, revolutionized the structure and design of
skyscrapers throughout the world. The evolution of the buttressed core
traces the development of a simple yet powerful structural idea. This idea
was developed into an appropriate and successful system for each of the
buildings described here. With each building, this system was further
refined, reflecting both its flexibility and its potential. The buttressed core
has evolved into a system that truly incorporates the ideals of structural
efficiency, constructability, and architectural function and makes it
possible to produce buildings of great height.

29
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(Online Article). http://www.worldbuildingsdirectory.com/project.cfm?id=26 18
[3] Blum, Andrew. "Engineer Bill Baker Is the King of Super stable 150-Story
Structures." Wired Magazine 27 Nov. 2007: n. page. Web.
[4] Abdelrazaq, Baker, Chung, Pawlikowski, Wang, and Yom. Integration of Design
and Construction of the Tallest Building in Korea, Tower Palace III, Seoul, Korea. 10
Oct. 2004. South Korea, Seoul.
[5] Baker, William, James Pawlikowski, and Bradley Young. "Reaching toward The
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