Ms.

Smedley - Science 10 – Chemistry NAME_________________________

Chemistry – Reaction Rates, Acids & Bases & Salts, Organic Chemistry
Why is it important to learn about Chemistry? Do you like breathing, having energy to move, food to
eat, clothes to wear, toiletries to help you smell nice, medicine to help heal you, etc.???? We use
Chemistry every day, in us and around us.

Every culture on Earth has traditional knowledge related to Chemistry. For example, the healing
properties of willow bark have been known to Chinese and North American Aboriginal peoples for
thousands of years. It wasn’t until the late 1800’s that Western scientists recognized that salacin, a
chemical found in willow bark helped reduce fever, swelling and pain. This discovery lead to the
development of aspirin in 1897.

First Nations groups could not have survived without an understanding of the chemical properties and
reactions that occurred in the natural world around them. For example, the chemical reactions
involved in the smoking and drying of meat and fish helped remove excess moisture to preserve the
food for long winter months. The chemical properties of many plants were used by First Nations
groups for their medicinal properties. Crushed Juniper berries, for example, were used to keep
mosquitoes from biting since the berries contain a natural insect repellant.

Part 1 - Factors Affecting the Rate of Chemical Reactions

What is the rate of reaction and how does it apply to chemical reactions?

In a chemical reaction, how quickly or slowly reactants turn into products is called the ____RATE____
of ___REACTION__. A reaction that takes a long time has a ____LOW____ reaction rate. A reaction that
occurs quickly has a ____HIGH____ reaction rate. A rate describes how quickly or slowly a change
occurs. Every chemical reaction proceeds at a definite rate. However, you can speed up or slow down
the rate of a chemical reaction.

What factors affect the rate of a chemical reaction?

The four main factors that affect the rate of chemical reactions are;

1. __TEMPERATURE___ . Increasing the temperature causes the __PARTICLES__ (atoms or

molecules) of the reactants to ____MOVE___ more quickly so that they collide with each other
more _FREQUENTLY__ and with more ___ENERGY____. Thus, the ___HIGHER____ the
temperature, the ____GREATER____ the rate of reaction. If you decrease the temperature, the
opposite effect occurs. The particles move more ___SLOWLY___, colliding less frequently and
with less energy. In this case, the rate of reaction __DECREASES____.
2. __CONCENTRATION___ refers to how much solute is dissolved in a solution. If a greater
concentration of reactant atoms and molecules is present, there is a greater chance that

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__COLLISIONS__ will occur among them. More collisions mean a ____HIGHER__ reaction rate.
Thus, increasing the concentration of the reactants usually results in a ___HIGHER___ reaction
rate. (See Figure 1 below). At lower concentrations, there is less chance for collisions between
particles. This means that __DECREASING_____ the concentration of reactants results in a
lower reaction rate.

FIGURE 1 – Increasing the concentration leads to more collisions and increases the reaction rate.

3. __SURFACE___ _____AREA__is the measure of how much area of an object is

____EXPOSED___. For the same mass, ___MANY__ ____SMALL__particles have a greater total
surface area than one ___LARGE_____ particle. For example, steel wool has a larger surface
area than a block of steel of the same mass. This allows oxygen molecules to collide with many
more iron atoms per unit of time. The ____MORE___ surface area contact between reactants,
the ___HIGHER___ the rate of reaction. The ____LESS___ surface contact, the _____LOWER___
the reaction rate. See Figure 2.

FIGURE 2 – One big lump = slow reaction, several small lumps = fast reaction

4. A ____CATALYST__ is a substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction

___WITHOUT__ being used up in the reaction itself. Catalysts __REDUCE____ the amount of
__ACTIVATION__ __ENERGY___ required to ___BREAK___ and __FORM_______
___BONDS______during a chemical reaction. (See the graph in Figure 3). When catalysts are
used, a reaction can proceed even though less energy is added during the reaction. For
example, ___ENZYMES___ are catalysts that allow chemical reactions to occur at relatively low
temperatures within the __BODY_____.

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FIGURE 3 – A catalyst lowers the amount of activation energy required for reaction to begin. Compare the solid line
(without catalyst) to the dotted line (with catalyst).

Part 2 – Acids & Bases & Salts

Acids and their properties.

Table 1 lists the formulas of a few acids. Refer to our previous lessons on the prefixes and suffixes
used in naming acids. All the acids in Table 1 start with H (__HYDROGEN___). The hydrogen atoms
written at the front of the formulas are “special”, because when these compounds _DISSOLVE__ in
water, the molecules “split up” (_IONIZE___) into hydrogen ions with a __NEGATIVE___ charge
(H+), and atoms or polyatomic groups with a __IONS__ charge.

An acid dissolved in water consists of hydrogen ions (H+) and negatively charged ions. Because of
this, acids __CONDUCT__ electricity well.

Table 1 Formulas of Common Acids

Sulphuric acid H2SO4

Hydrochloric acid HCl
Nitric acid HNO3
Carbonic acid H2CO3
Acetic acid HC2H3O2
Phosphoric acid H3PO4
Citric acid H3C6H5O7
Ascorbic acid H2C6H6O6

Strong acids are assumed to ionize completely in water. See the two examples below for how this
ionization is written.
Example 1 Hydrochloric Acid in Water

Molecules of _HYDROCHLORIC__ __ACID___ (normally a gas) _IONIZE___ (split apart) in water

producing hydrogen ions and chloride ions.

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___HCl____ _____ H+____ + _____Cl-_____

Example 2 Sulphuric acid in Water

Hydrogen sulphate ionizes in water like this:

H2SO4  2H+ + SO42-

Properties of Acids
Acids have several properties in common:
1. All acids contain __HYDROGEN_, which becomes H+ in water.
2. All acids are _SOLUBLE___ in water.
3. All acids have a ___SOUR___ taste.
4. All acids conduct _ELECTRICITY_ when dissolved in water.
5. All acids react _PREDICTABLY__ with various chemical __INDICATORS__.
Of course, you should not go about tasting acids to see if statement 3 is always true. Some acids are
extremely dangerous to touch, taste, or smell. But there are some acids which are in the foods you eat,
and you know how they taste. __VINEGAR_ is actually dilute acetic acid. __CARBONIC_ acid is formed
whenever ___CO2_ dissolves in water, and is used in many soft drinks. ___CITRIC___ acid is found in
many fruits. _ASCORBIC_ acid is Vitamin C. You may have eaten Vitamin C tablets. Vitamin C is also in
fresh fruits.

Some acids are extremely dangerous if not handled properly. _HYDROCHLORIC_ acid, sold
commercially as muriatic acid, is a strong, _CORROSIVE__acid. Concentrated hydrochloric acid will
___BURN_ your skin or eyes if allowed to contact them. This acid is sometimes used to clean concrete,
because it reacts with and partially dissolves the limestone in the concrete. It is also used in an acid dip
to remove rust from car parts. Rubber gloves and goggles must be worn when using this acid. You
actually have some hydrochloric acid in your __STOMACH__. Your digestive system uses HCl in the
digestive process. If you have ever experienced “__HEARTBURN_” or acid reflux, you have tasted some
of your very own hydrochloric acid! Fortunately, the lining of your stomach has a strong protective
coating.

Hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid will dissolve many metals. When the metal dissolves, hydrogen
gas is released from the acid. The metal takes the place of the hydrogen in the original compound.

Bases and their properties.

Table 2 lists the formulas of some bases. Notice that all the bases in Table 2 end in _OH____, the
_HYDROXIDE_ group. When hydroxide compounds dissolve in water, the particles ionize into positively
charged atoms (such as Na+) or poly atomic groups (such as NH4), and __NEGATIVELY__ charged
hydroxide ions (OH-). Because of this fact, hydroxide compounds (bases) conduct electricity well.

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Table 2 Formulas of Common Bases

Sodium hydroxide NaOH

Potassium hydroxide KOH
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2
Aluminum hydroxide Al(OH)3
Barium hydroxide Ba(OH)2
Ammonium hydroxide NH4OH

Strong bases are also assumed to ionize completely in water. See the two examples below for how this
ionization is written.
Example 1 Sodium Hydroxide in Water
Particles of sodium hydroxide ionize in water like this:

NaOH  Na+ + OH-

Example 2 Ammonium Hydroxide

Ammonia gas (NH3) dissolves in water to form ammonium hydroxide. The ammonium hydroxide forms
these ions:

NH4OH  NH4+ + OH

Properties of Bases
Bases have several properties in common:
1. All bases contain the _HYDROXIDE_ group, OH-.
2. Bases taste __BITTER__.
3. Bases also conduct __ELECTRICITY__.
4. Bases react predictably with various chemical indicators.
Again, you should not taste bases to see if they really are bitter. Bases can be very dangerous to
handle. They are very destructive to __PROTEIN_, for example, and protein is in your ___SKIN___, your
___EYES__ and your hair. If you have ever tasted soap accidentally, you know what a bitter taste it has.
(Bases are used in the manufacture of soap.)

Some household cleaning products contain bases, and must be handled with great care. For example,
drain and oven cleaners contain ___SODIUM__ hydroxide, a corrosive base. Sodium hydroxide is
sometimes sold under the name ____LYE__. Potassium hydroxide is also used in some drain cleaners.
It is also very corrosive and poisonous. These chemicals must be handled with great care. Goggles and
gloves should be worn when handling drain and oven cleaners.

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Some bases are milder and relatively safe, if used in moderation. For example, a commercial product
called Milk of MagnesiaTM is actually __MAGNESIUM_ hydroxide. It is used in small amounts to
neutralize stomach _ACID____. If you read the label for some underarm deodorants, you will see that
the mild base, _ALUMINUM_ hydroxide, is one of the ingredients.

Salts: Not Just NaCl!!!

You may think that table salt is the only kind of salt there is. Actually, there are whole families of
compounds that are classified as salts. In fact, you can make a salt by adding any acid to any base!

If any acid is added to any base, the H+ from the acid combines with the OH- from the base, and the
two ions form neutral __WATER_ molecules (HOH, or H2O). The __REMAINING_ions form a salt. When
this happens, the reaction is called __ACID-BASE__ __NEUTRALIZATION__. Here are some examples of
salt-formation by neutralization:

Example 1

HYDROCHLORIC ACID + SODIUM HYDROXIDE  SODIUM CHLORIDE + WATER

___HCl____ + ____NaOH__  ____NaCl___ + HOH

The salt is the familiar sodium chloride, NaCl. Notice that this relatively safe compound formed, along
with water, from two highly dangerous compounds. Common salt (NaCl) is used to flavour foods. It is in
your blood and other body fluids.

Example 2

SULPHURIC ACID + CALCIUM HYDROXIDE  CALCIUM SULPHATE + WATER

__H2SO4___ + __Ca(OH)2_____ __CaSO4___ + 2HOH

The salt formed in this reaction is calcium sulphate. This is the salt in __GYPSUM__, a common building
material used in drywall.

Example 3

SULPHURIC ACID + MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE  MAGNESIUM SULPHATE + WATER

__H2SO4___ + __Mg(OH)2___ ___MgSO4___ + 2HOH

The salt formed in this reaction is magnesium sulphate, which is sometimes sold as __EPSOM__salts
used in a hot bath to ease muscle pain.

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Common soap is a type of salt. Hard soap is made by reacting fatty acids (acids found in animal fat)
with lye (sodium hydroxide). One type of soap is sodium __STEARATE__, made by reacting sodium
hydroxide with stearic acid (a natural fatty acid found in plants and animals). “Soft” soaps are made
using potassium hydroxide instead of sodium hydroxide.

Quick Check
Name the acid and the base that would be used to produce each of these salts:
a) Ammonium nitrate

b) Aluminum sulphate

c) Calcium chloride

d) Potassium carbonate

e) Sodium acetate

Acid –Base Indicators

What is pH?
Testing the pH of a solution is a way of measuring its concentration of _HYDROGEN_ ions, H+(aq). The
pH scale is a number scale that indicates how acidic or basic a solution is. __ACIDS____ have a low pH
below ____7___ and _____BASES_____ have a pH _____________ 7. __NEUTRAL__solutions have a
pH of 7. On the pH scale, one unit of change represents a __TEN-FOLD__ change in the degree of
acidity or basicity. For example, a two unit drop in pH is a 10 2 or 100 times increase in acidity.

What are pH indicators?

pH indicators are __CHEMICALS_ that change __COLOUR__ depending on the pH of a solution.
 ___LITMUS__ __PAPER___ can determine whether a solution is acidic or basic. ___BLUE____
litmus paper turns __RED___ in __ACIDIC___ solutions (below pH 7). __RED__ litmus paper
changes to __BLUE__ in a _BASIC__ solution (above pH 7).
 A __UNIVERSAL__ indicator contains a number of indicators that turn different colours
depending on the pH of the solution.
 _PHENOLPHTHALEIN__, __BROMOTHYMOL blue, __INDIGO_ __CARMINE__, _METHYL___
orange, and methyl __RED___ are other pH indicators. Each determines pH within a different
range.
 A digital pH meter or pH computer probe that measures the electrical properties of a solution
can also be used to determine pH.

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Ms. Smedley - Science 10 – Chemistry NAME_________________________

Properties of Acids and Bases - Summary

Some of the properties of acids and bases are compared in the table below.
Property
Taste
CAUTION: Never taste
chemicals in the laboratory.
Touch
CAUTION: Never touch
chemicals in the laboratory
with your bare skin.
Indicator tests
Reactions with some metals,
such as magnesium or zinc
Electrical conductivity
pH
Production of ions
Acid
 Acids taste
___SOUR__________.
Lemons, limes, and
vinegar are common
examples.
 Many acids will
___BURN___your skin.
Sulphuric acid (battery
acid) is one example.
 Acids turn ___BLUE___
litmus paper __RED____.
 Phenolphthalein is
__COLOURLESS__ in an
acidic solution.
 Acids ___CORRODE__
metals.
 Conductive
 _LESS__ than 7.
 Acids form
___HYDROGEN__ (_H+_)
ions when dissolved in
solution.
Base
 Bases taste
___BITTER___. The
quinine in tonic water is
one example.
 Bases feel __SLIPPERY__
 Many bases will burn your
skin. Sodium hydroxide
(lye) is one example.
 Bases turn __RED____
litmus __BLUE_____.
 Phenolphthalein is
colourless in slightly basic
solutions and __PINK___
in moderate to strongly
basic solutions.
 No reaction.
 Conductive
 _MORE_ than 7.
 Bases form
__HYDROXIDE__ (_OH-_)
ions when dissolved in
solution.

What are some common acids and bases?

Formula Name Examples of uses
CH3COOH Ethanoic acid or ACETIC_ _ACID_ In vinegar
H2SO4 SULPHURIC acid Automobile batteries
NaOH Sodium hydroxide Drain and oven cleaners
Mg(OH)2 Magnesium hydroxide Antacids
HCl _HYDROCHLORIC_ _ACID_ Digestion in stomach
KOH Potassium hydroxide In drain cleaners (Drano ©, etc.)
H2C6H6O6 _ASCORBIC_ acid Is Vitamin C
Al(OH)3 Aluminum hydroxide In underarm deodorants.

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Part 3 - Organic Chemistry

FIGURE 4 – The organic compound vanillin

Organic compounds
Before You Read
What do you think of when you hear the term “organic”? Outline your thoughts in the lines below.

What are organic compounds?

Organic compounds are any compounds that contain __CARBON_ (with a few exceptions). All other
compounds are referred to as _INORGANIC___ compounds. In almost all organic compounds, carbon
atoms are bonded to _HYDROGEN___ atoms or other elements that are near carbon in the periodic
table, expecially nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur, phosphorus, and the halogens. Other elements, including
metals and non-metals, may also be present.

The carbon in organic compounds is very versatile as it has __FOUR___ valence electrons. This
property allows it to form complex, branched-chain structures, ring structures, and even in cage-like
structures. Several different methods can be used to model these structures. These include the
__STRUCTURAL__ formula, the ____BALL__ and __STICK___model, and the __SPACE____
__FILLING___ model shown in Figure 5 below.

CH4
Molecular formula
Structural formula Shows a single covalent bond

Ball-and-stick model

Space-Filling model
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FIGURE 5 – Different models for methane
 Ms. Smedley - Science 10 – Chemistry NAME_________________________

To recognize a compound as organic, look for an indication of the presence of carbon in its name,
chemical formula, or diagram. However, there are a few exceptions to this rule. Certain compounds
that contain carbon are classified as inorganic carbon compounds. These include any compounds that
contain __CARBONATES__, (i.e., CaCO3); _CARBIDES___, (i.e., SiC); and __OXIDES__ (i.e., CO2, CO).

What are some common organic compounds?

Two common organic compounds are hydrocarbons and alcohols.
1. Hydrocarbons: a hydrocarbon is an organic compound that contains __ONLY____ the elements
_HYDROGEN___ and ___CARBON_. The simplest of all organic compounds is the hydrocarbon
molecule called ___METHANE_ (CH4) which consists of a carbon atom bonded to four hydrogen
atoms. Other hydrocarbons are formed by linking two or more carbons together to make a
chain. The first five hydrocarbons are given in the table below.
Table 3 – Five simple hydrocarbons
Name Molecu- Structural Formula Shortened Space-Filling Model Common Uses
lar Structural
Formula Formula
__METHANE_ CH4 CH4 Natural Gas
Heaters

_ETHANE__ C2H6 CH3CH3 Anti-freeze

_PROPANE__ C3H8 CH3CH2CH3 Camp fuel

_BUTANE___ C4H10 CH3CH2CH2CH3 Hand-held

lighters

__MENTANE__ C5H12 CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3 Component

of gasoline

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2. Alcohols: An alcohol is one kind of organic compound that contains C, H, and O in a specific
structure. The table below shows some common alcohols.
Name Molecular Structural Formula Shortened Space-Filling Model Common Use
formula Structural
Formula
_METHANOL_ CH4O CH3OH  Solvent

_ETHANOL__ C2H6O CH3CH2OH  Fuel

_ISOPROPYL__ C3H8O (CH3)CH2OH  Sterilizer

Alcohol  Cleaner

The end of the Chemistry Unit!!!!! (However you will be using this info in the next units as well!)

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