Production Mechanism

IFP-SCHOOL
By Khaled Madaoui
February 2004
Reservoir Engineering Courses – K. Madaoui - 2004

Production Mechanisms
· Natural drive (or primary recovery)
· Immiscible fluid injection (or secondary recovery)

- Water injection
- Gas injection
· Enhanced oil recovery methods (or tertiary recovery)

- Miscible process
- Chemical process
- Thermal process

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2
PRODUCTION MECHANISMS
OIL FIELD DEVELOPMENT
-FIELD RATE :3 STEPS or PERIODS

1-Build-up
2-Plateau(or peak)
3-Decline(then abandonment)
-SEQUENCE of PRODUCTION MECHANISMS(generally)

1-Natural depletion
2-Pressure maintenance(water or immiscible gas
injection)
3-Enhanced Oil Recovery

3
Fundamentals of Reservoir Engineering
Typical Oil Reservoir Performance
History Prediction
Np
Build-up Plateau Decline

Limiting
water cut
Av.Res.Pressure
Qwi
Plateau life Qo
GOR
WOR

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4
Introduction to Reservoir Engineering
Reservoir Engineering Studies
ØOBJECTIVES : Predict Futures Performances

from:
FA set of data
FA set of mathematical relations (to

quantify the physical mechanisms)
FSome production history (rates and

pressures vs.time)

5
Role of Reservoir Engineering Department
F Propose realistic scenarios of development
F Define,for each scenario,the field production

profiles:Rates(oil,gas,cond.,LPG,water)vs time

6
Oil Field Development

F OOIP = one unique figure but uncertainties (RV, ø, SWI)
F Several possible development scenarios

- Each scenario Ù 1 predicted production profile
- Limit number of cases to realistic ones
- Prudence, flexibility, adaptability
- Recommended scenario = economics (compare NPV ’s)

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7
Typical Oil Field Performances
DNP
NP
Field Oil Rate
WATER-CUT
NATURAL WATER
DEPLETION INJ.
(30%) (+ 15%)
3rdTYPE
IRM (+ 5%)
EOR
(+ 10%)
Aband.
Rate
Diagnosis Time Years

8
Oil Recovery Methods
• Conventional Methods
§ Natural Energy «Primary»
§ Water Injection «Secondary»
• Unconventional Methods
Improved Oil
Recovery
§ E.O.R.* Gas Injection

Chemical Processes «Tertiary»
Thermal Processes
§ Other «Technics» Horizontal Drilling
Improved Reservoir Management
Frac., Etc.
*Change in Physico-chemical Characteristics

9
RESERVOIR ENGINEERING STUDIES
QUANTIFY=CALCULATE
WELL RATES qoi
i=n
for different
FIELD RATES= Qofield= S qoi scenarios
i=1
RESERVES= S Qofield = S (Sqoi)

t=0

10
Introduction to Reservoir Engineering
OIL RATE PARAMETERS
FROM MACROSCOPIC TO MICROSCOPIC SCALES
Stock Tank
Pwh Separator
flowlines
mm to cm
~100 mm
X Km’s
Pr Pwf

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11
WELL RATE PARAMETERS
FOR A GIVEN PRESSURE GRADIENT Pr-Pwf,OIL RATE IS

AFFECTED BY:
1- Porous network geometry

pore bottleneck sucession(concept of absolute permeability)
2- Presence of other fluids

water only and/or water+gas (concepts of effective and relative
permeability)
keo=f(kabs,Sw,Sg) kro=keo/kabs=f(Sw)
3- Fluid viscosity
for pressure gradient and keo fixed, the higher the viscosity,
the lower the rate(concept of mobility)

12
Oil Well Rate Parameters
OIL RATE qo=PIx(Pr-Pwf)
Pr=f(net withdrawal)
DPtubing
Pwf = Pwh+
Pwh= Patm.+ DP sep/trait.+ DP flowlines
Increasing choke size lower Pwh

lower Pwf increase (Pr-Pwf )

13
Oil Well Rate Parameters
1-PRESSURE GRADIENT = Preservoir- P well flowing
2-PRODUCTIVITY INDEX PI
INCLUDES ROCK,FLUID ,WELL PARAMETERS:
PI=f(keoh, visc.,Bo,re,rw,s,flow regime)

14
Field and Well Rate Parameters
keffective to oil
a kakro(Swi+g)h
qoi= x (Pr-Pwf ) = PIx (Pr-Pwf )
moBo[Lnre/rw +s-0.75]
n n
Qo ( field) = S
i=1
qoi = S{PIx(Pr-Pwf)}
i=1
= (Pr-Pwf)Si=1x (PI)i
Minimum value for natural flow
Average reservoir pressure at time t

15

16
Production Mechanisms - Initial Conditions
Pi at datum
RV ´ Æ ´ (I - S wi ) PV ´ Soi
Ni = å =
Boi Boi
G+W
GOCi
O+W
WOCi
0 Swi 100%/Sw
W W

17
Reservoir perturbations caused by drilling
Drilled Well
Pressure Gradient
Fluid Movement
Production
Pressure Decline
Expansion Capacity
Saturation Changes
Rock / Fluid Characteristic Changes

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18
Possible Status During Development
Prod.r Prod.r Prod.r Prod.r
Gas invaded zone : Sorg, krog

GOCi
Oil zone : Soi (PCDr.)
Water invaded zone : Sorw,krow
WOCi
Coning At t
t n
· Np = S Sqoi
· Pr < Pi
· Saturation changes
· X phase flow (O, W, G)
· End saturation

19
Cumulative Production and Reserves
CUMULATIVE PRODUCTION Np at any TIME t
= ORIGINAL OIL IN PLACE
minus OIL LEFT IN SWEPT ZONES ( Sor)
minus OIL LEFT IN UNSWEPT ZONES ( Soi)

t n
Np = S [ S qoi ]
t=0 i=1

20
Ultimate Reserves
F Cumulative production at abandonment conditions or

at a fixed date
F Abandonment conditions º Minimum Field Economic
Oil Rate º
- either limiting water cut
- or high GOR
- or low PReservoir
The individual wells are progressively shut-in as they

reach the limiting conditions

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21
Cumulative Production and Reserves
RESERVES AT TIME t
= ULTIMATE RESERVES (ESTIMATED)
minus CUMULATIVE PRODUCTION at TIME t

22
Status at Abandonment Conditions
GI
Prod.r Prod.r Prod.r Prod.r (high Water Cut, high GOR)
WI WI
GOCi Gas flooded zone : Sorg

Unswept zone : Soi
Water flooded zone : Sorw

WOCi
Concept of minimum economical rate
Concept of efficiencies
Ultimate reserves = OOIP - Oil left in swept zones

- Oil left in unswept zones
= N1 + N2 + N3
23
Ultimate Reserves Technical Parameters
t n a kakro(Sg,Swi)h
Npu = S (Sqoi) = S S PI (Pr-Pwf) PI= m B [Lnr /r +s-0.75]
o o e w
=OOIP - OIL LEFT in SWEPT ZONES

- OIL LEFT in UNSWEPT ZONES
=N1+N2+N3 = PRIMARY+SECONDARY+TERTIARY
TECHNICAL PARAMETERS:
t,n,Pl parameters,Pr,Pwf,Sor,Ev
Sequence of selected production mechanisms

24
Proven (or Proved) Reserves
Estimated Quantities of Hydrocarbon Recoverable

from Known Reservoirs, by Specified Techniques
Under Specified Economical Conditions,with an
acceptable degree of certainty.

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25
Reserve-Probability approache-Some Standards
Qualitative Quantitative
Judgement Probability
Certainety 0.99
Proved 0.90/0.95
Very Likely 0.90
Likely 0.70
(Proved + Propable) Equally Likely / Unlikely 0.50
Unlikely 0.30
Very Unlikely 0.10
Proved + Probable + Possible 0.10/0.05
Excluded 0.01

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26
Recovery Factors
ACCUMULATION :volume of oil or gas originally in place :finite

quantity ,but uncertainties
RESERVES : recoverable oil or gas-at st.cond.-at time t-
RECOVERY FACTOR=RESERVES/ACCUMULATION
RF = It is just a RATIO!!!!
10% < RF < 60% for oil fields
50% < RF< 95% for gas fields
Reserves are attached to a geological model, scenario of
development,calculation methodology, economics, laws and
contracts.

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27
Material Balance (volumes expressed at reservoir conditions)
• Principle
Conservation of Mass
Adjustment of Volumes (at reservoir conditions)
Initial Volume = Remaining Vol. - Vol. Produced + Vol. Entered
• Objectives
- Evaluate recovery in natural drive at different reservoir
pressures
- Determine reservoir pressure versus cumulative
production
- Estimate initial volumes (OOIP or OGIP) from production
history (pressure,production,rock/fluid data)

28
PRODUTION MECHANISMS
NATURAL DEPLETION
(OR PRIMARY RECOVERY)

29
Natural Depletion Recovery Mechanisms
· Rock and fluid expansion

· Solution gas drive
· Gas cap expansion
· Natural water influx
· Gravity drainage
· Combination drive

30
Natural Depletion
IMPLEMENTATION : Just open the well
PERFORMANCES :Reservoir Pressure,

Rates (Oil,Gas,Water,or GOR, WOR )
versus time
LIMITATIONS : - Pressure decline

(economical rate) - Limiting water - cut
- Limiting Gor

31
Material Balance (volumes expressed at reservoir conditions)
• Principle
Conservation of Mass
Adjustment of Volumes (at reservoir conditions)
Initial Volume = Remaining Vol. - Vol. Produced + Vol. Entered
• Objectives
- Evaluate recovery in natural drive at different reservoir
pressures
- Determine reservoir pressure versus cumulative
production
- Estimate initial volumes (OOIP or OGIP) from production
history (pressure,production,rock/fluid data)

32
Natural Depletion - Undersaturated Oil Reservoir
Initial Conditions
O+W
Pi ³ Pb Ni
W W

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33
Natural Depletion - Rock / Fluid Expansion
at initial conditions (to) at t

Np
Pressure Pi (Pb < ) P (< Pi )
Cum. Prod. O Np
rock DRV
oil oil
water DVw water
Ni Boi = RV
12´3Ø ´ Soi NiBoi = (Ni - Np )Bo + DVw + D (RV )
PV
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Natural Depletion - Rock / Fluid Expansion
Material Balance Equation
1) NiBoi ( )
= Ni - Np Bo + DVw + D (RV )
2) Vw = NiBoi
PV ´ S wi = ´ Sw
Soi
DVw
3) DRV
=
=
C w Vw DP = C w S w
NiBoi
Soi
Pi - P ( )
= - DPV = C f (PV )DP
4) Bo - Boi =
C f
NiBoi
Soi
Pi - P ( )
1), 2), 3), 4) Ù NpBo CoB = oi Pi - P ( )
Cef = C NB P -P
ef i oi i ( )
Co So + C w S w + C f
1 - S wi
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35
Rock/fluid expansion – Inactive aquifer-Material balance
Initial Volume = Remaining Vo + Rock and connate

@ Pi @P Water expansion
é é é
Ni Boi DP
NiBoi = (Ni - Np) Bo + (Cr + SwCw) 1- Swi
é é
average compr. original
pore volume
p o eff i oi i r
ceff =(coSo+cwSw+cr)/So=ctotal/So

36
Rock/fluids expansion-Performances and limitations
Performances qo=PIx(Pr-Pwf)
Pi
Pr
Pwf
GOR= Rsi
Min.Pwf
Qo
Pb
Limitations: rapid Pr decline (no pressure support)

Qo decline due to(Pr-Pwf)decline
Concept of minimum economical rate
37
Natural Depletion - Saturated Oil Reservoir
Initial Conditions
O+W
Pi = Pb
W W

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38
Natural Depletion - Solution Gas Drive
Prod. Prod. Prod.
O+G+W
- Pr < Pb
- Inactive aquifer Swirr 100%/Sw
W VP = VO + VGL + VW W
(VP)i = (VP)t
at Pi Ù VP = Voi + Vw
Voi = Vor + Vgl
at P Ù VP = Vo + Vw + Vg
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39
Natural Depletion - Solution Gas Drive-
Saturated oil-Phase diagram-

Pressure
Critical point
Tres, Pres
t1
t2
Separator
Tc
Temperature
40
Depletion Below Pb
Critical Gas Saturation

- Definition : Sg < Sgc Krg = 0
- Use of Kr from displacement process = unreliable
- P > PSgc : monophasic flow (oil)
- P < PSgc : diphasic flow ( oil + free gas)
Development of Gas Phase

- Nucleation: supersaturation + nucleation sites (energy)
- Coalescences: diffusion + supply
- Formation of an elongated gas channel (or "gas finger")
- Gas production

41
Natural Depletion - Solution Gas Drive-Inactive aquifere-
- Gas liberated in the reservoir (Pwf<Pb)
- Gas immobile as long as Sg<Sgc. (Only monophasic oil is

produced).PI affected(kro effect).Only solution gas is
produced at surface.
Qg = Rp x Qo Rp = R s
- At Sgc,part of liberated gas becomes mobile. Diphasic

flow.Both solution gas and liberated gas are produced at
surface.Production GOR (Rp) increases.
Qg = Rp x Qo Rp > Rs

42
Solution Gas Drive possible mechanisms-
Part of the gas liberated in the reservoir below Pb

may move up, due to gravity forces-to create a
secondary gas-cap or supply an existing one-
(balance between gravity,capillary and viscous
forces)
Gas (top reservoir)
Gas
(well)
Oil

43
Solution Gas Drive - Material Balance
CALCULATION OF FREE GAS VOLUME IN THE RESERVOIR at time t
- Total potential gas=NiRsi in standard conditions
- Remaining gas in the reservoir at time t: (Ni-Np)Rs in st.cond.

- Gp:cumulative gas production=Rp x Np= Gps+ Gpl
- Gas balance:
NiRsi= (Ni-Np)Rs +Gp+Vgl/Bg in standard conditions
- FREE GAS VOLUME IN THE RESERVOIR Vgl at time t:

Vgl= (NiRsi- (Ni-Np)Rs –Gp)Bg at reservoir cond.
- Remark on GOR definitions:solution GOR(Rs)-production GOR(Rp)-

instantaneous GOR(Qg/Qo)-cumulative GOR(Gp/Np)-
44
Solution Gas Drive - Material Balance
Initial oil volume = remaining oil at P + freed solution gas

Ni Boi = (Ni - Np) Bo + [ NiRsi - (Ni - Np) Rs - Gp ] Bg
Reservoir performances:
P GOR
GOR
Pb
Psgc
Np/N

45
Solution Gas Drive – Reservoir performances-
P
GOR
Qo GOR
Pb Pres
PSgc Sol.+free gas
Qo
Rsi
Rs
Np/N or time
Limitations:high production GOR due to production of

part of the liberated gas (below Pb )
High GOR(=Qg/Qo) low Qoil

46
Gas-cap gas reservoir - Initial Conditions-
Pi=Pb @ GOCi
RV ´ Æ ´ (I - S wi ) PV ´ Soi
Ni = å =
GcBgi Boi Boi
m=
NiBoi G+W
GOCi
O+W
WOCi
0 Swi 100%/Sw
We~0 We~0

47
Natural Depletion - Gas Cap Expansion
Prod.r Prod.r Prod.r
GcBgi
m= G+W
NiBoi G?
(GOC)i Pi = Pb at GOC
Possible
gas coning Pwf < Pb
Pwf Pwf
O+W
Possible water coning

(OWC)i
W W

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48
Natural Depletion Gas Cap Expansion and Active Aquifer
O+G
Gas
(GOC)i
Gas cap expands
(GOC)t
Gas invaded
zone (Sorg) Pr < Pb
(OWC)t
Water invaded zone (OWC)i
(Sor, Soirr)
Gp = Gps + Gpc + Gpl

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49
Gas - Cap Expansion - Material Balance
Initial oil volume = remaining oil vol at P

+ gas cap expansion
+ freed solution gas
N Boi = (N - Np) Bo + [ (G - Gpc) Bgc - G Bgci ]
+ [ N Rsi - (N - Np) Rs - Gps ] Bg
Performances
P GOR
GOR
Np/N
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50
Material Balance - Gas Cap Drive
1) Necessity to know evolution of Rsi versus depth

(sampling at different depths)
2) While producing, if Kv important, good gas
segregation and GOR = ct = RS below bubble point
3) Good gas segregation maintain pressure in the
reservoir
4) Recovery can reach high values, up to 40 %OOIP

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51
Natural Depletion - Undersaturated Oil Reservoir-
Active aquifer-
1) Many reservoirs are linked to an aquifer >> than the oil

(or gas) field itself
10 to 100 times bigger
2) When Pres , water tends to invade the reservoir
initially oil (or gas) bearing
3) For an efficient drainage, it is important that this water
invade the reservoir regularly

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52
Under saturated oil-Active Aquifer
2 conditions to have an active aquifere:
1)Size(~50 times oil pool size)
2)Permeability(>50-100mD)

53
Natural Depletion - Undersaturated Oil Reservoir
Initial Conditions
O+W
Pi ³ Pb Ni
W W

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54
Natural Depletion - Undersaturated Oil Reservoir-
Active aquifer-Status at time t-
OIL
Oil (+water) Oil (+water)
We
(OWC)t
Pb < Pr < Pi water invaded zone-
Sorw-
(OWC)i
Soi+Sw i= 1 (Sg=0)
W W

55
Under saturated oil-Active Aquifer
NpBo = NBoiCe(Pi – P) + We – WpBw
Reservoir Performances
P LIMITATION:
HIGH WATER-CUT
GOR Pr ~95%
GOR
Np/Ni or time
56
Material Balance - Calculation of Potential Recovery
with Water Entry
· For a pressure drop (Pi-Pr)following Np production

· Assuming Pr > Pb (for sake of simplicity)
a) Oil volume expands
b) Water volume expands
c) Pore volume decreases
d) Aquifer expands water entry We
e) Water production Wp
Oil production = a + b + c + d - e
NpBo = NBoiCe(Pi – P) + We – WpBw

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57
Natural depletion:Active aquifere and gas-cap drive
O+G
Gas
Gas cap expands (GOC)i

(Sorg) (GOC)t
Gas invaded
zone (Sorg) Pr < Pb
(OWC)t
(Sorw)
HIGH PRIMARY RECOVERY

CAN BE OBTAINED

58
Material Balance - Oil Reservoir with Natural Water Flux
Water Production
· Field production does not stop at water breakthrough
Qw
· Field produces very often until watercut ( )
Qo + Qw
reaches 98% (economics)
· Main problem is how to handle water produced
(economics)
· Important for reservoir engineering work to follow water
rise with observation wells

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59
Water Influx - Aquifer Fonction (1)
Examples
1- Steady State (Schiltius) equation
P dWe
Qw = = Jw (Paq - P)
Oil dt
Water Jw : - Theorical value for simple
Paquif = Ct geometries (radial, linear)
- Obtained from history
(by material balance)

60
Water Influx - Aquifer Fonction (2)
2- Unsteady State (Van Everdingen and Hurst)

- Radial system
- P (at wellbore) is constant
- Diffusivity equation
Oil
zone Aquifer is defined by 2 parameters
Ù B = Æ Ct r2 h
Ù (td) = K(t) / m Æ C r2
Parameters can be obtained from We history Ù predictions of We

61
Natural Recovery
Gas Cap Drive and Water Drive Reservoir

62
Gravity Drainage
Expansion of a gas-cap (initial or secondary) creates a

gas invaded zone where So decreases leading to high
oil recovery due to gravity drainage.
Gravity drainage is a recovery process in which the

gravity force is the main mechanism
Delta ro(o/g)sup. à sigma(o/g)
gravity forces sup. à capillary forces
Gravity drainage must be efficient within an economical

time scale good permeability-say sup 100mD-

63
Gravity drainage-Oil saturation decrease in the gas invaded zone
LAB. SAMPLE
h
Initial GOC
Centrifuge
Gas
invaded
zone
GOC Core displacement

limit Sor1 Sor2 So
Field

64
Microscopic Oil Displacement by Water and Gas
Miscible Gas
Injection
Sorg
Lean Gas
Injection
Sorg (t1) Sorg (t2)

Soi
Water
Injection
Sorw Sorg

65
Pore Level Mechanisms - Microscopic Efficiency
Formation of gas-oil interfaces

and oil mobilization
GAS OIL WATER

66
Production Mechanisms - Gravity Drainage (1)
• Driving force is due to the differences of densities between gas

and oil - (more or less) ever present phenomenon
Reservoir factors affecting the process:
- high mobility to oil

- high formation dip.or thick reservoir
- lack of stratification rock
- fractured rock
- high density contrasts

67
Production Mechanisms - Gravity Drainage (2)
Oil recovery up to 70% of O.I.P.

Recovery by gravity drainage >> recovery by solution
gas drive because :
Gas
Gravity drainage
Oil (well)
Gas
Solution gas drive (well)
Oil

68
Natural Recovery -Generalized material balance
Gas Cap Drive and Water Drive Reservoir

69
Generalised material balance equation
O+G
Gas
Gas cap expands (GOC)i

(Sorg) (GOC)t
Gas invaded
zone (Sorg) Pr < Pb
(OWC)t
(Sorw)
Gp = Gps + Gpc + Gpl

70
Rock and
Present Original Freed Gas Net
connate Injected
oil = oil – solution – cap – water – water
– volumes
volume volume gas expansion influx
expansion
(N - N p )Bo = N(Boi ) -
[
(B g )s N ( Rs )i - (N - N p Rs - (G p )s ) - ]
[(G - (G ) )(B ) - G (B ) ]-
p c g c g i
[We -WpBw ] -
é c f + S wi c w ù
N(Boi ) (1 + m) DP ê ú-
ë 1 - S wi û
[W inj Bw + Ginj B g ]
N=
( ) [( ) ][ ]
N p Bo - Rs (B g )s + (G p )s (B g )s - G - (G p )c (B g )c - G (B gi ) - We - W p Bw - W inj Bw - Ginj B g
é c f + S wi c w ù
(Bo - (Boi )) + ((Rsi ) - Rs )(Bg )s + (Boi )DP ê ú (1 + m )
ë 1 - S wi û

Reservoir Engineering Course - KM-BC - 2001- n°0125VDG1A09
71 103
Natural Depletion Recovery Limitations
Rock/Fluid Expansion
· qo limit due to Pr (R.F. - 5% OOIP - 10%OOIP)
Solution GasDrive
· high GOR Sg > Sgc (R.F. - 10% - 20%OOIP)
Gas Cap Drive

· high GOR low qo (R.F. ~ 20%OOIP)
Water Drive
· high WOR low qo
GCD + WD (R.F. up to 60%OOIP?)

72
NATURAL GAS RESERVOIRS
- CLASSIFICATION
- GAS MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION

73
Reservoir Engineering Data
Classification of Natural Gases from Phase Envelope,
Reservoir Conditions and Separator Conditions
Reservoir
Wet gas C conditions
Condensate gas
Gas
PRESSURE
Gas +
Liquid PC C
Initial reservoir
Dew conditions
point
Depleted Gas
PRESSURE
Separator reservoir
TC Gas conditions
Tr +
Liquid
ol .
Reservoir
id v
Dry gas conditions
l i qu
Separator
0%
Gas TC
+
PRESSURE
Liquid Gas TEMPERATURE

C
Separator
TEMPERATURE
TC
74
Gas Reservoir - classification
Gas
CONDENSATE
S
GA
Oil
ar
GAS
nb
T
P
WE
de
on
C
ic
Cr
m
er
th
S
t
en
GA
oin
nd
P
Y
e
ico
DR
bbl
Cr
Bu
int
Po
w
De
Separator
Separator
T
75
Gas reservoir - some definitions
Expansion factor : E
1
Bg =
E
Volume de n moles at reservoir conditions
Bg =
Volume de n moles at standard conditions
Po Vo = Z . n . R . To = n . R . To
Pi Vi = Zi . n . R . Ti
Vi Po Ti
Bgi = = Zi x
Vo Pi To
76
Gas material balance - No water entry
At reservoir conditions,
Initial volume occupied by the gas = volume occupied by
the remaining gas at pressure P
G Bgi = (G - Gp) Bg
Bgi
Gp = G ( 1 - )
Bg
G : initial accumulation at standard conditions
Gp : gas production at standard conditions
Pstd Zi T Pstd Z T
Bgi = Bg =
Pi Tstd P Tstd
Zi P
Hence : Gp = G ( 1 - )
Pi Z

77
Gas material balance - No water entry
P
Z
xx
xx
xx
xx Extrapolation gives
accumulation
Gas produced Gp G
Evolution of P versus Gp
Z
(NO WATER ENTRY)
This assumes that reservoir pressure depletion is the same

for all the reservoir.
78
Gas material balance - water entry
At reservoir conditions : Initial volume occupied by the gas =

volume occupied by the remaining gas at pressure P + water
volume
G Bgi = (G - Gp) Bg + We
or
Gp Bg = G (Bg - Bgi) + We
Gp Zi P We
or = (1- ) +
G Pi Z Bg

79
Gas material balance - water entry
• GBgi = (G - Gp)Bg + We - Wp Bw
• Trapped gas below water front (SGRW)
P
Z
we ¹ 0
active aquifer
relatively inactive aquifer

we = 0
no aquifer
Gas produced Gp
Be aware of wrong evaluation of gas in place if aqifer action is not detected.

Use observation wells.
80
Gas Reservoirs
No aquifer : High recovery (R = 90%)
Aquifer : trapped gas, lower recovery ( R = 70 %and

lower)
· If aquifer is moderate, to increase recovery, producing
quickly is sometimes a good solution
· Necessity of observation wells to monitor water rise
· Need for an evaluation of Sgrw (Log - core)

81
Gas Production : Possible Problems (1)
1- Active (strong)
water drive
A S
G
WATER
R.F æ (60% ?)

82
Gas Production : Possible Problems (2)
2- Gas trapped (saddle)

wells
WATER

83
RESERVES (or CUMULATIVE PRODUCTION)

at ABANDONMENT ECONOMICAL RATE INSUFFICIENT
RESERVOIR PRESSURE DECLINE:KEY PARAMETER

t n t n
Npu = S ( S qoi) = S S PI (Pr-Pwf)
t=0 i=1 t=0 i=1
(Pr-Pwf) DECLINE when Pwf=minimum value for natural flow Pw
PRODUCTIVITY INDEX DECLINE- because of INCREASE of Sw /Sg-
DECLINE of EFFECTIVE OIL PERMEABILITY (kr effect)

84
Rock/Fluid Expansion
· qo limit due to Pr (R.F. - 5% OOIP - 10%OOIP)
Solution GasDrive
· high GOR Sg > Sgc (R.F. - 10% - 20%OOIP)
Gas Cap Drive

· high GOR low qo (R.F. ~ 20%OOIP)
Water Drive
· high WOR low qo
GCD + WD (R.F. up to 60%OOIP?)

85
keffective to oil
kro decline
a kakro(Swi+g)h
n n
Qo ( field) = S
i=1
qoi = S{PIx(Pr-Pwf)}
i=1
= (Pr-Pwf)Si=1x (PI)i
Minimum value for natural flow
Decline of average reservoir pressure

86
FIELD RATE
HOW TO MAINTAIN Qo field?

n n n
Qo ( field) = S
i=1
qoi = S{PI
i=1
x(Pr-Pwf)} = (P -P ) x S (PI)
r wf i
i=1
-1-Increase number of producers

-2-Improve individual PI (acidisation-frac)
-3-Maintain Pr -Water (or gas) injection-
-4-Install artificial lift : allow Pwf to drop below minimum
-5-Do nothing-Qo field decrease-

87
Oil Field Development Methodology
PR
Pwf
Np
Drill more producers

or
Min Pressure Maint or
BHFP Artificial lift
QO
Stimulation
Do nothing
QO
t
- n°0125VDG1A06
88
by Khaled MADAOUI

Water Injection
• Objectives:
- Increase reserves by -reservoir pressure maintenance and
-pushing more oil towards producers
• Factors controlling water-flood efficiency

- Microscopic efficiency
- Macroscopic efficiency
- Mobility ratio
• Water injection patterns

• Optimum level of pressure maintenance

90
Water Injection
• Procedure
Injection of Water into Specialized Wells Source of Water,
Treatment of Water to be Defined
• Timing
Water Injection Implemented after Some Period of Natural
Drive
• Planning
Injection, Locations and Injection Rate to be Optimized

91
SECONDARY RECOVERY
RESERVOIR PRESSURE MAINTENANCE EFFECTS
1- MAINTAINS WELL ERUPTIVITY
2- STOPS OR REDUCES -WATER ENTRIES

-GAS-CAP EXPANSION
-GAS LIBERATION at Pr<Psaturation
3-PUSHES MORE OIL TOWARDS PRODUCERS

92
SECONDARY RECOVERY
RESERVOIR PRESSURE MAINTENANCE MEANS
INJECTED FLUIDS:WATER or ASSOCIATED GAS
SPECIALIZED WELLS-PERIPHERAL or PATTERN
INSURE VOIDAGE REPLACEMENT

(i.e injection rate=production rates at reservoir conditions )
Q fi Bfi=QoBo+QwpBwp+QfgBfg
93
Pressure Maintenance by Water Injection (in aquifer)
and Gas (in Gas Cap)
PRODUCTION
Water Gas Gas Water

injection injection injection injection

94
SWEEP EFFICIENCIES
INJECTED FLUID WILL BREAK-THROUGH
ABANDONMENT CONDITIONS:LIMITING WATER-CUT or

LIMITING GOR(gas inj.)
ONLY PART OF THE RESERVOIR IS SWEPT

Volumetric sweep efficiency < 1
IN SWEPT ZONES,RESIDUAL OIL CANNOT DISPLACED

Microscopic-or displacement-efficiency < 1

95
SWEEP EFFICIENCIES-SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION
WATER vs. GAS INJECTION

Water injector Oil producer Gas injector Oil producer
Soi
Sorg
Sorw Soi

96
Factors Controlling Flood Efficiency
Displacement efficiency
- Connate water saturation
- Relative permeabilities
Areal sweep efficiency
- Mobility ratio
- Well pattern
Vertical sweep efficiency
- Geological model
- Contrast in layer
- Permeabilities

97
Microscopic aspects:Displacement of Oil by Water
Initial state
Oil Sat. = Soi
Intermediate
Final state
Oil Sat. = Sorw
98
Water Injection - Displacement Efficiency (Pore Scale)
Limitations = Capillary Forces
Parameters involved:
- Viscosities: mo, mw
- Densities: ro, rw
- Interfacial tension: s Affects Kr
- Wettability: q and
- Shape and size of pores saturation
- Rate of displacement: (or grad P) (lab scale)
- Capillary / viscous forces: s / mw
Water - wet system : influence of s/mv on SOR negligible
Oil - Wet system : SOR when s/mv
SOR = Residual oil saturation after water injection

99
Pore Level Mechanisms - Microscope Efficiency
· Competition between viscous and capillary forces capillary number:

mU
Nc =
s
Microscopic displacement eff., Em 1.0
PORE SIZE DIST'N

NARROW
AVERAGE
0.5
WIDE
WATER-WET
SYSTEMS
0.0
10-6 10-4 10-2 100
Capillary number, Nc
· Competition between gravity and capillary forces Dombrowski
Brownwell number:
Dr gk
Nb = s
Em for Nb > 10-5
100
Displacement Efficiency
INTERFACIAL TENSION
CAPILLARY FORCES
LIMITATION OF DISPLACEMENT EFFICIENCY

101
Microscopic Displacement : Oil by Water (1)
Water drive leaves residual oil in sand because surface films

break at restrictions in sand pore channels
Water out
Water in
Residual oil
After Courtesy Journal of Petroleum Technology - June, 1958

102
Microscopic Displacement : Oil by Water (2)
Capillary forces cause water to move ahead faster in low

permeability pore channel (A) when water is moving slow through
high permeability pore channel (B)
Oil out
Water in

103
Microscopic Displacement : Oil by Gas
Gas displaces oil first from high permeability pore channels.

Residual oil occurs in lower permeability pore channels
Residual oil
Gas out
Gas in

104
Microscopic Displacement
Natural displacement of oil by water in a single pore channel
Oil out
Water in
Sand Grains

105
Microscopic Displacement
Natural displacement of oil by gas in a single pore channel
Connate water
Oil out
Gas in
Sand Grains

106
Microscopic Displacement- Effect of Wettability
Water Wet
Water Oil
Oil Wet
Water Oil

107
Relative permeability curves
Objectives
Describe 2 and 3 phase flow performances(only tool !)
Predict reservoir performances - Solution gas drive
- Water flood
- Immiscible gas inj.
- Gas - Cap expansion
Methods:direct lab measurement
- 1 - Unsteady - state (room cond.)
W - O, O - W, G - O (Swi= 0), G - O (Swi ¹ 0), G - W
-2 - Steady - state (room cond.)
W - O, O - W, G - W, W – G
Provide(w/o):Swi,kro at Swi,Sorw,krw at (1-Sorw),kr’s vs.Sw

108
Saturation Functions:kr and Pc
2 Capillary pressure
vs. Sw for
water drainage
1.0 and imbibition
IRREDUCIBLE WATER
Water - Oil 1
RESIDUAL OIL
Relative permeability 3
Relative permeability, kro and krw
0.8
IRREDUCIBLE WATER
Wa
RESIDUAL OIL
Capillary pressure Pc = Po - Pw
0.6 t er
Oil drainage
Positive
W
Water
at
er
0.4 im
bi 1
0 bi tio 1.0
n
Negative
0.2
2
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Water saturation, Sw 3
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Water saturation, Sw

109
Relative Permeabilities : Welge method (1)
Experimental procedure
• Plug preparation (measure k and f)

• Plug evacuation and water saturation
• Plug in the cell
• Displacement with oil
– measure collected water
– calculate Swi
– measure flow rate at Swi
– calculate Kro at Swi

110
Relative Permeabilities : Welge method (2)
• Displacement with gas or water

– measure total produced volume vs time
– measure oil produced volume vs time
– when no more oil is produced measure flow rate at Sor to
calculate Krg or Krw at Sor
• Compute Kg / Ko or Kw / Ko (Buckley - Leverett)
• Compute Krg (or Krw) and Kro (Johnson, Bossler,

Naumann)

111
Relative Permeabilities : Three phases
• Relative permeability to the wetting (water) phase is only a

function of the wetting phase saturation.
• Relative permeability to gas is only a function of gas
saturation in most cases.
• Relative permeability to oil is calculated from relative
permeabilities in two phases systems.
Kro (So, Sw, Sg) = (Krow + Krw) (Krog + Krg) - Krw Krg
Krw = water relative permeability at Sw (water-oil system)
Krg = gas relative permeability at Sg (gas-oil system)
Krow = oil relative permeability at Sw (water-oil system)
Krog = oil relative permeability at Sg (gas-oil system)

112
Relative Permeabilities : Buckley - Leverett theory
• Assume : - no gravity effect (little or horizontal plugs)

- no capillary effect (high flow rate)
• Mathematical development presented assumes water-oil case
(equivalent for gas-oil case)
• Fractional flow equation
K Krw dP
qw = m A d
w x
K Kro dP
qo = m A d
o x
q 1
fw = q +w q =
w o m K
1 + w ro
mo Krw

113
Relative Permeabilities Formula (Empirical)
• Do not provide critical and residual S

So - Sor 1 - Sw - Sor
S* = or S* normalized saturation
1 - Sw - Sor 1 - Swi - Sor
Kro Krg or Krw

Sandstones
(homogenous) (S*)3 (1 - S*)3
Sandstones (S*)3.5 (1 - S*)2 (1 - S*1.5)

(heterogenous)
Limestone (S*)* (1 - S*)2 (1 - S*2)

114
Problems Linked with Relative Permeabilities (1)
• Rel perm. is a composite parameter BLACK-BOX

Includes :
- Rock / Fluid interaction
- Fluid / Fluid interaction ( interfacial tension)
- Gravity - Capillary forces
- Heterogeneity (scaling)
nb: Measurements more reliable if conducted at

reservoir conditions with actual reservoir fluids

115
Problems Linked with Relative Permeabilities (2)
• Some people have tried to get rid of relative

permeability : no success !
• Hysteresis (Drainage - Imbibition)
• Relative permeability cannot be obtained directly from

production data (matching parameter)

116
Relative permeability Curves
• Kr curves = not universal

• Kr curves = F (porous medium, fluid cond.)
• Kr curves = f (saturation history) hysteresis
Kr (Dr.) ¹ Kr (Imb.)
• Practical success due to adjustment possibilities
Problems
- Initial choice if no history
- No real scientific support. Global adjustment parameter
only ?

117
Relative Permeabilities
Influence of Wettability
Water Wet Oil Wet
Swi 50 % Sor Swi 50 % Sor

Sw Sw
Values of Swi and Sor

Values of Krw for Sor
Position of the intersection
118
Factors Controlling Flood Efficiency
- Connate water saturation
- Relative permeabilities
Areal sweep efficiency
- Mobility ratio
- Well pattern
- Geological model
- Contrast in layer
- Permeabilities

119
Volumetric sweep efficiency=Eareal*Evertical
- Current lines
- Iso-P lines
I- Areal sweep efficiency II- Vertical sweep efficiency
Ev = Aswept/ A total
Ea = Aswept/ A total
120
Pressure profile between injector and productor
Injector Producer
Pwinj
Pressure
Pr
Sor
Soi Pwf
Qwinj = II (Pwinj-Pr) Qo = PI (Pr-Pwf)

121
Five Spot Injection Pattern
Injectors
Producers
Injector Producer
Cross section
Water flooded zone - Intermediate status Water flooded zone - Final status

122
Mobility Ratio
ko Qo
Oil mobility = =a = aVo
mo A
kw
Water mobility = = aVw
mw
mw
M mobility ratio = = f (relative velocity)
mo

123
Mobility Ratio Concept
– Mobility mi = Ki/mi (proportional to fluid velocity)

– Mobility ratio M =mw
mo
(Relative velocity of the two fluids for a same DP)
– 2 cases: m < 1 or m > 1
Ideal case < 1 M>1
(most frequent case)
Piston like displ. Instabilities
krw (Sor) mo to lower M · ➤ mw (polymers)

M= x
mw Kro(Soi) · ➤ kro (surfactants)
124
Producer well
Area under observation
Injector well
Water flooding: WOR = Instantaneous producing water-oil ratio

Mobility Water
WOR = 0.5 WOR = 2
Ratio = 1.43 Breakthrough
Oil-containing
area
Area
Water sweep
invaded efficiency
area 65% 70.5% 82.2%
Mobility Water
WOR = 0.6 WOR = 4.7
Ratio = 0.4 Breakthrough
Oil-containing
area
Area
sweep
Water efficiency
invaded 82.8% 87.4% 95.6%
area
X-ray shadowgraphs of flood progress in scaled five-spot patterns

125
macroscopic trapping
60 à 90% du volume
Water Oil
macroscopic trapping
30 to 70% volume

126
Water Injection Recovery Volumetric Relationships
W.I. O.I.P. at Oil left in Oil left in

recovery = beginning of W.I. – swept area – non swept area
(STB) (STB) (STB) (STB)
6PV
78
N(wi) =
VR ´ Ø ´ (I - Swc ) VR ´ Ø ´ Ev ´ Sor VR ´ Ø ´ (I - Ev )´ I - Swc
- -
( )
b1 b1 b1

127
Water Injection Efficiency
Water-flood recovery = Areal sweep efficiency

x
x

128
Water Injection Recovery
R = Ed x Ev x EA
Ed = Displacement efficiency
Ev = Vertical efficiency
EA = Horizontal efficiency Volumetric efficiency = EA x EV
Order of magnitudes
Ed = Soi - Sor = 0.6 @ Swi = 10%
Soi 0.5 @ Swi = 30%
0.3 @ Swi = 50%
Evert = 0.4 if non-communicating layers
1 in homogenous reservoir
EA = f (mobility ratio)
use abacus for rapid estimate

129
Effect of Mobility Ratio
On the displaceable volumes On sweep efficiencies for the five-

injected for the five-spot pattern. spot pattern. Fw is the reservoir cut
M = gw/ go* (after dyes, caudle, and and M = gw/ go* (after dyes, caudle, and
Erickson, Trans. AIME) Erickson, Trans. AIME)
100 Displacement
100
Sweep efficiency percent
volumes
Sweep efficiency percent

injected Fw
90 2.5 90 95
2.0
1.75 90
1.4
80 1.2
80
80
1.0
0.9 70
70 70 60
h
0.75
o ug 50
hr
60 kt 60
40
r ea 30
l B 20
a
Ini ti 0
50 50
0.1 0.2 0.4 2.0 4.0 10 0.1 0.2 0.4 2.0 4.0 10
Reciprocal mobility ratio 1/M Reciprocal mobility ratio 1/M
kw k
* ( γw = , γo = o )
mw mo
130
How and Where Injecting Water ?
THE PATTERN
- The peripheral injection
- The direct and staggered line-drive
- The five spot
- The seven spot
- The nine spot
- Special patterns (two, three, four spot)

131
Field water injection rate- Number of injectors
• Qwinj Bwinj = QoBo +( Qwp Bwp) +( Qfg Bfg)
• Average qwinj per injector = II (Pwinj - Pr)

Pr @ time t to be maintened by water injection
• Rough estimate of no. of injectors = Qwinj / qwinj
• Remarks :
Phydrostatic £ Pwinj < Pfrac
Pfrac = frac gradient x depth
(frac gradient ~ 0.65 psi/ft-0.70psi/ft)
Phydrostatic = water gradient x depth
(water gradient ~ 0.45 psi/ft-0.47psi/ft)
132
Water injection pattern selection
• Water injection objectives :

=> Insure pressure maintenance => Qwinj
=> Insure good volumetric sweep efficiency
=> increase number of injectors?
• Economical optimization is the key issue

Number and location of injectors to be decided to
optimize volumetric sweep efficiency i.e reserves

133
Pattern selection criteria
• Peripheral injection for :

- structure with reasonable dip (to benefit from gravity)
- rather good permeability
• Pattern injection for :

- low dip formation
- low permeability formation

134
Peripheral Water Injection
Water Producer
injector
Oil water contact
Injector
Producer

135
Flooding Patterns
Injection well
Production well
Pattern boundary
TWO-SPOT THREE-SPOT
REGULAR FOUR-SPOT SKEWED FOUR-SPOT FIVE-SPOT SEVEN-SPOT INVERTED SEVEN-SPOT
NORMAL NINE-SPOT INVERTED NINE-SPOT DIRECT LINE DRIVE STAGGERED LINE DRIVE

136
Classical Waterflood Patterns (1)
Well spacing
Row of producers Distance

of injector
to producer
Row of injectors
Line drive
Well spacing
Distance
Row of producers of row
of injector
to row
of producer
Row of injectors
Staggered line drive

137
Classical Waterflood Patterns (2)
Five spot
Well spacing
Distance
of injector
to producer

138
Depletion Above Pb Optimum Level of W.I.
Pressure Maintenance
· Generally P maintained at P > Pb
· Oil FVF = maximum @ Pb minimum volume of

stock tank oil left
· Oil viscosity minimum at Pb mobility ratio minimum

139
Depletion Below Pb
Critical Gas Saturation

- Definition : Sg < Sgc Krg = 0
- Use of Kr from displacement process = unreliable
- P > PSgc : monophasic flow (oil)
- P < PSgc : diphasic flow ( oil + free gas)
Development of Gas Phase

- Nucleation: supersaturation + nucleation sites (energy)
- Coalescences: diffusion + supply
- Formation of an elongated gas channel (or "gas finger")
- Gas production

140
Supplemental recovery (water displacing oil)
Production well
Injection well
1.0
Sgr Sgr Sg
Saturation Sor
Sob
So
Swf
Swc Swc Swc

0
Flooded out Oil bank Reservoir
reservoir area unaffected
(as yet) by flood
Sgr – Residual gas saturation
Sor – Residual oil saturation
Sg – Gas saturation due to primary depletion Distance
So – Oil saturation after primary depletion
Sob – Oil bank oil saturation
Swf – Water saturation added by injection

141
Saturation Profile During a Waterflood in a Depleted
Reservoir When a Trapped Gas Saturation Exists
TRAPPED GAS
INITIAL GAS
Fluid saturation scale
SATURATION
OIL BANK INITIAL OIL

INVADING SATURATION
WATER BANK
CONNATE WATER
Distance

142
Waterflood Efficiency vs Sgi
70 Sgr Ro
60
Sor Sgr % PV, Ro = Np / N %
50
40
Sor
30 Displaced gas
20
Sgr
10
0
0 10 20 30
Sgi % PV
143
ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY PROCESSES
CONTENTS
-1-INTRODUCTION
EOR world potential-
-2-THERMAL PROCESSES
-Steam injection –Air injection
-3-CHEMICAL METHODS
-Polymers and Surfactants
-4-GAS INJECTION as a promising EOR process

-Specificities,Mechanisms,Efficiencies,Selection criteria,Ratios,Methodology to
conduct a GI project
-5-CONCLUSIONS: EOR vs R&D

145
Typical Oil Field Performances
DNP
NP
Field Oil Rate
WATER-CUT
NATURAL WATER
DEPLETION INJ.
(30%) (+ 15%)
3rdTYPE
IRM (+ 5%)
EOR
(+ 10%)
Aband.
Rate
Diagnosis Time Years

146
Ultimate Reserves and Recovery mechanism sequence
Npu =N1+N2+N3 at economical abandonment conditions
=N1+(Ni-N1)[EdxEvol]water+(Ni-N1-N2)[EdxEvol]gas
How to optimise Npu?How to combine N1,N2,N3?

Main parameters?
N1(nat.depl.) :identification-limitations-duration
N2(water inj.) :limitations-implementation-duration
N3 (EOR) :process selection-implementation

147
Tertiary Recovery Objectives
PRODUCE-ECONOMICALLY- PART OF OIL LEFT BY

CONVENTIONAL RECOVERY METHODS
– Improvement of displacement efficiency

decreasing Sorw
miscible or near miscible gas injection
chemical flood-surfactants
increasing gravity forces
oil vaporization
– Improvement of volumetric sweep efficiency

lowering mobility ratio by increasing mw
chemical flood - polymers
reducing mo
thermal flood

148
Microscopic and Volumetric Sweep Efficiencies
Example of Five Spot Injection Pattern-
Soi
Injectors
Producers
Injector Producer
Cross section
Sorw
Water flooded zone - Intermediate status Water flooded zone - Final status

149

mU
Nc =
s
PORE SIZE DIST'N

NARROW
AVERAGE
0.5
WIDE
WATER-WET
SYSTEMS
0.0
10-6 10-4 10-2 100
Brownwell number:
Dr gk
Nb = s
Em for Nb > 10-5
150
Water Injection Efficiency
Water-flood efficiency = Areal sweep efficiency

x Vertical sweep efficiency
xDisplacement efficiency
Limitations: Ed<1 Sorw = 0
Eareal<1 f(pattern,mobility ratio)
Evertical<1 vs.layer contrast

151
Limitations of conventional methods-
Recovery by conventional methods=
Natural depletion +Water injection recovery
=N1+N2
=N1+(Ni-N1)xEdispl.XEvol.
Soi-Sorw
Ed= <1 ~60% Oil left in swept zones
1-Swi
Evol<1 ~0.4 to 1 Oil left in unswept zones

152
Enhanced Oil Recovery Methods
Enhanced Oil Recovery

IMPROVEMENT OF IMPROVEMENT OF
VOLUMETRIC DISPLACEMENT
EFFICIENCY Evol EFFICIENCY Ed
OIL VISCOSITY INCREASE WATER REDUCE INTERFACIAL OIL

INCREASE
REDUCTION VICOSITY TENSION VAPORIZATION
GRAVITY FORCES
GAS INJECTION
SURFACTANT MISCIBLE NEAR MISCIBLE
HC,CO2,N2,AIR,… IMMISCIBLE LEAN
GAS INJECTION
STEAM INJ.(LIGHT OIL)
HEAVY OIL POLYMER
STEAM INJECTION
Lean gas injection
IN-SITU COMBUSTION
(HC,N2,CO2,AIR,..)
Stable displacement

153
Mechanism Order of magnitude of

recovery factor
I- Oil reservoirs
Natural depletion only 5 to 20 %OOIP
ND+Water depletion 30 to 50 %OOIP
ND+WI+Enhanced oil 50 - 65 %OOIP
recovery
II- Gas reservoirs 60 - 90 % OGIP

Natural depletion

154
EOR contribution in the world oil production
ESTIMATION* YEAR 2000
THERMAL 1.0 to 1.5 MMstb/d
CHEMICAL 0.3 to 0.7 MMstb/d
GAS INJECTION 3.5 to 4.5 MMstb/d
EOR PRODUCTION 5 to 7 MMstb/d(out of more than 70MMstb/d)
(*from 1995 data+personal extrapolation)

155
World Oil reserves estimates( P.R.Bauquis-2000-)
-Conventional reserves ( billion stb )

Initial 1800 to 2500
Cumulative production 800 800
Remaining to be produced 1000 to 1700
-Non conventional reserves

(economically recoverable at year 2030 horizon)
Deep offshore(below 500m water depth) 100 100
Ultra heavy oil(50/50 Orinoco and Athabasca) 600 600
GasToLiquids conversion 100 100
-Overall reserves 1800 to 2500

156
TENTATIVE ESTIMATE of EOR POTENTIAL
YEAR 2000 ROUGH WORLD RESERVE‘’GUESTIMATE’’
CONVENTIONAL RESERVES *: 1000 billion stb

(for an initial oil in place of >3500billion stb)
1% recovery factor improvement~35 billion stb !
UNCONVENTIONAL RESERVES:
Deep offshore:100 billion stb
Heavy oil :600 billion stb
*onshore+offshore( less than 300 meters water depth)

157
TENTATIVE ESTIMATE of EOR POTENTIAL
CASE of MATURE or AGEING OIL FIELDS

(more than 20 years old and/or in declining phase)
-75% of the conventional reserves located in mature fields
-70% of the world production from fields of >20years

old,majority of them started their decline phase(generally
increasing water-cut)

158
ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY

159
Heavy oils
a kakro(Swi+g) h
High viscosity Low PI Low or Uneconomical oil rate

160
Thermal Flood
HEAVY OIL(°API<20-25)=HIGH VISCOSITY(10 to > 106 cpo)
=LOW PI =LOW or VERY LOW RATE
F Methods:Increase reservoir temperature

Steam Injection
In-situ Combustion
F Effect
Reduction of oil viscosity due to heating effect

161
Heavy Oil : a mix of heterogeneous denominations
Confusing heterogeneous denominations :

- Heavy Oil, Extra Heavy Oil, Oil Sands, Tar Sands, Bitumen,
….
è need for a simple classification
4 Classes based mainly on downhole viscosity :

0 A Class : Medium Heavy Oil 25°> d°API > 18°
100 cPo >m > 10 cPo, mobile at reservoir conditions
0 B Class : Extra Heavy Oil 20°> d°API > 7°
10 000 cPo >m > 100 cPo , mobile at reservoir conditions
0 C Class : Tar Sands and Bitumen 12°> d°API > 7°
m > 10 000 cPo, non mobile at reservoir conditions
0 D Class : Oil Shales
Reservoir = Source Rock, no permeability
Mining Extraction only

162
Heavy Oil (excluding Oil Shales) : 3 Main Categories
Heavy Oil Classification

10 000 000
Wabasca
Athabasca
1 000 000
C Class :
Tar Sands & Bitumen
Downhole Viscosity (Cpo)
Canada
100 000 Peace river

Cold lake
B Class :
Upper & Lower Ugnu
Extra Heavy Oil
Cat canyon
10 000
Eljobo Boscan Poso creek
Yorba linda
Fazenda bele m
A Class :
Llancanelo
Orinoco Belridge
Alto do rodrigues 2
KernLloyminster
river Medium
1 000 Mormora mare Grenade
Tia juana Midway
Bressay
Morichal
Estreito Heavy Oil
SaragoBati
mareraman Mariner (H) Alto do rodrigues 1
Pilon Bechraji
Mount poso Duri
Rospomare Qarn alam
Varade ro Balol
100 Bachaque ro Emeraude u
Captain
Marine r (M) Shoonebe ck
Boca de Jaruco
West sak
u
Lacq Sup.
10
uDalia
0,0 5,0 10,0 15,0 20,0 25,0
uTempa Rosa
API Density (11-23°API)

163
164
165
Thermal Methods :
s
t Steam Injection
e
F Steam : Good Heat a Carrier
T ö mmo ø
Oil Mobility Increases
i
Steam DistillationnProcess in Zone 1 :
Light Oil Vapor
j Condenses and Enriches Existing Oil
Reduction
e on Sor Thanks to Solvent Slug
F Application : c
Max Depth = 1500t M (Heat Losses)
So > 50 % i
Thick Pay, High Ko
Cheap Steam n

166
Thermal Methods
Steam Injection
Steam Producer
Injection
Steam
Hot Water Zone

sed
e n
n d am Oil & Water
e
Co St
Schematic Representation of in Situ Combustion Process and
the Various Zones as Formed in the Oil Reservoir

167
Thermal Methods
Cyclic Steam Injection Process Scheme
Steam injection Soak period Produced fluids
Viscosity
Heat Heat
Steam Steam Low
Cond. oil
water
Viscous oil Viscous oil Water

168
Thermal Methods
Cyclic Steam Injection

Producer Producer
Heat
d zone
te
m affec
Stea
Heat
w
n al flo
ita tio
G ra v
Cyclic Steam Stimulated Producers with Drainage Area

Overlapped and Gravitational Effect in Place

169
Thermal Methods
In Situ Combustion
F Application :
Depth : Not to Shallow
mo : Less than 5000 cp
So : > 30 %
Reservoir : Sandstone

170
Thermal Methods
In Situ Combustion
F Oil is Ignited around Well Bore
F Burning Front Sustained by Continuous Injection of Air
F A Small Portion of the Oil is Burned
F The Heat Generated
· Reduces Oil Viscosity
· Produces Miscible Fluids
· Increases Sweep Efficiency
· Reduces Oil Saturation
F Continuous Air Injection Develops Efficient Gas Drive Mechanisms

171
Thermal Methods
Air Injection
Air Producer
Injection
Combustion front
Burned rock ne
r zo o ne
p o . z
Va ndens
Co
Oil bank
Schematic Representation of in Situ Combustion Process and
the Various Zones as Formed in the Oil Reservoir

172
Air Injection
Mechanisms : Oil + Flue Gas
F Reservoir Pressure Maintenance / Repressurization
F Gravity Stable Displacement
F Oil Swelling
F Miscibility - Flue Gas / Reservoir Oil

173
Air Injection
Mechanisms
FLUE GAS
Air + Oil + Water
N2 + Oil Oil Stripping Hc Gas + Stripped Oil
+
N2 LTO Co, Co2
+ others
O2 + Oil Oxydation Temperature Oil Vaporization

(Oil Composition
and Res. Temp.) HTO Co, Co2

+ others
WATER
STEAM

174
Air Injection
F Oxygene Oil Reactivity vs Reservoir Temperature

F Possible Spontaneous Oil Ignition and Complete Comsumption
F Two Classes of Oxidation Reactions :
1- Low Temperature Oxidation (LTO) : up to 250 / 300° C
Polar Compounds : Alcohol, Ketone, Aldehyde, Ester
CO + CO2
2- High Temperature Oxidation (HTO) : from 300 / 350° C
to 500 / 600° C
Combustion of Coke
CO2
F Between LTO and HTO : Oil Cracking ? C+H

175
Air Injection
Experimental Programme : Simulations

F Simulations with Therm (SSI)
F Reaction Stoichiometry for Combustion
1- C11+ + 23.54 O2 21.66 COX + 11.91 H2o + Heat
2- PS4 + 8.39 O2 7.72 COX + 4.25 H2o + Heat
3- PS3 + 4.35 O2 4 COX + 2.2 H2o + Heat
F Reaction Rates Based on Arrhenius Equation
K = A exp (-E / RT)
F Thermal Constants
- Heat of Reaction
- Rate Constant
- Activation Energy

176
Model Therm Features
Temperature, Composition computed for each cell at each time step
F Temperature Computation Includes :

- Heat from surrounding cells by CONVECTION
- Heat from surrounding cells by CONDUCTION
- Heat from surrounding cells by RADIATION
- Heat from the cell itself
Heat of Reaction in the grid block (reaction r)
F Composition Computation Includes :

- Darcy Flow
- Composition Changes in the grid block due to
Chemical Reactions

177
Air Injection
O2 content %
Temp. °C
600
20 400
10 Tres

178
Legend
O2 + flue gas + heavy ends
Thermal front (water + oil vaporisation

+ oxydation Ù CO + CO2
+ LTO (alcool, aldehyde, ester)
Flue gas + some visbreaking
(N2 + CO + CO2 + HC) Steam + vaporised oil + flue gas + fuel oil
(heavy)
Oil Vaporized oil + flue gas + condensed water +
fuel oil
Steam Condensed oil + flue gas + condensed water

+ fuel oil
Water Oil rim + flue gas
Sorw + flue gas
Sorw

179
"Heavy Oils" : Wordwide OiI In Place
Worlwide Oil in Place : # 4,600 Gb Oil Shales (D)

700 Gb (15%)
Medium Heavy Oil (A)

Canada 36% 1683 360 Gb (8%)
Venezuela 27% 1284
USA 14% 662
CEI 8.7% 400
Mid.-East 5.3%245
Africa 2%110
Others 7% 272
Tar Sands & Bitumen (C) Extra Heavy Oil (B)

1,940 Gb (42%) 1,600 Gb (35%)

180
"Heavy Oils" : Resources of 4000 to 5000 Gb (OIP)
Potential Reserves depends on recovery factors
Considerable Potential Reserves : # 500 to 1000 Gb

equivalent to 50-100% of worldwide conventional oil reserves
5 to 10 times (?) the ultra-deep offshore potential reserves
mainly (80%) in extra heavy oil, tar sands and bitumens
mainly (80%) in North and South America
less than 1% produced or under active development
Heavy Oil Reserves Light Oil Reserves
270 310 260
Venezuela Canada Saudi Arabia

181
Huge Untapped Resources in Orinoco and Athabasca
54,000 km2
45,000 km2
ALBERTA
Athabasca
Fort
Mc Murray
Peace River
Cold Lake
Edmonton
Cretaceous
Lloydminster Oil Sands
Cretaceous
Calgary Heavy Oils
SINCOR SURMONT
OPCO SAGDPilot
Extra Heavy Oils Tar Sands & Bitumen

(µ < 10,000 cPo) (µ > 10,000 cPo)
Oil in place: 1,200 Gb Oil in place: 1,300 Gb
(PDVSA estimates) (EUB estimates)

182
The Orinoco Belt Deposits:
a New Saudi Arabia?
First exploration campaigns in the 1930’s
One of the largest extra heavy crude oil deposits in the
world Orinoco
54,000 km2
1,200 Bbls oil in place
Recoverable reserves
• 100 Bbls
• Estimated potential reserves of around 300 Bbls (post 2020)
• Extra heavy crude oil (8 - 10° API), with high sulfur content
• Shallow sand reservoirs
Saudi Arabia conventional oil reserves estimated around
260 Bbls (O&GJ)
183
Cold Production Scheme
Electrical Submersible
pump
550 m
m
0
20
1 400 m

184
SINCOR FIELD - Reservoir model parameters
Parameters (fluvial)
Permeability : 20 D
Kv/Kh: 0.1
Sgc: 6.5 %
Cp 10 E-6psi-1
Viscosity @ Pbp 2000 cP
Skin 0
Constraints
Maximum pump rate 2000 blpd
Water-cut max 95%
185
SAGD Process

186
SAGD Process
Bitumen is solid at reservoir conditions

Preheating phase needed to establish hydraulic communication
Steam injection and production of condensed water and mobile oil
Horizontal well pair
Steam flows to Heated oil and

interface and condensate flow
Oil reservoir condenses to well
Production well,
Steam oil and condensate are
injection well drained continuously
VERY HIGH OIL RECOVERY IN THE DRAINED ZONE (> 60 %)

187
ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY

188
Surfactant - Polymer Injection
F The Process is Conducted in Two Steps :

Injection of the Surfactant Slug
Injection of the Polymer Mobility Buffer
F Surfactant Aim
Lower Interfacial Tension between Oil and Water
Displace Oil that cannot be Displaced by Water Alone
F Polymer Aim :
Provide Mobility Control for More Effective Piston - Like
Displacement

189
Chemical Flood Polymers
F Method
Addition of Polymers to Water Being Injected
This is Done in Conjunction with Surfactants
Polymers : Organic Materials Soluble in Water
F Effect
Increase of Water Viscosity

190
Chemical Flooding
Polymer Flooding
• Polymer Reduces Water / Oil Mobility Ratio due to mw ö , Kw ø

M 1
Volumetric Sweep Efficiency Improves
Higher Recovery at Breakthrough
• Application :
T < 100 °C
F : Medium to High
K > 100 mD
mo < 100 cp

191
Water Injection Sweep Efficiency
Effect of Polymer Flooding
Water Flooding
Polymer Flooding

192
Chemical Methods
Schematic View of Polymer Flood
Injector Producer
Polymer
Fresh solution Fresh Oil
Water Water
Water

193
WATER INJECTION + SURFACTANTS
ø sOW
MICRO EMULSIONS, ALCOHOL, LPG PLUG
sOW = 0

194
Water Injection + Chemicals
Not Efficient
Difficult at High Temperature with High

Salinity
In Carbonate Reservoirs

195

196
Gas Injection = a Promising Future for E.O.R.
Gas Injection:Objectives
Ø Analyse the traditional misgivings against Gas Injection
Ø Show the decisive improvements in 3 domains :

F Lean Gas Injection
F Near Miscible Gas Injection
F Air Injection
Thanks to : - R & D Achievements

- Gas Injection Active Project Review and Re-study

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198
Optimum Technical Recovery
OIP before injection - OIP after injection

INJECTION EFFICIENCY =
OIP before injection
= Evolumetric x Emicroscopic
OIP left after injection in swept zones (Ev) = Sorg

in unswept zones (1 - Ev) = Soi
Swept zones : EMIC = Soi - Sorg

Soi

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EOR by Gas Injection - Volumetric and Microscopic
Sweep Efficiencies
Oil Oil
Producer Producer
Gas Injector
Oil
Producer
Sorg
Soi

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Nature of Gases and Injection Conditions
Ø Nature :
F Hydrocarbon (Lean, Rich, Enriched)
F Non Hydrocarbon : CO2, N2, Air, Flue Gas
Ø Injected Gas / Rock Fluids Reactions :

F Exchanges (Mass Transfert) = Important or Not
F Thermal Effects or Not (O2 Presence)
Ø Conditions : Secondary or Tertiary Conditions
(Nb : Fractured Reservoirs : Specific Mechanisms)

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HYDROCARBON GAS COMPOSITION
Methane Ethane Propane Butane Pentane …..

CH4 C2H6 C3H8 C4H10 C5H12 …..
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5+
LPG CONDENSATES
LEAN GAS: lean in intermediate components

low liquid content(LPG+CONDENSATES)
C >75% C +<25%
1 2
RICH GAS: rich in intermediate components

fairly high liquid content(LPG+CONDENSATES)
60%<C <75% 25%<C +<40%
1 2
OTHER POSSIBLE COMPONENTS: CO ,N ,H S

Reservoir Engineering Courses – K. Madaoui - 2004 2 2 2
202
– Majority of IOR projects in the world:

Ù Water injection (for conventional oil)
Ù Steam injection (for heavy oil)
– Gas injection: traditional misgivings

Ù Poor sweep efficiency( g/o mobility ratio >>1) and unstable
displacements
Ù High compression cost (vs. Water pumping)
Ù Gas availability (demanding gas market)
– Exception to this "Ostracism":
Ù Us = CO2 injection
Ù Canada = rich gas/Lpg injection
Ù Venezuela (Oriente), Iran (Asmari), Libya (Intissar)
Ù Algeria (Hassi-Messaoud)

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Injected fluids:Gas Specificities( vs.Water)
Ø Exchanges with Oil Need for Equation Of State-

- Better s/Dr ?
- Higher Mobility Ratio
Ø Higher Sensitivity to Reservoir Heterogeneities
Ø Need More Design Optimization

F Enhanced Understanding of Mechanisms
F Sophisticated Lab Experiments
F Compositional Modelling
F Reservoir Characterization

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Benefits of Gas Injection
Krg(Sorg) mo
x >> 1
Gas/oil mobility ratio= Mg/o =
mg Kro(Soi)
F Good Macroscopic Efficency if :
-Gravity Stable Displacement
-Possible Mobility Control by WAG(water alternating gas)

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Tertiary Oil Recovery by Gas Injection
Thermodynamic conditions during oil displacement

– Miscibility
– Partial miscibility
· Vaporizing gas drive
· Condensing gas drive
– Immiscibility
Reservoir conditions
– Secondary
– Tertiary

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Miscibility Diagram for a Reservoir Oil Vs Injected
Gas Composition and Pressure
(At reservoir temperature)
Ethane plus content of injection gas
1 First contact
3 1 miscibility
2 Vaporizing gas
drive miscibility
3 Condensing gas
drive miscibility
4 Immiscible fluids
4
2
Pressure (Log. P)

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Gas injection-Two Domains :
1- Immiscible
Lean Gas (Low Pressure)
Gravity Drainage Dominant
2- Miscible or Near Miscible

Enriched Gas
Lean Gas at High Pressure
(Thermodynamic Exchanges Dominant)

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Microscopic Oil Displacement by Water and Gas
Miscible Gas
Injection
Sorg
Lean Gas
Injection
Sorg (t1) Sorg (t2)

Soi
Water
Injection
Sorw Sorg

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mU
Nc =
s
PORE SIZE DIST'N

NARROW
AVERAGE
0.5
WIDE
WATER-WET
SYSTEMS
0.0
10-6 10-4 10-2 100
Brownwell number:
Dr gk
Nb = s
Em for Nb > 10-5
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Miscibility Diagram for a Reservoir Oil Vs Injected
Gas Composition and Pressure
(At reservoir temperature)
Ethane plus content of injection gas
1 First contact
3 1 miscibility
2 Vaporizing gas
drive miscibility
3 Condensing gas
drive miscibility
4 Immiscible fluids
4
2
Pressure (Log. P)

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EOR by Gas Injection:MMP(Minimum Miscibility Pressure)
Graphical laboratory determination

Slim tube experiments(42ft lenght)
Actual reservoir temperature and actual gas(fixed composition)
6 to 8 points increasing pressure
At 1 PV injected
100%
>90%
At break through
recovery
MMP
-
Pressure(fixed gas composition)
Reservoir Engineering Courses – K. MadaouiP1
- 2004 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6
212
EOR by Gas Injection:MMR(Minimum Miscibility Richness)
Graphical laboratory determination

Slim tube experiments(42ft lenght)
Actual reservoir temperature and actual gas(fixed pressure)
6 to 8 points increasing enrichment
100%
>90%
MMR
recovery
- Enrichment (fixed pressure)
Reservoir Engineering Courses – K. MadaouiR1

- 2004 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6
213
Benefits of Gas Injection
EFFICIENCY= Microscopic Sweep Efficency

x Macroscopic Sweep Efficency
Good Microscopic Efficency (Soi-Sorg)/Soi if :
-Changes in Kr Depending on Capillary Number Nc
-Swelling
-Phase Behaviour
-Miscible or Near Miscible Displacements
Sorg lower than Sorw or Sorg= 0 ?

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Main R & D Achievements
Ø Understanding of Mechanisms
F E.O.S.
F Laboratory
Compositional Simulation
ÚFormulation
ÚUpscaling
ÚResolution
ÚPre and Post Processing

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R & D : Practical Effects
Ø Better Predictions
Ø Possibility to Perform Numerous Sensitivity Runs

Nature of Gas
Richness of Gas
Pressure
Injection / Production Scheme
Optimum Development : Mmp or Mmr ?
Ø Efficiency of Gravity Drainage in Tertiary Conditions

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Which Optimum ?
EFFICIENCIES %
NPV
E MIC
NPV
E VOL x E MIC
MMP
MMR GAS RICHNESS (at FIXED P)
PRESSURE (GAS COMP. FIXED)

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P = 3500 psi P = 3000 psi
Unflooded
Gas flooded zone So = Soi Gas flooded zone
Sorg ~ 0% Sorg = 15%
Soi - Sor
Emic = = 100% Emic = 80%
Soi
Evol = 60% Evol = 80%
Recovery = 60% x 100% = 60% Recovery = 80% x 80% = 64%

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Optimum Technical Recovery
Soi - Sorg 1 at miscible conditions (Sorg = 0)

EMIC = Soi < 1 at non miscible conditions (Sorg ¹ 0)
If EMIC = 1 EVOL x EMIC Maximum ?
Ø Example : Case 1 : EMIC = 1, EVOL = 0.6

Case 2 : EMIC = 0.8, EVOL = 0.8
Case 2 better than Case 1!

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LEAN GAS INJECTION
GRAVITY DRAINAGE MECHANISM

220
Immiscible Lean Gas Injection
None or limited thermodynamical exchanges at fairly low

pressure
Gravity drainage in the gas invaded zone may be very efficient
Gravity drainage is a recovery process in which the gravity force

is the main mechanism
gravity forces > capillary forces
h Drogg > 2 sog cosq / r
Gravity drainage must be efficient within an economical time scale
remark: Drogg > Drowg and sog< sow

221
Immiscible Lean Gas Injection - Gravity Drainage
• Driving force is due to the differences of densities between gas

and oil - (more or less) ever present phenomenon- what ever is
the injected gas:lean,rich,CO2,N2,air,flue gas,…
Reservoir factors affecting the process:
- high mobility to oil

- fairly good permeability
- high formation dip(say>6°)and large oil column
or thick reservoir
- lack of stratification rock
- fractured rock
- high density contrasts
- Preferably water-wet rock

222
223
Tertiary Oil Recovery by Gas Injection
Immiscible gas injection

Ø Field examples of gravity drainage efficiency
Field Sorw Sorg D Recovery
Weeks Islands (US) 22% 2% + 20% OOIP
Hawkins (US) 35% 12% + 20% OOIP
Mile Six Pool (Peru) 37% 19% + 17% OOIP

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Long Core Model Description
11 1- Injection pump
2- Solvents cells
3- Formation water cell
4- Thermo-regulated storage
cell
12
5- Thermo-regulated
2 3 4 5 type cell
6- ------- pressure valve
7- Atmospheric separator
8- Oil recovery device
9- Gasometer
6 11 10- Computer and data
13 acquisition
7 11- Relative pressure sensors
11
12- Differential pressure
--------
1 13- Gas chromotography
8 9 apparatus
10

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Tertiary Oil Recovery from Waterflooded Reservoirs
Sorg S0
Step Initial Water Gas Oil saturation
conditions flood injection measurement
Duration, days 0 2 39 135 169 170
Top = 5%
Oil saturation % PV 78% 26.5% 21.8% 21.2% 19.8% Bottom = 45%
Oil recovey % OOIP 0 66% 72.3% 73.2 74.7%

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Limiting Oil Saturations for Lab Experiments
LAB. SAMPLE
h
Initial GOC
Centrifuge
Gas
invaded
zone
GOC Core displacement

limit Sor1 Sor2 So
Field

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Tertiary Gas Displacement:2 phases Water-Oil relperm
70
60
Oil recovery (% PV)
50
40
30
20 Sim.
Lab.
10
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
PV INJ (water)

228
SECONRADY ASSOCIATED
SECONDARY GAS INJECTION
GAS DISPLACEMENT
OIL/GAS REL.PERM.-SIMULATION OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

OIL RECOVERY,%OOIP
PV
Reservoir Engineering Courses – K. Madaoui - 2004 INJECTED GAS
229
Relative Permeabilities : Three phases
F Relative permeability to the wetting (water) phase is only a

function of the wetting phase saturation.
F Relative permeability to gas is only a function of gas
saturation in most cases.
F Relative permeability to oil is calculated from relative
permeabilities in two phases systems.
Krw=f(Sw only) " So and Sg distribution
Krg=f(Sg only) " So and Sw distribution
Kro at a given So ,depends on how the 2 other fluids
are distributed
Example:
Kro(So=20%,Sw=30%,Sg=50%) # Kro(So=20%,Sw=40%,Sg=40%)
230
Tertiary Gas Displacement
60
Recovery % toip % twip
50
40
30
20
10
PV Inj. (gas)
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
Water prod. Sim. GOR Sim. Oil Sim.

Water prod. Lab. GOR Lab. Oil Lab.
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Tertiary Injection Simulations
Vertical vs Horizontal Displacement

0.5
Oil saturation
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Cell number
Initial Vertical 15 days Horizontal 15 days

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Tertiary Gas Injection Simulation
Oil Saturation Profiles

0.6
0.5
Oil saturation
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Cell number
Initial 3 days 5 days 10 days 15 days
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IN-SITU SATURATION MONITORING
GAMMA-RAY/X-RAY
TERTIARY GAS GRAVITY DRAINAGE
Oil,gas,water production
Oil saturation evolution

234
TERTIARY LEAN GAS INJECTION
EXAMPLE OF 3-D SIMULATION RESULTS ON OIL SATURATION CHANGES
End of waterflood After 10 years of gas injection
Oil saturation scale

235
LEAN GAS INJECTION at HIGH PRESSURE

ENRICHED GAS INJECTION
MISCIBILITY or PSEUDO MISCIBILITY

CONDITIONS

236
Vaporizing Gas - Drive
HPGD
F Multiple Contact Miscibility
F Lean (Separator) Gas (75 to 100% C1) = Continuous Injection
60 to 100% HCPV (10-15 Years)
(Prod Gas Re-injected)
F C2-C6 Transfered from Oil (Light Oil ~ 40° Api) to Gas
F Operating P = > 3000 / 3500 psi
F Projects
- Some 20 Projects
- Large Scale - Long Period
- Mainly Sec. Rec.
- Recovery > 50% OOIP
- Examples : - Hassi Messaoud
- Abu-Dhabi

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Condensing Gas Drive Miscibility
(Enriched Gas Injection)
F Multiple Contact Miscibility (C2 plus transfered from Gas to

Oil-Swelling- )
F Slug Size = 10 to 20% HCPV
F Drive Gas = Lean Gas (Continuous or WAG) = 40 to 60%
HCPV
F Operating P= 1500 to 3000 psi (for 30° Api Oil)
F Projects = - Some 20 Identified 1960's and 1970's
- Several Gravity Stable CGD in Pinnacle Reefs (Canada)
- Secondary Projects Mainly (Oil Gravity = 30 to 50° Api)
- Examples : Rainbow (Alberta)
Intisar (Libya)
- Estimated Incremental Rec : + 15 to 25% OOIP

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Miscible Slug Process (LPG Injection)
F First Contact Miscibility

F Slug Size = 5 to 10% HCPV
F Drive Gas = - Lean Gas (Continuous or WAG) : 50 to
60%HCPV
- Flue Gas
F Some Drawbacks = LPG Expansive
Possible Solvent Dilution
F Operating Pressure = 1200 psi (minimum)
F Projects = - 50 Projects (1950's and 1960's)
- Oil Gravity = 30 to 50° Api
- D Recovery = + 10 to 30% OOIP (above W.F)
- Ratios = 0.5 to 1.5 Stb / Rb LPG
- Examples = Wizard Lake = 84% OOIP

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The Miscible Solvent Slug Method

Injector Producer
Chase H2O Solvent Reservoir

or Gas Slug Oil

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WAG(Water-Alternating-Gas)Displacement Process
Injector Producer
Miscible Gas
WAG (Solvent)
Cycle
Water Reservoir
Oil

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Methodology
Ø Gas Availability in the Vicinity of the Oil Field

Ø Screening Study Using Ratios for Pre- Feasibility Study
Ø Laboratory Experiments on Actual Rocks / Fluids
Ø Numerical Simulations with Compositional Model : 1D, 2D, 3D
Ø Pre-project Studies : Surface and Well Aspects, Capex, Opex,
Economics
Ø Screening Study of Non Hydrocarbon Gases
Ø Pilot or Phase 1 ?
Ø History Matching to Validate the Model. Adjustments.

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Some Ratios for Screening Studies
Ø Injection
F Rate : 5 to 7 % HCPV / Year
F Type : - Continuous for Lean Gas
- Slug for Rich Gas
- WAG
Ø Additional Production
F + 8 to + 15 % OOIP above Water Injection Recovery
(for 10 - 15 Years Project Duration)

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Selection Criteria
Ø Lean Gas Injection Fairly Light Oil (> 30° Api)

(Gravity drainage) Good permeability
Thin formation : dip + hc column
or Thick formation
Ø Rich / Enriched Gas Most reservoirs with light oil

(Near miscible cond.) (> 30° api)
Ø Air Injection into Light Oil - See above

(Add. thermal effects) + Minimum Reservoir Temperature
(Spontaneous Ignition)

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HC GAS INJECTION:COMPOSITIONS AND PRESSURES
COMPOSITIONS
C1~100% C1>75-80% 50-60%<C1<75-80% C3/C4
Methane lean gas enriched gas LPG
GAS RICHNESS
PRESSURES(in the reservoir)

Pfrac > Pwinj > Pres > Pwf
‘MMP’ LPG CO2 CGD VGD N2
Order of magn. 1200 1200/1500 1500/3000 3000/3500 >4000/4500

(psi)

245
AIR INJECTION INTO LIGHT OIL RESERVOIRS
AIR: GAS 79%N2,21%O2 (mole)
-AVAILABLE (at atmospheric pressure)
-FREE

246
Air Injection
Mechanisms
FLUE GAS
Air + Oil + Water
N2 + Oil Oil Stripping Hc Gas + Stripped Oil
+
N2 LTO Co, Co2
+ others
O2 + Oil Oxydation Temperature Oil Vaporization

(Oil Composition
and Res. Temp.) HTO Co, Co2

+ others
WATER
STEAM

247
Air Injection into Light Oil Reservoirs
Mechanisms
Flue-gas generated in-situ
F Reservoir Pressure Maintenance / Repressurization
F Gravity Stable Displacement
F Oil Swelling
F Miscibility - Flue Gas / Reservoir Oil

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Other gases to be considered for injection:

-N2
-CO2
-Flue gas
-Impoverished Air (90 to 95% N2)
-Mixtures: N2+hydrocarbon gas
CO2+hydrocarbon gas
Creativity need
Need :Specific sophisticated experimental studies
Specific EOS (equation of state) to predict exchanges
Numerical simulation of lab results
Field pilot? Extension?

249
What ever is the INJECTION GAS COMPOSITION,
the in-situ WORKING or DRIVING GAS has different
composition ,resulting from the injected gas/resident
oil exchanges

250
RECOVERY MECHANISMS
Pressure maintenance (Qginj Bginj= QoBo+ QwpBwp+ QfgBfg)
Gravity drainage:exists what ever is the gas but more or

less efficient vs.
Drog /sog
Formation dip or thickness
Permeability and vertical barriers
Miscibility or pseudo-miscibility(sog =0 or low) :

at high pressure for lean gas
at lower pressure for enriched gas
Thermal effects vs.O2 presence

251
Gas Injection = a Promising Future for E.O.R
THERMAL NON THERMAL

AIR INJECTION
MISCIBLE NON MISCIBLE

HEAVY OIL LIGHT OIL
(DRY-WET)
Miscible Enriched Lean CO2 N2

Slug CGD VGD
Process Slug Continuous
Lean gas N2 Immisc. Flue gas

CO2
252
Gas Injection: Some Conclusions
1- Traditional Misgivings to be Reconsidered
2- Decisive Improvements during the Last 3 Decades in

3 Domains =
Ø Lean Gas Injection
Ø Near Miscible Gas Injection
Ø Air Injection into Light Oil Reservoirs
3- Gas Injection Project = More Demanding

More Design Optimization

- n°0125VDG1A05
253
Conclusions (Cont’d)
4- Ability to Master a Gas Injection Project

Past Field Experience
Ability to Conduct Simultaneously :
F Fundamental Approach
F Experimental Approach
F Numerical Approach
F Practical Approach
5- Sophisticated Lab Experiments + Detailed Reservoir
Description = Crucial Importance
6- Expected Additional Recovery = + 8 to + 15 % OOIP
above Conventional Recovery(10 to 15 years project)
7- For Ageing Field = Only Process ?

- n°0125VDG1A05
254
SOME CONCLUSIONS

255
Oil Recovery Improvement
§ Conventional Methods
• Reservoir Characterization (Hydraulics Units)
• Infill Drilling
• Well Monitoring
§ Initiate Unconventional Methods = How ? When ?

• Microscopic Efficiency Sor
• Macroscopic Efficiency
• Reservoir Management
§ Combination

256
Tertiary Process Selection Criteria
Ø Reservoir characteristics and status

Ø Ability to master a process
Ø Injected fluids:
– Availability
– Cost
– Suitability (environment, safety)
Ø Process efficiency:
– Additional reserves
– Additional rate
Ø Economics:
– Capex, Opex
– Barrel price

257
A HYDROCARBON RESERVOIR IS INVISIBLE

258
Extrait d'un dessin de Sempé
Reservoir Engineering Courses – K. Madaoui - 2004 Copyright © Charillon – Paris

Reservoir Engine01 - n°0125VDG1A01
259
RESERVOIR ENGINEERING
DYNAMIC ASPECTS- PRODUCTION -
WELL DRILLING PERTURBATION OF THE

GEOLOGICAL EQUILIBRIUM
A FASCINATING DIALOGUE BETWEEN

THE SLOWNESS OF THE EARTH AND
THE IMPATIENCE OF THE MAN STARTS

260
RESERVOIR ENGINEERING ROLE
PREDICT FUTURE RESERVOIR PERFORMANCES

FOR SEVERAL PERTURBATIONS,to RECOMMAND THE OPTIMUM
DEVELOPMENT SCENARIO
PREDICTING means QUANTIFYING
QUANTIFYING means FORMULAE to express PHYSICAL

MECHANISMS
PHYSICAL MECHANISMS to be UNDERSTOOD at MICRO

and MACROSCOPIC SCALES

261
EOR and R& D (1)
STUDY OBJECTIVES:FIELD APPLICATION
MANY EOR FAILURES CAN BE EXPLAINED BY:
-insufficient reservoir characterization

-insufficient understanding of conventional
behaviour
-reactive-instead of proactive-attitude
-insufficient-or none-cooperation/synergy
between the different approaches:
-fundamental
-experimental
-numerical
-practical
262
EOR and R& D (2)
2 CURRENTS MUST FERTILIZE THE R&D in EOR

PROJECTS
ONE ASCENDING from FUNDAMENTAL to FIELD APPLICATION
ONE DESCENDING from FIELD RESULTS toFUNDAMENTAL
FIELD APPLICATION
PILOT or PHASE 1
NUMERICAL(-1D-2D-3D)- FIELD RESULTS
NUMERICAL
HISTORY MATCHING
EXPERIMENTAL
MODEL ADJUSMENTS
VALIDATION
EXPERIMENTAL/
FUNDAMENTAL FUNDAMENTAL
FUNDAMENTAL IS CRUCIAL PART OF FIELD APPLICATION
263
EOR and R& D (3)
FUNDAMENTAL ASPECT-TO UNDERSTAND , QUANTIFY

AND PREDICT-, IS A NECESSARY and CRUCIAL PART
OF THE WAY TO FIELD APPLICATION
SHOULD NOT BE OPPOSED TO APPLIED R&D
UNIVERSITIES and SPECIALISED INSTITUTES CAN BE

(MUST BE) ASSOCIATED
HYDROCARBON RESERVOIR:UNIQUE NATURAL SYSTEM

-TO EXERT PEOPLE CREATIVITY
-TO INCREASE SCIENTIFIC and INDUSTRIAL

CULTURE
264

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IFP-SCHOOL

Reservoir Engineering Courses – K. Madaoui - 2004

· Natural drive (or primary recovery)

· Immiscible fluid injection (or secondary recovery)

· Enhanced oil recovery methods (or tertiary recovery)

Reservoir Engineering Courses – K. Madaoui - 2004

OIL FIELD DEVELOPMENT

-FIELD RATE :3 STEPS or PERIODS

-SEQUENCE of PRODUCTION MECHANISMS(generally)

Reservoir Engineering Courses – K. Madaoui - 2004

Build-up Plateau Decline

Reservoir Engineering Courses – K. Madaoui - 2004

ØOBJECTIVES : Predict Futures Performances

FA set of mathematical relations (to

FSome production history (rates and

Reservoir Engineering Courses – K. Madaoui - 2004

F Propose realistic scenarios of development

F Define,for each scenario,the field production

Reservoir Engineering Courses – K. Madaoui - 2004

Oil Field Development

F Several possible development scenarios

Reservoir Engineering Courses – K. Madaoui - 2004

Reservoir Engineering Courses – K. Madaoui - 2004

§ E.O.R.* Gas Injection

Reservoir Engineering Courses – K. Madaoui - 2004

WELL RATES qoi

RESERVES= S Qofield = S (Sqoi)

Reservoir Engineering Courses – K. Madaoui - 2004

Reservoir Engineering Courses – K. Madaoui - 2004

FOR A GIVEN PRESSURE GRADIENT Pr-Pwf,OIL RATE IS

1- Porous network geometry

2- Presence of other fluids

Reservoir Engineering Courses – K. Madaoui - 2004

OIL RATE qo=PIx(Pr-Pwf)

Increasing choke size lower Pwh

Reservoir Engineering Courses – K. Madaoui - 2004

1-PRESSURE GRADIENT = Preservoir- P well flowing

Reservoir Engineering Courses – K. Madaoui - 2004

Average reservoir pressure at time t

Reservoir Engineering Courses – K. Madaoui - 2004

Reservoir Engineering Courses – K. Madaoui - 2004

Reservoir Engineering Courses – K. Madaoui - 2004

Prod.r Prod.r Prod.r Prod.r

Gas invaded zone : Sorg, krog

Water invaded zone : Sorw,krow

Reservoir Engineering Courses – K. Madaoui - 2004

CUMULATIVE PRODUCTION Np at any TIME t

= ORIGINAL OIL IN PLACE

minus OIL LEFT IN SWEPT ZONES ( Sor)

minus OIL LEFT IN UNSWEPT ZONES ( Soi)

Reservoir Engineering Courses – K. Madaoui - 2004

F Cumulative production at abandonment conditions or

The individual wells are progressively shut-in as they

Reservoir Engineering Courses – K. Madaoui - 2004

= ULTIMATE RESERVES (ESTIMATED)

minus CUMULATIVE PRODUCTION at TIME t

Reservoir Engineering Courses – K. Madaoui - 2004

Prod.r Prod.r Prod.r Prod.r (high Water Cut, high GOR)

GOCi Gas flooded zone : Sorg

Water flooded zone : Sorw

Ultimate reserves = OOIP - Oil left in swept zones

=OOIP - OIL LEFT in SWEPT ZONES

Reservoir Engineering Courses – K. Madaoui - 2004

Estimated Quantities of Hydrocarbon Recoverable