B48BB Tutorial Answers v3

TOPIC 1.
INTRODUCTION and FLUID STATICS 1
Tutorial 1 Solutions
1. P = ρgh + 3.5barg = ρgh + (3.5 X 105)

P = (1000)(9.81)(3) + (3.5 x 105)
P gauge = 379430N/m2.
P absolute = 379430 + (780x133.32) = 483.4 kN/m2
2. Vertical height in the inclined limb is given by
so 0.8 × sin 30o = 0.4 m
Hydrostatic pressure acting at the bottom of the inclined limb is

P = 101325 + (900 × 9.81 × 0.4) = 104857 Pa absolute
The pressure of the gas above the liquid inside the tank:
 6894.9Pa 
Ptank = 101325 + 0.2 psi  = 102704 Pa absolute
 1 psi 
Hydrostatic pressure of liquid is then
ρgh = 104857 − 102704 = 2153 Pa
Liquid level is then
2153
h= = 0.24 m
900 × 9.81
3. The left hand limb of a simple U-tube manometer is connected to a pipe

with internal pressure P1 (N/m2). The right hand limb of the manometer
is open to the atmosphere and subject to prevailing atmospheric
pressure P2 (N/m2)
The density of the fluid inside the pipe (and also in part of the left hand
limb) is ρ1 (kg/m3). The density of the manometer fluid is ρ 2 (kg/m3).
©HERIOT-W ATT UNIVERSITY B48BB April 2016 v3

TOPIC 1. INTRODUCTION and FLUID STATICS 2
The key heights are as indicated in the diagram below:
The pressure at point “A” in the left hand limb of the manometer is as
follows:
PA = P1 + ρ1 gh1 + ρ 2 gh2
Whereas the pressure at point “B” in the right hand limb of the
manometer is as follows:
PB = P2
Equate the above two equations, since PA = PB , to get
P1 + ρ1 gh1 + ρ 2 gh2 = P2
∴ (P1 − P2 ) = − ρ 2 gh2 − ρ1 gh1
Further re-arrangement yields the pressure differential
(P1 − P2 ) = g (− ρ2h2 − ρ1h1 )

4. (a)This question involves using the answer derived immediately above.

The relevant equation is given below:
(P1 − P2 ) = g (− ρ2h2 − ρ1h1 )

∴ (P1 − P2 ) = 9.81(− (13600 × 0.3) − (900 × 0.2 ))
∴ (P1 − P2 ) = −41790.6 N/m2 gauge
The above is the gauge pressure. Thus, the pressure inside the pipe is
below atmospheric pressure (negative gauge pressure equates to a
partial vacuum).
The pressure instrument on the pipe is an absolute pressure instrument.

If the current barometric pressure is 766 mm Hg, then this must first be
converted to (N/m2) to find absolute pressure.
First convert 766 mmHg into (N/m2) using conversion sheet
 133.32 N/m 2 
P2 = 766 mm Hg 
 1 mm Hg 
∴ P2 = 102123.1 N/m 2
Then write down the gauge pressure and correct to absolute pressure
as follows:
(P1 − P2 ) = −41790.6 N/m2 gauge

P1 = 102123.1 − 41790.6 N/m2 absolute
P1 = 60332.5 N/m2 absolute
The absolute pressure gauge on the pipe should read this value if the
instrument is calibrated properly.
5. (a)The correct equation for the pendant drop method (ignoring all
correction factors) is given by: σ = mg/(πd)cosθ.
θ = 0° => cosθ = 1 for completely wetting fluid.
 σ = mg/πd = (0.1168 x 10-3)(9.81)/( π×5 x 10-3) = 72.9 x 10-3 N/m
This is the correct surface tension for water in air.

(b) The correct equation for the DeNouy surface tension measurement
apparatus is: σ = F/2Lcosθ => F = 2σLcosθ=> F = 2σL (θ = 0° => cosθ = 1
for completely wetting fluid, which is the case for platinum ring). Notice
that this neglects all correction factors.
F = 2(72.9 x 10-3)( π×0.06) = 7.63 N.
6. σ = ρdgh/4cosθ => h = σ4cosθ/ρdg

= (73 x 10-3)(4.cos(41°))/(1000)(0.005)(9.81)
= 4.5 x 10-3m = 4.5mm.
P = ρgh = (1000)(9.81)(4.5 x 10-3) = 44.1N/m2.
7. h = σ4cosθ/ρdg = (472 x 10-3)(4.cos(93.1°))/(13600)(0.005)(9.81)

= -0.102/667.08 = -1.53 x 10-4m = 0.153mm.
P = ρgh = (13600)(9.81)(0.153 x 10-3) = 20.4N/m2.

TOPIC 2. FLUID DYNAMICS 1
1. τ = -µ(du/dy)
(du/dy) = 0.5/0.001 = 500s-1.
µ(du/dy) = 0.001 x 500 = 0.5N/m2.
2. ū = Q/A = 0.001/πr2 = 0.001/π(0.0254)2 = 0.493m/s.
Re = ρdū/µ = (800)(0.0508)(0.493)/(5 x 10-3) = 4007 TURBULENT ??
3. With all such derivations, we must start with a balance of forces.
Consider fluid flowing in a pipe.
We will consider a small annulus of fluid flow of thickness δr and length δx:
(remember these are δ terms, indicating a small distance, not d for

derivative).
If we magnify the annulus we will see that there is a battle between pressure
forces trying to move the fluid along the pipe and viscous shear stress, denoted
by τ, trying to hold it back.

2πrδx[τ+(dτ/dr)δr]
P2πrδr
[P+(dP/dx)δx]2πrδr
2πrδxτ
This looks complicated but just think of it as pressure forces against shear
forces.
If we gather the terms together we get:
P2πrδr – [P+(dP/dx)δx]2πrδr + 2πrδxτ - 2πrδx[τ+(dτ/dr)δr] = 0
Rearranging gives: - (dP/dx)2πrδrδx = 2πr(dτ/dr)δrδx
Cancelling terms from both sides gives: - (dP/dx) = (dτ/dr)
Or –dP/dx = (1/r) d/dr(rτ)

dP/dx is independent of r so we can integrate with respect to r:
-∫dP/dx = ∫d/dr(1/r)(rτ)
Dividing both sides by 1/r gives: -∫rdP/dx = ∫d/dr(rτ)
Integrating gives: r2/2(dP/dx) + rτ + C 1 = 0
To get rid of the integration constant we consider conditions at the pipe centre
line:
r = 0, substituting in equation gives C 1 = 0.
Viscous shear stress, τ = -µ(du/dr)
Substituting in equation gives: r2/2(dP/dx) - µr(du/dr) = 0
Rearranging gives: du = (r/2µ(dP/dx))dr
Integrating again gives: u = r2/4µ(dP/dx) + C 2
To get rid of C 2 we consider conditions at the pipe wall.
r = R, u = 0. Substitute in equation:
Therefore u = -1/4µ(dP/dx)(R2 – r2)
Let R = d and (dP/dx) = ΔP/L
Substituting and rearranging gives:
u = ΔP/L(d2/16µ)(1-(2r/d)2)
4. Q = ΔPπd4/128µL = π(20000)(0.0254)4/128(0.01)(60)
Q = 3.41 x 10-4m3/s

5. Prandtl established that for fully developed turbulent flow,
(u/u max ) = ( 1 - r/R)1/7
This is known as Prandtl’s 1/7th Power Law.
dQ = 2πrudr
Q = 2πu max ∫R 0 (1-r/R)1/7 r dr
Substitute M = (1 – r/R) therefore dM/dr = -1/R
Also dr = -RdM and r = R(1-M)
Limits of integration: at r=0, M = 1 ; at r=R, M = 0.
Substituting and rearranging gives:
Q = 2πu max R2∫0 1 (1 – M) M1/7 (-dM)
Q = 2πu max R2∫0 1 (M8/7 – M1/7) dM
Q = 2πu max R2[7/15M15/7 – 7/8M8/7]0 1
Q = 2πu max R2(49/120)
Q = 49/60u max πR2
Hence ū = 49/60u max
6. Water at 15°C
Re = ρdū/µ; ū = Q/A = (3.5/3600) /π(0.152/4)= 0.055m/s.
Re = (999)(0.15)(0.055)/1.1 x10-3 = 7493.
Oil at 32°C
Re = ρdū/µ = (897)(0.051)(ū)/2.96 x 10-3 = 7493.
Rearranging gives ū = 0.485m/s.
Q = ūA = (0.485)(π)(0.0512/4) = 9.91 x 10-4m3/s.

TOPIC 3. FRICTIONAL PRESSURE LOSS and FLOW MEASUREMENT 1
1. (a) u =0.005/π(0.0252) = 2.55m/s
Re = ρdū/µ = (880)(0.05)(2.55)/1.1 x 103 = 102000 (TURBULENT)
Relative roughness = ϵ/d = 0.045/50 = 0.0009.
From C&R chart: φ = 0.0026
ΔP (friction) = 8φ(L/d)(ρū2)/2 = 8(0.0026)(70/0.05)(880)(2.552/2)

= 83315N/m2 (this is frictional pressure loss only).
Bends & Fittings:
2* 90o elbows = 2*35 = 70 equivalent pipe diameters.
1*1/2 closed gate valve = 200 equivalent pipe diameters
Total equivalent pipe diameters (all fittings) = 270
ΔP (friction+ bends and fittings) = 8φ(L/d + L e /d)(ρū2)/2

= 8(0.0026)(70/0.05+270)(880)(2.552/2)
= 99383 N/m2 (pressure loss bends and fittings + straight pipe).
ΔP (hydrostatic) = (880)(9.81)(10) = 86328 N/m2
Total pressure drop = bends, fittings, plus straight pipe plus hydrostatic
losses – see below:
ΔP TOT = 99383 + 86328 = 185711 N/m2 (1.86 bar).

(b) Flowrate falls to 0.00005m3/s
Velocity therefore decreases by a factor of 100.
Re = 102000/100 = 1020 (LAMINAR)
Hagen-Poiseuille equation: ΔP f =32uμL/d2
 ΔP = 32uμL/d2 = 32(1.1 x 10-3)(70)(0.0255)/0.0502 = 25.1 N/m2
ΔP (hydrostatic) is the same at 86328 N/m2
Assume bends and fittings loss is negligible
 ΔP TOT = 25.1+86328 = 86353 N/m2 (0.86 bar)
2.
P 1 /ρ 1 g + u 1 2/2g + h 1 = P 2 /ρ 2 g + u 2 2/2g + h 2
It is horizontal so h 1 = h 2 and it is a liquid, so ρ 1 = ρ 2 = ρ
The g’s cancel as well once the h’s have cancelled.
P 1 /ρ + u 1 2/2 = P 2 /ρ + u 2 2/2
Now u 1 A 1 = u 2 A 2 therefore u 2 = u 1 (A 1 /A 2 )
(P 1 – P 2 )/ρ = u 1 2/2[(A 1 2/A 2 2) – 1]
u 1 2 = 2ΔP/ρ[(A 1 /A 2 )2 – 1]
u 1 = √(2ΔP/ρ[(A 1 /A 2 )2 – 1]
Now there is an energy loss associated with these meters.
We have to introduce a discharge coefficient, C d
u 1 =C d √(2ΔP/ρ[(A 1 /A 2 )2 – 1])

(a)
u = C d √(2ΔP/ρ[(A 1 /A 2 )2 – 1]) = 0.7√(2(50000)/(1000)[(2/1)4-1] = 1.8 m/s
Q = 1.8 x A = (1.8)(π)(0.0252) = 3.53 x 10-3
Mass flowrate = ρQ = (1000)(3.53 x 10-3) = 3.53 kg/s.
(b)
P 1 /ρ 1 g + u 1 2/2g + h 1 = P 2 /ρ 2 g + u 2 2/2g + h 2
We can equate ρ 1 and ρ 2 as before but h 1 and h 2 are different and so the g’s
don’t cancel.
BUT we can assume that u 1 A 1 = u 2 A 2
Gathering together all the terms.
u 1 2 = (2g(ΔP/ρg+(h 1 – h 2 ))/((A 1 /A 2 )2 – 1)
if we make h 1 – h 2 equal Lsinθ = Lsin30 = 0.5L.
Then u 1 2 = (2g(ΔP/ρg+0.5L))/((A 1 /A 2 )2 – 1)
Introducing Cd
u 1 = Cd√(2g(ΔP/ρg+0.5L)/((A 1 /A 2 )2 – 1)
3.
(a)
ū = Q/A = 1.5 x 10-3/5.067 x 10-4 = 2.96 m/s
Laminar flow so Hagen-Poiseuille equation applies:
ΔP = 32µLū/d2 = (32)(0.04)(60)(2.96)/(0.02542) = 352359 N/m2

(b)
Re = ρdū/µ = (890)(0.0254)((2.96)/0.04 = 1673. (LAMINAR).
To attain turbulent flow the Re must be at least 2300, i.e. a factor of
2300/1673 = 1.37 increase.
Flowrate must therefore be 90 x 1.37 = 124L/min.
4.

5.
For liquid to flow across both instruments, the pressure drop across them must
be the same. Rearrange the flowrate equations for both metres in terms of
pressure drop, equate then, do some simplifications and you should get a
relation between flowrate, areas and Cd.
Flowrate through either meter is given by
Rearranging for the pressure drop
Simplify the ratio of the two areas:
Since the restriction sizes for both metres are the same, the area terms can be
ignored, as can the density. So we get :

Therefore we have a simple expression for the volumetric flow
Therefore
To work out the % of flow passing through the meters, assume 100 units
through the venturi
=> 66.3 units flow through the orifice.
Total flowrate is 166.3 units
% of flow through the venturi is 100/166.3 = 60%
% of flow through the orifice is 66.3/166.3 = 40 %

6.

7.
8. The rotameter equations in the notes are as follows:
2 ρ (∆P )
m = C d A1
 A12 
 2 − 1
 A2 
Where,
A1 = Cross sectional area of the tube at point indicated by float (m2)
A2 = Annular area between the float and the tube at the point (m2)
∆P = Constant pressure drop across the float (N/m2)

At equilibrium a force balance, across the float (allowing for float buoyancy), leads to
V f (ρ f − ρ )g
∆P =
Af
Where,
V f = Volume of the float (m3)
ρ f = Density of the float (kg/m3)
A f = The maximum cross sectional area of the float (m2)
Substituting the latter equation into the former gives
2 gV f (ρ f − ρ )ρ
m = C d A1
 A2 
A f  12 − 1
 A2 
A 1 is XSA of the tube at the point of maximum flow:
A 1 = πd t 2/4 = π*0.0252/4 = 4.91x10-4 m2
A 1 2 = (4.91x10-4)2 = 24.108x10-8 m4
A 2 is Annular XSA of the tube at the point of maximum flow:
A 2 = πd t 2/4 - πd f 2/4 = π*0.0252/4 - π*0.0202/4
A 2 = 4.91x10-4 m2 – 3.14x10-4 m2 = 1.77x10-4 m2
A 2 2 = (1.77x10-4)2 = 3.13x10-8 m4
A f is XSA of the float(the projected area)
A f = πd f 2/4 = π*0.0202/4 = 3.142x10-4 m2

The maximum mass flow is then
2 gV f (ρ f − ρ )ρ
m = C d A1
 A2 
A f  12 − 1
 A2 
2 × 9.81 × 4.5 × 10 −6 × (5000 − 1050 ) × 1050

m = 0.65 × 4.91 × 10 − 4
 24.108 
3.142 × 10 − 4 ×  − 1
 3.13 
The mass flow = 0.133 kg/s

TOPIC 4. PUMP SYSTEMS and PUMP SIZING 1
1.
2.

3.


To answer the question

a) Pump head is 71m
b) Power required by the pump is 17 kW
c) The available NPSH is about 7.7 m, while the required NPSH is about 2 m.
This means that the suction design should be satisfactory and should avoid
cavitation. However, there is a gate valve 50% open on the suction side. It
is not good practice to throttle a valve on the suction side since, if there
were accidentally closed off further, it may lead to cavitation.
The pump is just on the bounds of being operable (in terms of pump head) and
the suction valve should be fully opened. It may be wiser to choose a larger
impeller and throttle the throughput using the discharge valve.

4.
Ps − P sat
Available NPSH = + hs1 + hs 2 − h fs
ρg
101325 − 3243
Available NPSH = + 2 − 0 = 16.22 m
703 × 9.81
5.
Vessel Pressure = 150 mm Hg absolute =150x133.32 = 19998 Pa abs.
Vapour Pressure = 720 mm Hg vacuum = 760 –720 = 40 mm Hg abs.
Vapour Pressure = 40x133.32 = 5333 Pa abs.
Total suction frictional head loss = 2 m, then

Ps − P sat
Available NPSH = + hs1 + hs 2 − h fs
ρg
19998 − 5333
Available NPSH = + hS − 2 = hs − 0.51
1000 × 9.81
Required NPSH = 2.5 m

∴ hs − 0.51 > 2.5
∴ hs > 1.98 m


TOPIC 5. Non-Newtonian Fluids 1
1.
(a)
Fluid 1 – Newtonian
Fluid 2 – Thixotropic
Fluid 3 – Dilatant
(b)
Fluid 3 is a power law fluid.
Plot of ln(τ) against ln(du/dy) gives a slope of: 0.547.
(c)
Fluids that behave in a non-Newtonian manner are seldom homogeneous.

There is usually a structure in the fluid. In the case of pseudoplastic and
thixotropic fluids the structure is broken down by shearing – thus apparent
viscosity decreases. With rheopectic and dilatant fluids the structure is built up
by shearing and therefore the apparent viscosity increases. With Bingham
plastic fluids the structure is so strong that the fluid behaves like a solid until
the yield stress is overcome.

2.
(a)
Power law model gives τ = 8.33(dv/dy)0.315
Using power law model at shear rates of 20 (s-1) and 70 (s-1) work out the shear
stress from the model:
τ 20 = 21.40 (N/m2)
τ 70 = 31.76 (N/m2)
Now write down the Bingham Plastic model with these two sets of shear stress
and shear rate values. Two simultaneous equations are obtained – solve for
unknown plastic viscosity and yield stress parameters:
μ P = 0.207 (N s/m2)
τ y = 17.26 (N/m2)
The equivalent Bingham Plastic model is then given by
τ = 17.26 +0.207(dv/dy)
Solving this at the same two shear rates (20 s-1 and 70 s-1) as the Power Law
model produces the nearly identical shear stress values (τ 20 = 21.40 (N/m2) and
τ 70 = 31.82 (N/m2) respectively).
(b)
For a Power Law Fluid:
u/v max = (n+1)/(3n+1) = 1.315/((3x0.315)+1) = 0.676.
For Newtonian fluid
u/v max = 0.5

Since exponent is < 1 (0.315) this is obviously a shear thinning fluid. It is a

power law fluid and therefore it must be pseudoplastic.
3.
(a)
Plot r/d against v/v max which is given by [1 – (2r/d)n+1/n] where n = 0.315.
r/d v/v max
0.0 1.0
0.1 0.999
0.2 0.978
0.3 0.881
0.4 0.606
0.5 0
(b)
For a Newtonian fluid the numbers in the right hand column will be:
1.0, 0.96, 0.84, 0.64, 0.36, 0.

4.
(a)
Re = ρdū/µ For Re to equal 1000,
u = (1000)(5x10-3)/(850)(0.025) = 0.235 m/s.
(b)
Re mr = 8(n/6n+2)nρu2-ndn/k For Re mr to equal 1000,
u2-n = (1000)(8.33)/(8)(0.315/3.89)0.315(850)(0.0250.315)
u2-0.315 = 8330/(8)(0.453)(850)(0.313)
u1.685 = 8.64
u = 3.6 m/s.
(c)
Pressure drop for Newtonian fluid = 32µLu/d2
= (32)(5x10-3)(100)(0.235)/(0.0252)
= 6016 N/m2
For Power Law fluid, the friction factor and pressure loss are given by:
ф= 8/Re mr = 8/1000 = 0.008
ΔP f = 8ф(L/d)ρu2/2 = 8(0.008)(100/0.025)(850)(3.6)2/2
ΔP f = 14.1 bar

Notice how much higher the pressure drop is for the power law fluid at
the same Reynolds Number as the Newtonian fluid. As a matter of
interest run the calculation again but at the same velocity 0.235 m/s.
(d)
Re mr = 8(n/6n+2)nρu2-ndn/k
Re mr = 8(0.453)(850)(0.087)(0.313)/8.33
Re mr = 10.1
Pressure drop for Newtonian fluid is again = 32µLū/d2
= (32)(5x10-3)(100)(0.235)/(0.0252)
= 6016 N/m2
Whereas for Power Law fluid, the friction factor and pressure loss are
now given by:
ф= 8/Re mr = 8/10.1 = 0.792
ΔP f = 8ф(L/d)ρu2/2 = 8(0.792)(100/0.025)(850)(0.235)2/2
ΔP f = 700 N/m2
At the same flowrate the pressure loss for this Power Law fluid is lower
than the Newtonian fluid.

5.
(a)
Re = ρdu/µ For Re to equal 10000,
u = (10000)(5x10-3)/(850)(0.025)
ū = 2.35 m/s.
Q = uA = 2.35(π(0.0252)/4) = 1.15 x 10-3 m3/s
(b)
Re mr = 8(n/6n+2)nρu2-ndn/k
Re mr = 8(0.453)(850)(4.219)(0.313)/8.33
Re mr = 488.3
(c)
For Newtonian; Blasius equation (smooth pipes): Ø = 0.0396/Re0.25
= 0.0396/100000.25 = 0.00396
(0.0037 as read off chart in C&R)
Non-Newtonian the flow is laminar: Ø = 8/Re mr
Ø = 8/488.3 = 0.016
(0.017 as read off chart in C&R)

(d)
For Newtonian fluid: ΔP = 8Ø(L/d)ρu2/2
= 8(0.00396)(100/0.025)(850)(2.352)/2 = 297420 N/m2 (3.0 bar)
For non-Newtonian fluid: ΔP = 8Ø(L/d)ρu2/2 as before,
= 8(0.016)(100/0.025)(850)(2.352)/2 = 1201696 N/m2 (12.0 bar)
The pressure loss of the non-Newtonian fluid is now higher at the same
average velocity – this is due to the fact that it is flowing under laminar
flow conditions with a larger friction factor.
(e)
Power = QΔP
Assuming 100% efficiency: for Newtonian we have:
(1.15 x 10-3)(297420) = 342 W.
For non-Newtonian fluid flow rate is the same:
(1.15 x 10-3)(1201696) = 1382 W (1.4 kW).


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TOPIC 1.

INTRODUCTION and FLUID STATICS 1

1. P = ρgh + 3.5barg = ρgh + (3.5 X 105)

P absolute = 379430 + (780x133.32) = 483.4 kN/m2

2. Vertical height in the inclined limb is given by

so 0.8 × sin 30o = 0.4 m

Hydrostatic pressure acting at the bottom of the inclined limb is

3. The left hand limb of a simple U-tube manometer is connected to a pipe

©HERIOT-W ATT UNIVERSITY B48BB April 2016 v3

The key heights are as indicated in the diagram below:

Equate the above two equations, since PA = PB , to get

∴ (P1 − P2 ) = − ρ 2 gh2 − ρ1 gh1

Further re-arrangement yields the pressure differential

(P1 − P2 ) = g (− ρ2h2 − ρ1h1 )

©HERIOT-W ATT UNIVERSITY B48BB April 2016 v3

4. (a)This question involves using the answer derived immediately above.

(P1 − P2 ) = g (− ρ2h2 − ρ1h1 )

∴ (P1 − P2 ) = −41790.6 N/m2 gauge

The pressure instrument on the pipe is an absolute pressure instrument.

(P1 − P2 ) = −41790.6 N/m2 gauge

P1 = 60332.5 N/m2 absolute

This is the correct surface tension for water in air.

©HERIOT-W ATT UNIVERSITY B48BB April 2016 v3

F = 2(72.9 x 10-3)( π×0.06) = 7.63 N.

6. σ = ρdgh/4cosθ => h = σ4cosθ/ρdg

7. h = σ4cosθ/ρdg = (472 x 10-3)(4.cos(93.1°))/(13600)(0.005)(9.81)

©HERIOT-W ATT UNIVERSITY B48BB April 2016 v3

(du/dy) = 0.5/0.001 = 500s-1.

µ(du/dy) = 0.001 x 500 = 0.5N/m2.

2. ū = Q/A = 0.001/πr2 = 0.001/π(0.0254)2 = 0.493m/s.

Re = ρdū/µ = (800)(0.0508)(0.493)/(5 x 10-3) = 4007 TURBULENT ??

3. With all such derivations, we must start with a balance of forces.

Consider fluid flowing in a pipe.

(remember these are δ terms, indicating a small distance, not d for

©HERIOT-W ATT UNIVERSITY B48BB April 2016 v3

If we gather the terms together we get:

P2πrδr – [P+(dP/dx)δx]2πrδr + 2πrδxτ - 2πrδx[τ+(dτ/dr)δr] = 0

Rearranging gives: - (dP/dx)2πrδrδx = 2πr(dτ/dr)δrδx

Cancelling terms from both sides gives: - (dP/dx) = (dτ/dr)

Or –dP/dx = (1/r) d/dr(rτ)

©HERIOT-W ATT UNIVERSITY B48BB April 2016 v3

dP/dx is independent of r so we can integrate with respect to r:

Dividing both sides by 1/r gives: -∫rdP/dx = ∫d/dr(rτ)

Integrating gives: r2/2(dP/dx) + rτ + C 1 = 0

r = 0, substituting in equation gives C 1 = 0.

Viscous shear stress, τ = -µ(du/dr)

Substituting in equation gives: r2/2(dP/dx) - µr(du/dr) = 0

Rearranging gives: du = (r/2µ(dP/dx))dr

Integrating again gives: u = r2/4µ(dP/dx) + C 2

To get rid of C 2 we consider conditions at the pipe wall.

Therefore u = -1/4µ(dP/dx)(R2 – r2)

Let R = d and (dP/dx) = ΔP/L

Substituting and rearranging gives:

©HERIOT-W ATT UNIVERSITY B48BB April 2016 v3

5. Prandtl established that for fully developed turbulent flow,

(u/u max ) = ( 1 - r/R)1/7

This is known as Prandtl’s 1/7th Power Law.

Q = 2πu max ∫R 0 (1-r/R)1/7 r dr

Substitute M = (1 – r/R) therefore dM/dr = -1/R

Also dr = -RdM and r = R(1-M)

Limits of integration: at r=0, M = 1 ; at r=R, M = 0.

Substituting and rearranging gives:

Q = 2πu max R2∫0 1 (1 – M) M1/7 (-dM)

Q = 2πu max R2∫0 1 (M8/7 – M1/7) dM

A 2 = πd t 2/4 - πd f 2/4 = π0.0252/4 - π0.0202/4