Sets, Statistics, Vectors and Matrices

Sets

A set is a collection of objects, described by a list A  {1, 3, 5}

or a rule.
Each object is an element or a member of the set. 1  A, 2  A
Sets are equal if they have exactly the same elements. B  {5, 3, 1}, B  A
The number of elements of set A is given by n(A). n(A)  3
The empty set is the set with no members. { } or 
The universal set contains all the elements being �
discussed in a particular problem.

B is a subset of A if every member of B is a B  A �

A
member of A. B

The complement of set A is the set of all elements A′ �

A
not in A.

The intersection of A and B is the set of elements A  B �

A B
which are in both A and B.

The union of A and B is the set of elements which A  B �

A B
are in A or B or both.

The Venn diagram shows the combinations of languages studied �

by the pupils in a class at a school. E F
8 3 7
1 pupil does not study English, French or German. 2
4 5
2 pupils study English, French and German. 1
6
3 pupils study English and French, but not German. G
4 pupils study English and German, but not French.
5 pupils study French and German, but not English.
6 pupils study German only.
7 pupils study French only.
8 pupils study English only.
There are 2  3  4  8  17 pupils studying English. There are 36 pupils in the class.

Sets, Statistics, Vectors and Matrices 1

 Probability

Probability
__
• The probability of an event not happening is p(​E​ ).
__
p(E)  p(​E​ )  1
A box contains 3 black beads and 2 white beads.
Event W: White
__
bead is selected.
p(W) 1 p(​W​
__
 ) 5 1
p(​W​)  5 1 2 p(W)
5 1 2 _​ 5 ​
2

5 _​ 5 ​
3

Probability diagrams
Two dice are thrown. Y equals the difference between the scores.
• The table displays the set of possible outcomes. First dice
• There are 36 equally likely outcomes.
Y 1 2 3 4 5 6
• There are 10 outcomes when Y  1.
1 0 1 2 3 4 5
10 5

Second dice
• p(Y  1)  ___
​    ​ __
​   ​  2 1 0 1 2 3 4
36 8
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
4 3 2 1 0 1 2
5 4 3 2 1 0 1
6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Handling data

Discrete data are data that can be listed and counted, for example the number of peas in a pod, or the
number of pages in a book.
Continuous data are data that cannot be listed and counted, for example time, mass and length.
Averages
Example set of data: 23, 5, 7, 8, 10, 7
total of all values 23  5  7  8  10 7
mean  ____________________
​        ​ ______________________
​   ​       10
total number of values 6
mode  value that occurs most often  7
median  value in the middle when data is arranged in ascending order  7.5
Measures of Spread
For data values arranged in ascending order,
Lower Quartile or Q1 is the middle of the left hand side.
Median or Q2 is in the middle.
Upper Quartile or Q3 is the middle of the right hand side.
0 1 5 6 9 11 15

Q1 Q2 Q3

If this falls between two values, use the mean of the two values.
0 1 5 6 9 11 12 14 15 11 12 14 15 20 11 12 14 15 20

Q1 � 6 Q2 Q3 � 13 Q1 Q2 � 10 Q3
   

2 Sets, Statistics, Vectors and Matrices

Interquartile range (IQR) 5 Q3 2 Q1
Semi-interquartile range 5 _​ 2 ​IQR 5 _​ 2 ​(Q3 2 Q1)
1 1

The semi-interquartile range also equals Q3 2 Q2 or Q2 2 Q1

Range 5 largest value 2 smallest value
Cumulative Frequency
Cumulative frequency gives the frequency up to a particular value.
It is obtained by adding up the frequencies to the particular value.
For n data values in ascending order the median is the _​ 2 ​(n 1 1)th value.
1

Score 1 2 3 4
Frequency 9 10 12 8

Score 1 2 3 4
Cumulative Frequency 9 19 31 39
There are 39 data values so the median is the _​ 2 ​(39 1 1)th 5 20th value
1

The 19th value is 2, the 31st value is 3, so the 20th value is 2 ⇒ median 5 2.
Displaying data
Coloured marbles in a bag are distributed as Marble colour Red
shown in the table. Red
Yellow Green
Colour Frequency Pie-chart angle Yellow
Blue
​ __
1 Green
Red 1 10  ​ 360°  36° Blue
Yellow 3 __3
​    ​ 360°  108°
10
4
Blue 2 __ 2
​ 10  ​ 360°  72° 4
Frequency

3
Green 4 __ 4
​ 10  ​ 360°  144° 2 Frequency 3
1 2
  10 0 1
R Y B G 0
Marble colour R Y B G
Calculation tables Marble colour
fx
sum of (frequency  value) ____
Mean  ________________________
​          ​ ​   ​  
  ( means ‘the sum of ’)
sum of frequencies f
Score x Frequency f fx
2  4  8
68
3 10 30 Mean 5 ___
​    ​5 3.4
20
5  6 30
  20   68
When the data is grouped, use the mid-point of each group as an estimate of the values in the group.
The calculated mean will be an estimate.

Weight (g) Mid-point x Frequency x fx

  8–10  9 6   54
10–16 13 9 117
16–20 18 5   90
  20   261
 ___
261
Estimate of mean ​  20  ​ 13.1 g (3 s.f.)

Sets, Statistics, Vectors and Matrices 3

 Histograms

The horizontal axis is a continuous number line.

The area of each bar represents the frequency.
The frequency density is given by
frequency
frequency density (height of bar)  _____________
​      ​
width of group

Group time Frequency Width Frequency density

(sec) (frequency  bar width)
15–20 12 5 12  5  2.4
20–28 16 8 16  8  2
28–36  8 8 881
36–40  5 4 5  4  1.25

2
Frequency density

0
15 20 25 30 35 40 Time (s)

6  1  4  1.25
The percentage . 30  ________________
​   ​
     100%  27%
41

Cumulative frequency

Cumulative frequency is always plotted on the vertical axis against the end-points of each group.
Points are then joined by a smooth curve. This cumulative frequency curve can be used to estimate
quartiles.

n
Cumulative frequency

3
4
n Quartiles Percentile (%)
1 Lower quartile Q1 25
2
n
Median Q2 50
1
n
4 Upper quartile Q3 75

Q1 Q2 Q3

Measures of spread
Range  largest value  smallest value
Interquartile range  upper quartile  lower quartile  Q3  Q1

4 Sets, Statistics, Vectors and Matrices

 Matrices

Information is stored in many ways. People often make lists to make calculations easier (shopping,
football league tables…). Computers like to work in ordered information stored in a Matrix.
In a sailing match two countries’ results are shown: 1st 5 4pts, 2nd 5 3pts,

Country Single Double Katamaran

Jamaica 4 3 4
USA 3 4 3
4
 
This data can be displayed in a matrix. ​ 3   3​ ​
​ ​ ​ 4​   ​
  
4 3 (  )
This matrix has 6 elements (numbers).
The order of the matrix is 2 3 3 which means 2 rows and 3 columns.
There are different types of matrices:

Zero matrix:
All elements are 0. ​ 0 0
    
​ ​ ​ 0​   ​, ​  
0 0
0   0​ ​
​ ​ ​ 0
 
0  0​   ​(  ) (  )
Unit matrix:

(  ) (  )
1  
 
0​   ​, ​ 0  0   0
All elements on leading diagonal are 1. ​  1   
​0​ ​ ​  
​ ​  
​ ​
0 
1 0 0 1   1 
   ​   ​

Column matrix:

(  ) (  )
1 1
 
All elements in a column. ​ 2  
​ ​   ​, ​ 2 
​ ​   ​
3
Row matrix:
All elements in a row. (1  2), (1  2  3)

Square matrix:
(  ) (  )
  4
1   7  
1
 
Number of rows 5 Number of columns. ​ 2  3 ​   ​, ​ 2 
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
    5   8 
​ ​
 ​   ​
4 3   6 9
Addition and subtraction
Only matrices of the same order (shape) can be added or subtracted term by term.

(  ) (  ) (  )
1
 
• ​ 2 3
​ ​     5
  7
​ ​    
​ ​  ​1 ​ 6
4
6
  10
​ ​     
​8​  ​5 ​ 8 ​12 ​  ​

• ​( 2 ​ ​ )​2 (​  2 ​ ​  ​5 ​  21

4 8 ) ( 22 24 )
​ ​   3
1
    ​ ​   6
      
​  ​    23
​  ​  ​
4
• 5 3 ​( 2 ​ ​  ​5 ​    
4 6 ) ( 10 20 30 )
1
  3
​ ​     5
​ ​     15
​  5 ​     25
​  ​    
​  ​  ​
The elements are each 35 as this is the same as adding the matrix five times.

Matrix Multipication
Three American basketball teams enter a pre-season tournament where there are 3 points for a win (W),
1 for a draw (D) and 0 for a loss (L). The results are shown in the matrix below. Each team plays the other
twice.
W D L
Boston Knicks 1 2 1
LA Lakers 1 1 2
Washington Wizards 2 1 1
( )
3
 
The points rewarded can be written as a 3 3 1 matrix ​ 1 
​ ​   ​
 
0
(  )
Sets, Statistics, Vectors and Matrices 5
 The total points for each team can be found by multiplying both matrices.

( 
1  
 
​ 1 
2  
​ ​ ​
  1 
 ​ ​
2 1 1 0
1  
  2  )(  ) ( 
3
 ​   ​​ 1 
1 
 
​ ​   ​5 ​ 1 
3 
​ ​ 3 
3 
​  ​3 
 
1 
​ ​ 1 
 
23311311130
2 
​  ​1 
 
3 
​ ​ 3 
 
1 
​  ​1 
 
1 
​ ​ 1 
 
1 
​  ​2 
  ) (  )
3 
​ ​ 3 
 
0
​ ​ 0 
 
5         
 
​ ​   ​5 ​ 4 
 
Boston Knicks
​ ​   ​        
​    
    
LA Lakers
7 Washington Wizards
  ​

The Washington Wizards win!

Matrices can only be multiplied if they are compatible. The number of columns of the left-side matrix
must be the same as the number of rows of the right-side matrix.

If matrix A is of order m 3 n and matrix B is of order n 3 p the matrix AB can be found.

It will be of order m 3 p.
If the orders of the matrix products are written it can be determined whether they are compatible and the
order of the resultant matrix can be found.
Let A be of order m 3 n and B be of order n 3 p.
These 2 must be equal

A 3 B 5 (m 3 n) 3 (n 3 p)

These 2 give the order of the resultant 5 m 3 p

Note: Matrix multiplication is not commutative: namely AB does not always equal BA

• If A 5 ​ 1
  ( 
4 5 6
​ ​   3
​ ​   2
    ) (  )
​ ​  ​, B 5​
2   
  23
​ ​   ​  
4 
 
2 1
5  ​  ​evaluate matrix AB.

A 3 B 5 (2 3 3) 3 (3 3 2), so the matrices are compatible and the resultant matrix AB

will be of order 2 3 2.

A3B5​1
 
4 5 6
  ( 
​ ​   3
​ ​   2  
​ ​  ​3​ ) (  )
2 23
    
​ ​     
4 
 
2 1
( 
​ 5  ​  ​5 ​ 1
 
4
3
​ ​   2
 
​  ​2
3
1
​ ​  
1
2
​  ​  3
 
​ ​ 3
5
4
​  ​  1
​ ​  
4
3
​  ​ 
1 6
3
  2,  
​  ​  1
​ ​  
​ ​ 3 2, 4
3
  23
​ ​   
​ ​ 3 1
​  ​ 
23
2
​  ​ 
1
3
​ ​  
5
5
​  ​ 
3
1
​ ​  
5 1
3
  3
​ ​  
​ ​ 6 ) ( 
1
  16
​ ​  ​5 ​   
​  ​1
3
10
​  ​    
40 )
​  ​  ​
19

Vectors

Vector notation
Vectors have magnitude and direction and can be written as bold letters: v, u, ..., with capitals covered
_​ __› _​ __›
by an arrow: OP​ ​  ,  ... or on co-ordinate axes as column vectors ​   
​ ,  PQ​ ​ 21 0
3 ​  ​, ​  
​ ​   ​, ...
6 (  ) (  )
Multiplication of a vector by a scalar

1u
u –u 2u
2
u  2w ⇒ u is parallel to w, u is twice as long as w.
u  kw ⇒ u is parallel to w, u is k as long as w.
Vector geometry
​___› ​___› ​___› A 2a B
• ​AC​  _​ ​  _​ 
__›AB​ __›2a  b
​   _​
__›BC​
⇒ ​AD​   AC​ ​    CD​ ​   
b
 2a  b  (3a)  b  a
AB is parallel to DC. ⇒ ABCD is a trapezium
Ratio of AB : DC  2 : 3. ⇒ 2DC  3AB D 3a C

6 Sets, Statistics, Vectors and Matrices

 ___ ___ ___
(  ) (  ) (  )
​ › ​ › ​ ›
• OD​ 3
 
​    ​ 0 ​    ​ 22
​ ​   ​, DC​    ​    ​ 22
​ ​    ​, CA​   
​22 ​  ​ y
4 C
4
⇒O 
A OD  D C  C
A

(  ) (  ) (  )
3 22 22 3
 
​ ​   ​ ​   
​0 ​ ​    ​ ​   
​22 ​  ​
4
A 2
 ​(   
​ 2​   )​
21
1
• Length (modulus) of
​___› __________ __ O D
​OA​   √
​  (21)2 1 22 ​ 
√
​  5 ​  �1 0 1 2 3 x

Transformation Matrix

A matrix can describe a geometrical transformation. The diagram shows that ​ 1

  (  ) 2
 
​0​   ​is mapped to ​ 0
​ ​   ​, (  )
and that ​(  
​1 ​ )​is mapped to (​  2 ​ ​  )​.
The points A(1, 1), B(1, 2) and C(3, 1) are mapped 0 0
 
to the points A, B and C by the matrix
So the matrix is ​( 2  ​  )​.
0
( 
1
 
​0     0
)
21 ​  ​. Find the coordinates of A, B and C and
​ ​ ​
 
​0 ​ ​2
describe the transformation. Combined transformation
A B C A B C If R represents a reflection in the x-axis and S
( 
1
 
​0   0
)( 
1
 
  21 ​  ​​ 1
​ ​ ​ 1
 
​ ​ ​
  2​ ​3
  ) (    
  1​   ​5 ​ ​21 1   
1 ​ ​   3
22 ​ ​ 21 ​  ​ ) represents a rotation of 90o anticlockwise about
y the origin then:
The diagram shows
( 
1
 
that ​ 0     0
21 ​  ​
​ ​ ​ ) 3
B
The matrix RS represents doing S followed by R
The matrix SR represents doing R followed by S
represents a reflection 2

in the x-axis. 1
Remember the order matters.
A C
(Straight lines remain Using matrices to solve simultaneous
�1 0 1 2 3 4 x
equations
straight after the A� C�
�1
transformation) Simultaneous equations can be written in matrix
�2
The inverse matrix B� form.
will give the inverse
(  )( ) (  )
�3 3x 1y55
     
​   3
 
​can be written as ​ 2 1​   ​​   
 
​ ​ ​
 1 x 5
​ ​   ​5 ​  
​ ​   ​
transformation. 2x 1 y 5 4 y 4
Finding the matrix to represent a To solve the matrix equation, pre-multiply BOTH
transformation sides by the inverse matrix.
1
  (  ) 0
​ ​   ​and ​  
The images of ​ 0 (  )
​1​   ​give the columns The determinant of ​ 2 (  ) 3
  1
 ​   ​is 3 3 1 2 2 3 1 5 1,
​ ​ ​
 1
of the transformation matrix. 3
 
so ​ 2(  )
​ ​ ​
 1 1
 ​   21 ​ 5 __ ( 
1 1   
) ( 
​   ​ ​21​    ​5 ​   
​   ​​    
1 22 3
​ 221 ​ ​  
)
21​    ​
3
  (  )
​0​   ​      Image of ​ 0
Image of ​ 1  
​1​   ​ (  ) Pre-multiply both sides by the inverse matrix giving

Matrix is ​  a​ ​ ​

c d (  )
   b​   ​ (  )( ) (  ) ( 
3
 
​2 1​   ​​   
 
​ ​ ​
 1 x
y )(  )( )
5
​ ​   ​5 ​  
​ ​   ​⇒ ​   
4
​ 22 1 ​ ​  
21​    ​​  
3 2
3
​ ​ ​
 1 1​   ​​   
  x
​ ​   ​
y
Find the matrix representing an enlargement of
scale factor 2.
(  )( ) (  )(  )
⇒​0 1
 
​ ​ ​
 1 ​   ​​  x
0  
​ ​   ​5 ​   
y ​  1 ​ ​  
22
21​    ​​ 5
3 4
 
​ ​   ​

y ( ) (  ) ⇒ ​  y
x
 
​ ​   ​5 ​ 2 1
 
​ ​   ​or x 5 1, y 5 2
3 There may be no solution or an infinity of solutions.
C� B�
2 Graphically this corresponds to two parallel lines (no
C B solution) or two lines the same (infinity of solutions).
1
A A�
�1 O 1 2 3 x
�1

Sets, Statistics, Vectors and Matrices 7