Friction: -

1- Smooth and Rough Surfaces:

Scientists relate the friction forces among bodies to the presence of microscopic
cavities and projections in the surfaces of the bodies whatever their smoothness
is. The overlapping of such projections and cavities of the two surfaces in
contact produces the friction force.
The reaction between the body and the plane in contact depends upon the
nature of the them (the nature of the surfaces and the mass of the moving body)
and upon the other forces acting on the body not upon the area of contact. If the
surfaces in contact are perfectly smooth, the reaction will have one component
which we know as the normal reaction or normal force R (perpendicular on the
plane) and there will be no friction force; hence F will be 0 and motion will take
place however small the applied force P might be. But in the case of rough
surfaces, the reaction would have a component in the direction parallel to the
plane in addition to the normal reaction which is called the static friction Fs.

2- Types of friction: -
-Static Friction. -Kinetic Friction.

3- Limiting Equilibrium:

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If the body is static, Fs = P until the value of P reaches the value of Fmax then the
body is on the point of moving (about to move) and is said to be in the state of
limiting equilibrium.

4- Coefficient of Friction µ:
The coefficient of the friction is a good scale to measure the roughness of the
surfaces. If the value of the coefficient of the friction increases, the roughness
increases and vice versa. If the coefficient of the friction equals zero, the friction
forces are not existed totally.
There are 2 types: the coefficient of static fiction µs or µmax and the coefficient
of kinetic friction µk.
Fmax = µsR Fk (kinetic friction) = µkR

5- Laws (properties) of friction:

The friction force:
-Acts parallel to the surfaces in contact and in a direction opposite to the
motion.
-Will not be larger than is necessary to prevent motion.
-Has a maximum value of µsR.
-Can be assumed to have its maximum value when motion occurs (the state of
limiting equilibrium).
-Depends upon the nature of the surfaces in contact and not upon the area of
contact.

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 6- Horizontal applied force:
When the applied force P acting on the block of mass M is horizontal, and the
block is static on a horizontal rough plane:

R = Mg where g is the gravitational acceleration Fs = P

In the case of limiting equilibrium:
Fmax = µsR = µsMg µs = Fmax/R
If the block is moving on a horizontal rough plane:
Fk = µkR = µkMg µk = Fk/R
Fnet = M*a (acceleration) = P - Fk a = Fnet/M

7- Applied Force not horizontal:

When the applied force P acting on the block of mass M is inclined at an angle θ
above the horizontal, this has 2 effects:
-The component of P in a vertical direction (Psin𝜽) decreases the magnitude of
the normal reaction R.
-Only the component of P in a horizontal direction (Pcos𝜽) is tending to move
the block.
Hence the value of R is less than it would have if P had been applied
horizontally, the maximum frictional force
µsR is also reduced.
If the block is static on a horizontal rough plane:
R = Mg - Psin𝜽 Fs = Pcos𝜽
In the case of limiting equilibrium:
Fmax = µsR = µs (Mg – Psin𝜽) µs = Fmax/R
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If the block is moving on a horizontal rough plane:
Fk = µkR = µk(Mg – Psin𝜽) µk = Fk/R
Fnet = M*a = Pcos𝜽 - Fk a = Fnet/M

8- Angle of Friction:
If the maximum frictional force Fmax and the normal reaction R are
compounded into a single force called the resultant reaction, then the angle
between the normal reaction and the resultant reaction is called the angle of
friction λ.
tan λ = FmaxR = µsR/R = µs

9- Rough inclined Plane:

If we place a block of mass M on a rough plane inclined at an angle θ above the
horizontal and the block is static:
R = Mgcos𝜽 Fs = Mgsin𝜽
In the case of limiting equilibrium:
Fmax = µsR = µsMgcos𝜽 µs = Fmax/R
µsMgcos𝜽 = Mgsin𝜽 𝜽=λ
tan 𝜽 = µs
For the motion to take place down the plane:
Mgsin𝜽 > µsMgcos𝜽 tan 𝜽> µs 𝜽>λ

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If we applied a force P upward parallel to the plane and the body is static:
Fs = Force upward = P Force downward = Fs + Mgsin𝜽
In the case of limiting equilibrium:
P = Fmax + Mgsin𝜽
For the motion to take place up the plane:
P > Fmax + Mgsin𝜽
If we applied a force P downward parallel to the plane and the body is static:
Fs = Force downward = P + Mgsin𝜽
In the case of limiting equilibrium:
Fmax = P + Mgsin𝜽
For the motion to take place down the plane:
Fmax < P + Mgsin𝜽

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Vectors: -
It is a directed line segment which
means it has magnitude and direction.

To add or subtract vectors, there are two methods:

1- Triangle method, when the two
vectors are head to tail to each
other like the following figure.

2- Parallelogram method, when the two vectors are

not head to tail to each other like the following
figure.

When adding vectors, we actually add the x components

and the y components of the vector.

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Ex: -

ሬ𝑪റ = ሬ𝑨
ሬറ + ሬ𝑩
ሬറ

ሬ𝑪റ = (8,13) + (26,7) = (8+26,13+7) = (34,20)

The magnitude of the vector:

Its symbol ||A||

หȁ𝑨ȁห = ඥ𝑿𝟐 + 𝒀𝟐
We usually use Cos law to get the summation or the resultant of two vectors by
using their magnitude
𝑪𝟐 = 𝑨𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐 + 𝟐𝑨𝑩𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽)
Where 𝜽 is the angle between the two vectors.
Unit Vector: -
It is a vector that has a magnitude of 1 unit.
Its symbol is ෡
𝑨
ሬሬറ
𝑨
෡=
𝑨
ȁȁ𝑨ȁȁ

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EX: -
ሬሬറ = (3, 4), then unit vector of A is:
If 𝑨

หȁ𝑨ȁห = ඥ𝟑𝟐 + 𝟒𝟐 = ξ𝟗 + 𝟏𝟔 = ξ𝟐𝟓 = 𝟓

(𝟑, 𝟒) 𝟑 𝟒
෡=
∴ 𝑨 =( , )
𝟓 𝟓 𝟓
Engineering symbols: -
They are the unit vector of the three dimensions (X, Y, Z)
In which: 𝑿 → 𝒊Ƹ 𝒀 → 𝒋Ƹ ෡
𝒁 → 𝒌
They are also used for identifying the vector
ሬ𝑨
ሬറ = (−𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒) ∴ ሬ𝑨 ෡
ሬറ = −𝟐𝒊Ƹ + 𝟑𝒋Ƹ + 𝟒𝒌

Multiplying a Vector by a Scalar: -

When we multiply vectors with scalars, we multiply the scalar quantity with
each component of the vector quantity.
ሬ𝑨
ሬറ × 𝑩 = (𝑨𝒙 × 𝑩, 𝑨𝒚 × 𝑩)

Multiplying vector with another vector: -

Dot Product: -
It is important to note that the dot product always results in a scalar value.
ሬሬറ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩
So, the dot product of the two vectors 𝑨 ሬሬറ is:

ሬ𝑨
ሬറ . ሬ𝑩
ሬറ = 𝑨𝒙 𝑩𝒙 + 𝑨𝒚 𝑩𝒚 + 𝑨𝒁 𝑩𝒁

Or

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 ሬሬሬറ. 𝑩
𝑨 ሬሬറ = หȁ𝑨ȁหหȁ𝑩ȁห𝑪𝒐𝒔𝜽

Where 𝜽 is the angle between the two vectors

EX: -
Find 𝑨 . 𝑩 if A = (3,-4,1) B = (5,2,-6) , then find angle 𝜽 between the two vectors.
ሬሬറ . 𝑩
Sol: - 𝑨 ሬሬറ = 𝟑 × 𝟓 + (−𝟒 × 𝟐) + (𝟏 × −𝟔)

= 𝟏𝟓 + (−𝟖) + (−𝟔)
=𝟏
ሬሬറ .𝑩
𝑨 ሬሬറ
ሬሬሬറ. 𝑩
∵ 𝑨 ሬሬറ = หȁ𝑨ȁหหȁ𝑩ȁห𝑪𝒐𝒔𝜽 ∴ 𝜽 = 𝑪𝒐𝒔−𝟏 ൬ ൰
หȁ𝑨ȁหหȁ𝑩ȁห

𝟏
= 𝑪𝒐𝒔−𝟏 ቀ ቁ ≈ 𝟖𝟖. 𝟔𝟏°
ξ𝟐𝟔 × ξ𝟔𝟓

Properties of dot product: -

1- ሬ𝑨ሬറ . ሬ𝑨
ሬറ = ȁȁ𝑨ȁȁ𝟐
2- ሬ𝟎റ . ሬ𝑨
ሬറ = 𝟎
3- The sign of the dot product indicates whether 𝜽 is an acute, obtuse or
right angle in which: -
A- Dot product > 0, 𝜽 is acute.
B- Dot product < 0, 𝜽 is obtuse.
C- Dot product = 0, 𝜽 is right and the two vectors are called to be
orthogonal.
4- 𝑨 . (𝑩 + 𝑪) = 𝑨. 𝑩 + 𝑨. 𝑪
5- If k is a scalar quantity, (𝒌𝑨). 𝑩 = 𝒌(𝑨. 𝑩) = (𝒌𝑩). 𝑨
6- 𝑨 . 𝑩 = 𝑩. 𝑨

Orthogonal projections: -

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The orthogonal projection (or simply, the projection) of one vector onto another
is facilitated by the dot product. For example, the projection of A onto B is given
by:
𝑩 .𝑨
𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒋𝑩 𝑨 = ( )𝑩
𝑩 .𝑩
Viewing A as the hypotenuse of a triangle and its projection onto B as the
adjacent leg, then the opposite leg is called the normal to the projection of A
onto B, written normB A, with the relationship that:-
𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒋𝑩 𝑨 + 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝑩 𝑨 = 𝑨

In which: -
ȁȁ𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒋𝑩 𝑨ȁȁ𝟐 + ȁȁ𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝑩 𝑨ȁȁ𝟐 = ȁȁ𝑨ȁȁ𝟐

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Calculating the angle between the
vector and each of the three
dimensions: -
𝒂𝒙
𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝜶 =
ȁȁ𝒂ȁȁ
𝒂𝒚
𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝜷 =
ȁȁ𝒂ȁȁ
𝒂𝒛
𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝜸 =
ȁȁ𝒂ȁȁ

Cross product: -
The resultant of this product is a vector,
𝒊Ƹ 𝒋Ƹ ෡
𝒌 𝑨𝒚 𝑨𝒛 𝑨𝒙 𝑨𝒛 𝑨𝒙 𝑨𝒚
𝑨 × 𝑩 = | 𝑨𝒙 𝑨𝒚 𝑨𝒛 | = | | 𝒊Ƹ + |𝑩 | 𝒋Ƹ + | ෡
|𝒌
𝑩𝒚 𝑩𝒛 𝒙 𝑩𝒚 𝑩𝒙 𝑩𝒚
𝑩𝒙 𝑩𝒚 𝑩𝒛
Or by using this method

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The vector resulting from the cross product is orthogonal to the two other
vectors, thus: -
(𝑨 × 𝑩). 𝑩 = 𝟎 (𝑨 × 𝑩). 𝑨 = 𝟎
And we use those previous equations to chech if the cross product is correct or
not.
Properties of the dot product: -
1- Reversing the order of the vectors in the cross-product results in a negated
result
𝑨 × 𝑩 = −(𝑩 × 𝑨)
2- The magnitude of the cross product is หȁ𝑨 × 𝑩ȁห = หȁ𝑨ȁหหȁ𝑩ȁห𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜽, is
equal to the area of the parallelogram formed by those two vectors and is
twice the area of the trisngle that is formed from them.
3- If 𝑨 × 𝑩 = 𝟎 then A is parallel to B
If they are parallel, then:
𝑨𝒙 𝑨𝒚 𝑨𝒛
= =
𝑩𝒙 𝑩𝒚 𝑩𝒛
If 𝜽 = 180o or 𝜽 = 0 o, then ||A x B|| = 0.
Right-hand rule: -

Physical interpretations of the Dot and Cross products: -

STEM Assiut Community Physics Khaled Mamdouh
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The dot product is often used to find the work, W, performed by a force F (in
Newtons, N) acting on an object, moving it a distance D in meters. That is, 𝑾 =
𝑭. 𝑫. Note that work W is a scalar. Often, the force is applied at an angle to the
direction that the object is moving. Furthermore, the force and distance are
stated as scalar values and the angle 𝜽 is given, so that when finding 𝑭. 𝑫, we
often use the formula หȁ𝑭ȁหหȁ𝑫ȁห𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝜽.
The cross product is used to find the torque, denoted 𝝉 (the Greek letter tau),
formed by the combined action of two vectors A and B. We can think of a force A
“pushing” against a vector B, where B’s foot acts as a pivot, much like the
hinges of a door. In a broad sense, vectors A and B combine to form a “twisting”
action at a point. This twisting is torque and is calculated by the cross product.
For example, if two vectors are parallel, then their cross product is 0. No torque
is being applied in this case. Imagine a door is represented by a vector V, with its
foot being the hinge of the door. Would you open or close the door by applying
a force parallel to V? It makes more sense to apply a force orthogonal to the
door to achieve torque
Scalar triple product: -
The scalar triple product of 3 vectors A, B and C is
(𝑨 × 𝑩). 𝑪 and it is a scalar quantity, the
absolute value of ȁ(𝑨 × 𝑩). 𝑪ȁ is the
volume of the parallelepiped spanned by A,
B and C.

Therefore
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = หȁ𝑨 × 𝑩ȁหหȁ𝑪ȁห𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝜽 = ȁ(𝑨 × 𝑩). 𝑪ȁ

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 𝑪𝒙 𝑪𝒚 𝑪𝒛
(𝑨 × 𝑩). 𝑪 = | 𝑨𝒙 𝑨𝒚 𝑨𝒛 |
𝑩𝒙 𝑩𝒚 𝑩𝒛

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